PG M.sc. Physics 345 23 Electromagnetic Theory MSC Physics

:woleb denoitnem sYou
a egaare
p reinstructed
voc eht etatodpupdate
u ot dethe
tcurcover
tsni erpage
a uoYas mentioned below:
.emaN e1.sruIncrease
oC eht fothe
ezifont
s tnosize
f ehof
t esthe
aerCourse
cnI .1 Name.
13 MM

.egaP revoC e2.ht nuse
i rethe
daefollowing
h a sa gniwasolaloheader
f eht esin
u the
.2 Cover Page.
YTISREVINUALAGAPPA
APPAGALAUNIVERSITY
M.Sc. [Physics]

elcyC drihT eht ni )46.3:APGC( CA[Accredited
AN yb edarGwith
’+A’’A+’
htiwGrade
detidby
ercNAAC
cA[ (CGPA:3.64) in the Third Cycle
]CGU-DRHM yb ytisrevinU I–yrogeand
taC Graded
sa dedarasG Category–I
dna University by MHRD-UGC]
300 036 – IDUKIARA
KARAIKUDI
K – 630 003
345 23 NOITACUDE ECNATSIDDIRECTORATE
FO ETAROTCEOF
RIDDISTANCE EDUCATION
ELECTROMAGNETIC THEORY
II - Semester
M.Sc. [Physics]
345 23
oitnem sYou
a egaare
p reinstructed
u ot dethe
tcurcover
tsni erpage
oC eht fothe
ezifont
s tnosize
f ehof
t esthe
aerCourse
cnI .1 Name.
egaP revoC e2.ht nuse
i rethe
daefollowing
f eht esin
u the
.2 Cover Page.
ISREVINUALAGAPPA
APPAGALAUNIVERSITY
drihT eht ni )46.3:APGC( CA[Accredited
AN yb edarGwith
’+A’’A+’
htiwGrade
detidby
ercNAAC
taC Graded
KARAIKUDI
K – 630 003
M.Sc. [Physics]
ITACUDE ECNATSIDDIRECTORATE
FO ETAROTCEOF
II - Semester
ALAGAPPA UNIVERSITY
[Accredited with ‘A+’ Grade by NAAC (CGPA:3.64) in the Third Cycle
and Graded as Category–I University by MHRD-UGC]
(A State University Established by the Government of Tamil Nadu)
KARAIKUDI – 630 003
Directorate of Distance Education
M.Sc. [Physics]
II - Semester
345 23
Authors
Dr. G Naveen Babu, Associate Professor, Shiv Nadar University, Gautam Budh Nagar, Greater Noida
Units (1, 2.2-2.3, 3.3, 4-5, 6.2, 8.3)
Dr. Partha Pratim Das, Assistant Professor, School of Applied Sciences, Haldia Institute of Technology, Haldia, (W. B.)
Abhisek Chakraborty, Scientist, Space Application Centre (ISRO), Ahmedabad (Gujarat)
Units (2.4, 3.2, 6.3)
Rohit Khurana, Founder and CEO, ITL Education Solutions Ltd., New Delhi
Units (10, 11.3)
Vikas® Publishing House: Units (2.0-2.1, 2.5-2.9, 3.0-3.1, 3.4-3.8, 6.0-6.1, 6.4-6.8, 7, 8.0-8.2, 8.4-8.8, 9, 11.0-11.2, 11.4-11.8, 12-14)
"The copyright shall be vested with Alagappa University"
All rights reserved. No part of this publication which is material protected by this copyright notice
may be reproduced or transmitted or utilized or stored in any form or by any means now known or
hereinafter invented, electronic, digital or mechanical, including photocopying, scanning, recording
or by any information storage or retrieval system, without prior written permission from the Alagappa
University, Karaikudi, Tamil Nadu.
Information contained in this book has been published by VIKAS® Publishing House Pvt. Ltd. and has
been obtained by its Authors from sources believed to be reliable and are correct to the best of their
knowledge. However, the Alagappa University, Publisher and its Authors shall in no event be liable for
any errors, omissions or damages arising out of use of this information and specifically disclaim any
implied warranties or merchantability or fitness for any particular use.
Vikas® is the registered trademark of Vikas® Publishing House Pvt. Ltd.

VIKAS® PUBLISHING HOUSE PVT. LTD.
Phone: 0120-4078900 Fax: 0120-4078999
Website: www.vikaspublishing.com Email: helpline@vikaspublishing.com
Work Order No. AU/DDE/DE1-291/Preparation and Printing of Course Materials/2018 Dated 19.11.2018 Copies - 500
SYLLABI-BOOK MAPPING TABLE
Electromagnetic Theory
Syllabi Mapping in Book
BOLCK I: ELECTRO AND MAGNETOSTATICS MAXWELL’S

EQUATIONS AND PROPAGATION OF EM WAVES
UNIT I: Electro and Magnetostatics
Basics-Electrostatics and Magnetostatics. - Wave equation in terms of Unit 1: Electro and Magnetostatics
scalar and vector potential - Transverse nature of electromagnetic wave. (Pages 1-42);
Unit 2: Field Equations and
UNIT II: Field Equations and Conservation Laws
Conservation Laws
Maxwell's equations - Poynting theorem - Conservation of energy and
(Pages 43-66);
momentum, Continuity equation. Unit 3: Electromagnetic Waves and
UNIT III: Electromagnetic Waves and Wave Propagation Wave Propagation
Propagation of plane electromagnetic waves in (a) Free space, (b) Isotropic (Pages 67-94)
and Anisotropic non-conducting medium and (c) Conducting medium-
skin depth.
BOLCK II: REFLECTION AND REFRACTION OF ELECTRO-

MAGNETIC WAVES
UNIT IV: Reflection and Refraction of Electromagnetic Waves Unit 4: Reflection and Refraction of
Electromagnetic Waves
Boundary conditions at the surface of discontinuity - Reflection and
(Pages 95-110);
refraction of electromagnetic waves at the interface of non-conducting
Unit 5: Fresnel’s Equation
media. (Pages 111-124);
UNIT V: Fresnel's Equation Unit 6: Polarization
Fresnel’s equations - Reflection and transmission coefficients at the (Pages 125-150)
interface between two dielectric media.
UNIT VI: Polarization
Brewster's law and degree of polarization -Total internal reflection.
BOLCK III: DISPERSION AND SCATTERING OF EM WAVES

UNIT VII: Dispersion of Electromagnetic Waves
Unit 7: Dispersion of Electromagnetic
Normal and Anomalous dispersion - Dispersion in Gases - Experimental
Waves
demonstration of anomalous dispersion in gases, solids and liquids.
(Pages 151-164);
UNIT VIII: Clausius Mossotti Equation Unit 8: Clausius-Mossotti Equation
Clausius-Mossotti relation - Lorentz formula. (Pages 165-180);
UNIT IX: Scattering of Electromagnetic Waves Unit 9: Scattering of Electromagnetic
Scattering and scattering parameters - Theory of scattering of EM waves Waves
- Polarization of scattered Light - Coherence and incoherence of scattered (Pages 181-198)
light.
BOLCK IV: MICROWAVES, DYNAMICS OF CHARGED
PARTICLES AND PLASMA PHYSICS
UNIT X: Wave Guides
Wave guides: Rectangular and Cylindrical waveguides.
UNIT XI: Microwaves
Unit 10: Wave Guides
Generation of microwaves - Klystron - Magnetron - Gunn diodes -
(Pages 199-228);
Resonant cavities.
Unit 11: Microwaves
UNIT XII: Dynamics of Charged Particles (Pages 229-252);
Lienard-Wiechert potential-EM fields from retarded potentials of Unit 12: Dynamics of Charged
moving point charge-EM. fields of uniformly moving point charge- Particles
Radiation from moving charges. (Pages 253-266);
UNIT XIII: Plasma Physics Unit 13: Plasma Physics
Introduction - Conditions for plasma existence - Occurrence of plasma (Pages 267-277);
- Charged particles in uniform constant electric field, in homogeneous Unit 14: Magnetohydrodynamics
magnetic fields, simultaneous homogeneous electric and magnetic (Pages 278-294)
fields, in nonhomogeneous magnetic fields.
UNIT XIV: Magnetohydrodynamics
Magnetohydrodynamics - Magnetic Confinement-Pinch effect-
Instabilities- Plasma waves.
CONTENTS
INTRODUCTION
BLOCK I: ELECTRO AND MAGNETOSTATICS MAXWELL’S

UNIT 1 ELECTRO AND MAGNETOSTATICS 1-42
1.0 Introduction
1.1 Objectives
1.2 Basics-Electrostatics
1.2.1 Electric Flux Density
1.2.2 Gauss’s Law and Applications
1.2.3 Electric Potential (V)
1.2.4 Maxwell's Second Equation
1.2.5 Relation between and V
1.2.6 Electric Dipole
1.3 Magnetostatic
1.3.1 Ohm’s Law
1.3.2 Boundary Conditions of Current Density
1.3.3 Equation of Continuity and Kirchhoff’s Law
1.3.4 Postulates of Magnetostatics: Biot–Savart’s Law
1.3.5 Magnetic Potential
1.3.6 Forces Due to Magnetostatics
1.3.7 Ampere’s Circuit Law
1.4 Wave Equation in Terms of Scalar and Vector Potential
1.5 Answers to Check Your Progress Questions
1.6 Summary
1.7 Key Words
1.8 Self Assessment Questions and Exercises
1.9 Further Readings
UNIT 2 FIELD EQUATIONS AND CONSERVATION LAWS 43-66
2.0 Introduction
2.1 Objectives
2.2 Maxwell’s Equations
2.3 Poynting Theorem
2.4 Conservation of Energy and Momentum, Continuity Equation
2.6 Summary
2.7 Key Words
UNIT 3 ELECTROMAGNETIC WAVES AND WAVE PROPAGATION 67-94
3.0 Introduction
3.1 Objectives
3.2 Motion in Electromagnetic Waves
3.2.1 Propagation of a Wave
3.2.2 Progressive Wave and its Differential Form
3.2.3 Difference between Elastic (Mechanical) and Electromagnetic Waves
3.2.4 Standing Waves
3.3 Propagation of Plane Electromagnetic Waves
3.3.1 Wave Propagation in a Lossy Dielectric
3.3.2 Intrinsic Impedance
3.3.3 Wave Equation for Conducting Medium
3.3.4 Depth of Penetration or Skin Depth ( )
3.5 Summary
3.6 Key Words
BLOCK II: REFLECTION AND REFRACTION OF ELECTRO-MAGNETIC WAVES

UNIT 4 REFLECTION AND REFRACTION OF
ELECTROMAGNETIC WAVES 95-110
4.0 Introduction
4.1 Objectives
4.2 Boundary Conditions at the Surface of Discontinuity
4.3 Reflection and Refraction of Electromagnetic Waves at the Interface of Non-Conducting Media
4.5 Summary
4.6 Key Words
UNIT 5 FRESNEL’S EQUATION 111-124
5.0 Introduction
5.1 Objectives
5.2 Reflection and Transmission Coefficients at the Interface between Two Dielectric Media
5.3 Fresnel’s Equations
5.5 Summary
5.6 Key Words
UNIT 6 POLARIZATION 125-150
6.0 Introduction
6.1 Objectives
6.2 Polarization
6.2.1 Wave Polarization
6.2.2 Perpendicular Polarization
6.3 Brewster’s Law and Total Internal Reflection
6.3.1 Polarisation through Reflection and Brewster’s Law
6.3.2 Degree of Polarization
6.5 Summary
6.6 Key Words
BLOCK III: DISPERSION AND SCATTERING OF EM WAVES

UNIT 7 DISPERSION OF ELECTROMAGNETIC WAVES 151-164
7.0 Introduction
7.1 Objectives
7.2 Dispersion of Electromagnetic Waves
7.2.1 Normal Dispersion
7.2.2 Anomalous Dispersion
7.2.3 Dispersion in Gases
7.2.4 Experimental Demonstration of Anomalous Dispersion in Gases, Solids and Liquids
7.4 Summary
7.5 Key Words
UNIT 8 CLAUSIUS-MOSSOTTI EQUATION 165-180
8.0 Introduction
8.1 Objectives
8.2 Clausius–Mossotti Relation
8.3 Lorentz Formula
8.5 Summary
8.6 Key Words
UNIT 9 SCATTERING OF ELECTROMAGNETIC WAVES 181-198
9.0 Introduction
9.1 Objectives
9.2 Theory of Scattering of Electromagnetic or EM Waves
9.2.1 Scattering Parameters
9.2.2 Polarization of Scattered Light
9.4 Summary
9.5 Key Words
BLOCK IV: MICROWAVES, DYNAMICS OF CHARGED
UNIT 10 WAVE GUIDES 199-228
10.0 Introduction
10.1 Objectives
10.2 Wave Guides
10.2.1 Rectangular Waveguides
10.2.2 Cylndrical or Circular Waveguides
10.4 Summary
10.5 Key Words
UNIT 11 MICROWAVES 229-252
11.0 Introduction
11.1 Objectives
11.2 Generation of Microwaves - Klystron, Magnetron, Gunn Diodes
11.2.1 Generation of Microwaves Signals
11.3 Resonant Cavities
11.5 Summary
11.6 Key Words
UNIT 12 DYNAMICS OF CHARGED PARTICLES 253-266
12.0 Introduction
12.1 Objectives
12.2 Charged Particles Dynamics
12.2.1 Lienard-Wiechert Potential
12.2.2 EM Fields from Retarded Potentials of Moving Point Charge
12.2.3 EM Fields of Uniformly Moving Point Charge
12.2.4 Radiation from Moving Charges
12.4 Summary
12.5 Key Words
UNIT 13 PLASMA PHYSICS 267-277
13.0 Introduction
13.1 Objectives
13.2 Plasma Physics: Basics
13.2.1 Conditions for Plasma Existence
13.4 Summary
13.5 Key Words
UNIT 14 MAGNETOHYDRODYNAMICS 278-294
14.0 Introduction
14.1 Objectives
14.2 Magnetohydrodynamics
14.2.1 Magneto-Convection
14.2.2 Pinch Effect
14.2.3 Instabilities and Plasma Waves
14.4 Summary
14.5 Key Words
Introduction
INTRODUCTION
Electromagnetism is a branch of physics involving the study of the electromagnetic
NOTES force, a type of physical interaction that occurs between electrically charged
particles. The electromagnetic force is carried by electromagnetic fields composed
of electric fields and magnetic fields, is responsible for electromagnetic radiation,
such as light, and is one of the four fundamental interactions, commonly termed as
the forces in nature. The other three fundamental interactions are the strong
interaction, the weak interaction, and gravitation. At high energy the weak force
and electromagnetic force are unified as a single electroweak force. Electromagnetic
phenomena are defined in terms of the electromagnetic force, sometimes called
the Lorentz force, which includes both electricity and magnetism as different
manifestations of the same phenomenon. The electromagnetic force plays a major
role in determining the internal properties of most objects encountered in daily life
and are responsible for the chemical bonds between atoms which create molecules,
and intermolecular forces.
There are numerous mathematical descriptions of the electromagnetic field.
In classical electrodynamics, electric fields are described as electric potential and
electric current. In Faraday’s law, magnetic fields are associated with
electromagnetic induction and magnetism, and Maxwell’s equations describe how
electric and magnetic fields are generated and altered by each other and by charges
and currents.
This book, Electromagnetic Theory, is divided into four blocks, which are
further subdivided into fourteen units. The concepts discussed include electrostatics
and magnetostatics, wave equations in terms of scalar and vector potential,
Maxwell’s equations, Poynting, continuity equation, electromagnetic waves and
wave propagation, conducting medium, skin depth, reflection and refraction of
electromagnetic waves, Fresnel’s equations, reflection and transmission coefficients
at the interface between two dielectric media, Brewster’s law and degree of
polarization, dispersion of electromagnetic waves, normal and anomalous
dispersion, dispersion in gases, Clausius-Mossotti relation, Lorentz formula,
scattering of electromagnetic waves, scattering and scattering parameters, scattering
of EM waves, polarization of scattered light, wave guides - rectangular and
cylindrical waveguides, generation of microwaves (klystron, magnetron and Gunn
diodes), dynamics of charged particles, Lienard-Wiechert potential, plasma physics,
magnetohydrodynamics and pinch effect.
The book follows the self-instructional mode wherein each unit begins with
an ‘Introduction’ to the topic. The ‘Objectives’ are then outlined before going on
to the presentation of the detailed content in a simple and structured format. ‘Check
Your Progress’ questions are provided at regular intervals to test the student’s
understanding of the subject. ‘Answers to Check Your Progress Questions’, a
‘Summary’, a list of ‘Key Words’, and a set of ‘Self-Assessment Questions and
Self-Instructional Exercises’ are provided at the end of each unit for effective recapitulation.
10 Material
Electro and
BLOCK - I Magnetostatics
ELECTRO AND MAGNETOSTATICS MAXWELL’S
NOTES
UNIT 1 ELECTRO AND

MAGNETOSTATICS
Structure
1.0 Introduction
1.1 Objectives
1.2 Basics-Electrostatics
1.2.2 Gauss’s Law and Applications
1.2.3 Electric Potential (V)
1.2.5 Relation between 𝐸⃗ and V
1.3 Magnetostatic
1.3.1 Ohm’s Law
1.3.4 Postulates of Magnetostatics: Biot – Savart’s Law
1.4 Wave Equation in Terms of Scalar and Vector Potential
1.6 Summary
1.7 Key Words
1.0 INTRODUCTION
Electrostatics is a branch of physics that deals with the phenomena and properties
of stationary or slow-moving electric charges. It has been observed that some
material attract particles after rubbing. There are many examples of electrostatic
phenomenon, such as attraction of plastic wrap to your hand after you remove it
from a package, attraction of pieces of paper on a charged scale, etc.
Electromagnetic theory exists due to a coupled presence of electric and magnetic
field. The parameters of electric field include the potential or voltage and electric
field intensity using Coulomb’s law, electric field due to a charge distribution.
Self-Instructional
Material 1
Electro and Magnetostatics is the study of magnetic fields in systems where the currents
Magnetostatics
are steady, i.e., not changing with time. It is the magnetic analogue of electrostatics,
where the charges are stationary. The magnetization need not be static; the equations
of magnetostatics can be used to predict fast magnetic switching events that occur
NOTES on time scales of nanoseconds or less. Magnetostatics is even a good approximation
when the currents are not static — as long as the currents do not alternate rapidly.
Magnetostatics is widely used in applications of micromagnetics, such as models
of magnetic storage devices as in computer memory. Magnetostatics focusing can
be achieved either by a permanent magnet or by passing current through a coil of
wire whose axis coincides with the beam axis.
In this unit, you will learn about the Coulomb’s law, Gauss law and static
electricity principles that forms the basis of electromagnetic theory. Further, you
will study about magnetic field and its components.
1.1 OBJECTIVES
After going through this unit, you will be able to:

Discuss the different postulates on electric field that includes Coulomb’s
law, Gauss’s law and its applications
Explain the various electric field components, such as electric potential,
electric flux density, etc.
Discuss the concept of magnetic field and its components, such as magnetic
flux, magnetic flux density, magnetic vector potential, etc.
Define Ohms law, Biot-Savart’s law and Ampere circuit law
1.2 BASICS-ELECTROSTATICS
The term static means a situation where the field does not vary with time. Static
electric field also referred as electrostatics is created by the fixed charges in space.
There are many examples of electrostatic phenomena such as the attraction
of the plastic wrap to your hand after you remove it from a package, and the
attraction of paper to a charged scale, to the apparently spontaneous explosion of
grain silos, the damage of electronic components during manufacturing,
and photocopier and laser printer operation. Electrostatics involves the build-up
of charge on the surface of objects due to contact with other surfaces. Although
charge exchange happens whenever any two surfaces contact and separate, the
effects of charge exchange are usually only noticed when at least one of the surfaces
has a high resistance to electrical flow. This is because the charges that transfer
are trapped there for a time long enough for their effects to be observed. These
charges remains on the object until they either bleed off to ground or are quickly
neutralized by a discharge: for example, the familiar phenomenon of a static ‘Shock’
Self-Instructional
2 Material
is caused by the neutralization of charge built up in the body from contact with Electro and
Magnetostatics
insulated surfaces.
Determination of the electrostatic field components, such as electric field,
electric force, and electric flux density are explained by two important laws namely,
NOTES
Coulomb’s law and Gauss law.
Coulomb’s Law
Coulomb’s law provides the relation between forces experienced by the charges
when they are separated by a distance. This theory was first proposed by Coulomb
in 1785. This law states that,
Force, F exerted between two point charges and as shown in Figure
(1.1) is
Directly proportional to the product of the two charges and
Inversely proportional to the square of the distance between the two
charges.
The direction of the force will be in the same direction along the line
joining the two charges.
Mathematically, Coulomb’s law may be expressed as,
Fig. 2.1 Coulomb’s Force
Removing the proportionality,
Where
= Unit vector in the line of direction of force, F
= Charges
= Distance seprating the charges (
Where, = Permittivity in free space =

Self-Instructional
Material 3
Electro and
Magnetostatics
Now, assume two charges and at a distance of and , respectively,,
from an observing point as shown in Figure (1.2). The force exerted by charge on
is given by,
NOTES
Where
𝑅12⃗
𝑎𝑅12⃗ =
𝑅12⃗
And
𝑅12⃗ = 𝑟2 − 𝑟1
Therefore,
𝑟2 − 𝑟1
𝑎𝑅12⃗ = ;
|𝑟2 − 𝑟1 |
𝑄1 𝑄2 𝑅12⃗
𝐹12⃗ = 2 3
4𝜋𝜖0 𝑅12 𝑅12
𝑄1 𝑄2 (𝑥2 − 𝑥1 )𝑎𝑥⃗ + (𝑦2 − 𝑦1 )𝑎𝑦⃗

Force, 𝐹⃗ = 3
4𝜋𝜖0 (𝑥2 − 𝑥1 )2 + (𝑦2 − 𝑦1 )2
Fig. 1.2 Coulomb's Force on Charges at a Distance
Similarly, for force exerted by charge Q2 on Q1 is given by,
𝐹21⃗ = −𝐹12⃗ ∵ 𝑎𝑅12⃗ = −𝑎𝑅21⃗
For Many Charges: Generalising, the above expression when many charges are
present,
𝑁
𝑄 𝑟⃗ − 𝑟⃗𝑖
𝐹⃗ = 𝑄𝑖 3
4𝜋𝜖0 |𝑟⃗ − 𝑟⃗|
𝑖
𝑖=1
Self-Instructional
4 Material
Electro and
Electric Field Intensity Magnetostatics
Electric field intensity is defined as the strength of electric field at any point. It is
equal to force per unit charge as experienced by test charge kept at that point.
Therefore, it is expressed as, NOTES
Also,
Assuming that
In general,
𝑁
1 𝑟⃗ − 𝑟⃗𝑖
𝐸⃗ = 𝑄𝑖 3
4𝜋𝜖0 |𝑟⃗ − 𝑟⃗|
𝑖
𝑖=1
Charge Distribution
The presence of charge Q ensures the existence of electric field 𝐸⃗ . The charges
may be distributed on a line conductor, on a surface or inside a volume. Hence,
based on the charge distribution,
Along a line, charge, 𝑄 = 𝜌𝐿 . 𝑑𝑙⃗

𝐿
On a surface, charge, 𝑄 = 𝜌𝑆 . 𝑑𝑠⃗

𝑆
Inside a volume, charge, 𝑄 = 𝜌𝑉 . 𝑑𝑣

𝑉
Where, 𝜌𝐿 = line charge density (𝐶/𝑚)

𝜌𝑆 = surface charge density (𝐶/𝑚2 )
𝜌𝑉 = volume charge density (𝐶/𝑚3 )
Based on the above distribution of the charges on line, surface and volume,
the electric field intensity, 𝐸⃗ can be given as,
Self-Instructional
Material 5
Electro and
Magnetostatics 1
𝐸⃗ = 4𝜋𝜖 𝑅 2 ∫𝐿 𝜌𝐿 . 𝑑𝑙⃗ . 𝑎𝑅⃗
0
1
𝐸⃗ = ∫𝑆 𝜌𝑆 . 𝑑𝑠⃗ . 𝑎𝑅⃗
NOTES 4𝜋𝜖 0 𝑅 2
1
𝐸⃗ = 4𝜋𝜖 𝑅 2 ∫𝑉 𝜌𝑉 . 𝑑𝑣 . 𝑎𝑅⃗
0
Electric Field Intensity Due to a Line Charge
In this section, let us derive the electric field intensity, 𝐸⃗ due to a line charge.
Cartesian coordinate system is considered for the analysis. Consider a uniformly
charged line of length 'L' with line charge density, 𝜌𝐿 (𝐶/𝑚). An incremental
elemental length 'dl' is considred for the analysis from an observing point 'P' at a
distance 'r'. The arrangement is depicted in Figure (1.3).
The electric field along the line is given as,
1
𝐸⃗ = 𝜌𝐿 . 𝑑𝑙⃗ . 𝑎𝑟⃗
4𝜋𝜖0 𝑟 2 𝐿
Fig. 1.3 Charge Distribution Due to Line Charge
Electric field intensity due to a small elemental length 'dl' is given as,
1
𝑑𝐸⃗ = 𝜌 . 𝑑𝑙⃗ . 𝑎𝑟⃗
4𝜋𝜖0 𝑟 2 𝐿
The electric field at point 'P'will be at an angle with respect to the normal
axis. Hence, can be resolved in to x-component and y-component.
Therefore, dEx = dE sin
And, dEy = dE cos
Self-Instructional
6 Material
Substituting the magnitude of dE in the above expressions, Electro and
Magnetostatics
𝜌𝐿 . 𝑑𝑙
𝑑𝐸𝑥 = sin 𝜃 ...(1.1)
4𝜋𝜖0 𝑟 2
NOTES
To obtain Ex, then the above expression needs to be integrated over length
'L' and hence 'r' must be determined.
From Figure (1.3), sin = h/r?
ℎ
Therefore, 𝑟= = ℎ 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑒𝑐 𝜃
sin 𝜃
Also, from Figure (1.3),
ℎ
tan 𝜃 =
𝑥−𝑙
ℎ
𝑥−𝑙 =
tan 𝜃
𝑥 − 𝑙 = ℎ cot 𝜃
−𝑑𝑙 = −ℎ 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑒𝑐 2 𝜃 𝑑𝜃
Substituting dl and r in the Equation (1.1),
−𝜌𝐿 . sin 𝜃
𝑑𝐸𝑥 = (ℎ 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑒𝑐 2 𝜃 𝑑𝜃)
4𝜋𝜖0 (ℎ2 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑒𝑐 2 𝜃)
𝑑𝐸𝑥 = 𝑑𝜃
4𝜋𝜖0 ℎ
Integrating from 1
to – 2
for the entire length of the wire,
𝜋− 𝛼 2
𝐸𝑥 = 𝑑𝜃
𝛼1 4𝜋𝜖0 ℎ
−𝜌𝐿
= [− cos 𝜃]𝜋−
𝛼1
𝛼2
4𝜋𝜖0 ℎ
𝜌𝐿
𝐸𝑥 = [cos 𝛼1 + cos 𝛼2 ]
4𝜋𝜖0 ℎ
Self-Instructional
Material 7
Electro and Similarly from dEy,
Magnetostatics
𝜌𝐿 . cos 𝜃
𝑑𝐸𝑦 = 𝑑𝜃
NOTES 4𝜋𝜖0 ℎ
𝜋− 𝛼 2
𝜌𝐿 . cos 𝜃
∴ 𝐸𝑦 = 𝑑𝜃
𝛼1 4𝜋𝜖0 ℎ
𝜋− 𝛼 2
𝜌𝐿
𝐸𝑦 = cos 𝜃 𝑑𝜃
4𝜋𝜖0 ℎ 𝛼1
𝜌𝐿
= [sin 𝜃]𝜋−
𝛼1
𝛼2
4𝜋𝜖0 ℎ
𝜌𝐿
𝐸𝑦 = [sin 𝛼2 − sin 𝛼1 ]
4𝜋𝜖0 ℎ
There are two conditions associated with . They are,

𝜌𝐿
Case (i) If = 0, then Ey = 0 and 𝐸𝑥 = 𝐸 =
2𝜋𝜖0 ℎ
𝜌𝐿
Case (ii) If = =
1 2
, then Ey = 0 and 𝐸𝑥 = 𝐸 = cos 𝛼
2𝜋𝜖0 ℎ
Electric Field Intensity Due to a Ring of Charge
Consider a ring as shown in Figure (1.4), filled with charge Q. The x-axis is
perpendicular to the ring and is at the center of the ring. The objective is to find the
electric field at P due to the ring of radius 'R'.
Fig. 1.4 Ring of Charge
Self-Instructional
8 Material
Electro and
Consider a small elemental charge, dQ on the ring. The electric field 𝑑𝐸⃗ at Magnetostatics
point P is given as,
𝑑𝑄 𝑑𝑄
𝑑𝐸 = 𝑘 = 𝑘
ℎ2 (𝑅 2 + 𝑎2 ) NOTES
The x-component of dE is dEx and is given as,
𝑑𝑄
𝑑𝐸𝑥 = 𝑑𝐸 cos 𝜃 = 𝑘 cos 𝜃
(𝑅 2 + 𝑎2 )
But, from Figure (1.4),
𝑎
cos 𝜃 =
√𝑅 2 + 𝑎 2
𝑑𝑄 𝑎
𝑑𝐸𝑥 = 𝑘 1
(𝑅 2 2
+ 𝑎 ) (𝑅 2
+ 𝑎 2 )2
𝑑𝑄 (𝑎)
𝑑𝐸𝑥 = 𝑘
(𝑅 2 + 𝑎2 )3/2
Referring to the Figure (1.4), neither k,R or a changes. Hence,
𝑑𝑄 (𝑎)
𝐸𝑥 = ∫ 𝑑𝐸𝑥 = 𝑘 3
(𝑅 2 + 𝑎2 )2
(𝑎)
𝐸𝑥 = 𝑘 3 𝑑𝑄
(𝑅 2 + 𝑎2 )2
𝑄 (𝑎)
𝐸𝑥 = 𝑘
(𝑅 2 + 𝑎2 )3/2
When R 0, ring represents a point charge, therefore,

𝑘𝑄(𝑎) 𝑘𝑄
𝐸≈ ≈
𝑎2 𝑎
1
Where 𝑘=
4𝜋𝜖0
Electric Field Intensity Due to a Circularly Charged Disc
Unlike the previous structure of a ring, consider a disc of radius, R. The disc
consists of a uniformly charged surface charge density of s C/m2. Consider an
elemental ring of radius dr at a distance 'r' from the center. The electric field at a
point P is given as,
Self-Instructional
Material 9
Electro and
Magnetostatics 𝜌𝑆 . 𝑑𝑠
𝑑𝐸 = 𝑘
ℎ2
The horizontal and vertical components of dE are dEx and dEy. The horizontal
NOTES component dEx is zero and the vertical component is given as,
dEy = dE cos
𝜌𝑆 . 𝑑𝑠
𝑑𝐸𝑦 = 𝑘 cos 𝜃
ℎ2
We know that for the differential surface element ds,
ds = 2 r dr
𝜌𝑆 . (2𝜋𝑟 𝑑𝑟)
𝑑𝐸𝑦 = 𝑘 cos 𝜃
ℎ2
Fig. 1.5 Electric Field Due to a Circularly Charged Disc
From Figure (1.5),

𝑟
tan 𝜃 =
𝑎
𝑟 = 𝑎 tan 𝜃
𝑑𝑟 = 𝑎 sec 2 𝜃 𝑑𝜃
𝑟
ℎ=
sin 𝜃
Therefore,
1 𝜌𝑆 . (2𝜋𝑟) (𝑎 sec 2 𝜃 𝑑𝜃)

𝑑𝐸𝑦 = cos 𝜃
4𝜋𝜖0 𝑟 2
sin 𝜃
𝜌𝑆 (2𝜋𝑟) (𝑎 𝑠𝑒𝑐 𝜃 sin2 𝜃 𝑑𝜃)
𝑑𝐸𝑦 = [∵ tan 𝜃 = 𝑟/𝑎]
2𝜖0 tan 𝜃
Self-Instructional
10 Material
𝜌𝑆 Electro and
𝑑𝐸𝑦 = sin 𝜃 𝑑𝜃 [tan 𝜃 = sec 𝜃 sin 𝜃] Magnetostatics
2𝜖0
Total electric field is given as,
𝛼 𝛼 NOTES
𝜌𝑆
𝐸= 𝑑𝐸𝑦 = sin 𝜃 𝑑𝜃
𝜃=0 2𝜖0 𝜃=0
𝜌𝑆
𝐸= (1 − cos 𝛼)
2𝜖
𝜌𝑆 𝑎
𝐸= 1−
2𝜖 √𝑎2 + 𝑅 2

Electric flux density is an imaginary field lines that do not exist unlike magnetic field
lines. Electric flux density do not exist practically and generally considered for
theoretical reasoning only. Electric flux density is related to electric field by the
following reason,
𝐷⃗ = 𝜖0 𝐸⃗
Electric flux density 𝐷⃗ is independent of the medium and may also be defined
in terms of electric flux 𝜓 as,
𝜓 = ∫ 𝐷⃗ . 𝑑𝑠⃗
All the electric field expressions derived earlier can be substituted in the
electric flux density expressions. Therefore, electric flux density due to a long
conductor of charges is given as,
𝐷⃗ = 𝜖0 𝐸⃗
Electric flux density due to a ring of charges is given by,
𝑎𝑄
𝐷⃗ =
4𝜋(𝑅 2 + 𝑎2 )3/2
Electric flux density due to a circularly charged disc is given by,
𝜌𝑆 𝑎
𝐷⃗ = 1−
2 √𝑎2 + 𝑅 2
1.2.2 Gauss's Law and Applications
Gauss' law is a powerful tool for the calculation of electric fields. The applications
of Gauss law includes determination of electric field due to a point charge, sheet of
charge, line charge on surface of conductor and sphere of charges.
Gauss law states that total flux through a closed surface is equal to the charge
enclosed by that surface. Mathematically, it is given as,
Electric flux, 𝜓 = 𝑄 (Charge enclosed).
Self-Instructional
Material 11
Electro and Maxwell's Equation - I
Magnetostatics
From Gauss law, we know that, = Q. Also, from the basic definition for electric
flux and charge Q on a volume,
NOTES
𝜓= 𝑑𝜓 = 𝐷⃗ . 𝑑𝑠⃗
...(1.2)
and
𝑄= 𝜌𝑣 . 𝑑𝑣
𝑣 ...(1.3)
Therefore, equating Equation (1.2) and Equation (1.3),
𝐷⃗ . 𝑑𝑠⃗ = 𝜌𝑣 . 𝑑𝑣
𝑆 𝑣 ...(1.4)
Applying divergence theorem on the LHS of the above expression in Equation
(1.4),
∇⃗. 𝐷⃗ 𝑑𝑣 = 𝜌𝑣 . 𝑑𝑣
𝑣 𝑣
Therefore,
∇⃗. 𝐷⃗ = 𝜌𝑣 ...(1.5)
Relating the units of the above expression in Equation (1.5),
𝜌𝑣 (𝐶/𝑚3 ) = ∇⃗. 𝐷⃗(𝐶/𝑚2 ) = ∇⃗. 𝐷⃗ (𝐶/𝑚3 )
Equation (1.5) is called as Maxwell's first equation expressed in differential
form and Equations (1.4) is called Maxwell's first equation expressed in integral
form.
Gaussian Surfaces - Gauss's Law Application
A mathematically closed surface is called as a Gaussian surface. These surfaces
are assumed to have a uniform symmetric charge distribution which are ideal for
determining the electric field vector, 𝐸⃗ by applying Gauss law. Also, the electric
flux density vector, 𝐷⃗ is assumed to act tangentially or normally on the Gaussian
surface. Therefore, accordingly, when 𝐷⃗ is normal, then
𝐷⃗. 𝑑𝑆⃗ = 𝐷𝑑𝑆
and when 𝐷⃗ is acting tangential,
𝐷⃗. 𝑑𝑆⃗ = 0
Self-Instructional
12 Material
Electro and
(a) Determining 𝐷⃗ Due to a Point Charge Magnetostatics
Consider a point charge, Q located at point P as shown in Figure (1.6).
NOTES
Fig. 1.6 Electric Flux Density 𝐷⃗ Due to a Point Charge

According to Gauss law,
=Q
And
𝑄= 𝐷⃗ . 𝑑𝑆⃗
Assuming that 𝐷⃗ is normal to the Gaussian surface,
𝑄= 𝐷. 𝑑𝑆 = 𝐷 𝑑𝑆
2𝜋 𝜋
𝑄=𝐷 𝑟 2 sin 𝜃 𝑑𝜃 𝑑𝜙
𝜙=0 𝜃=0
𝑄 = 𝐷(4𝜋𝑟 2 )
𝑄
𝐷=
4𝜋𝑟 2
𝑄
𝐷⃗ = 𝑎⃗
4𝜋𝑟 2 𝑛
(b) Determining 𝐷⃗ Due to Infinite Line Charge
The infinite line conductor is a cylindrical surface and hence, 𝐷⃗ needs to be operated
in cylindrical coordinate system, and hence assuming 𝐷⃗ to be normal to the Gaussian
surface as shown in Figure (1.7),
𝐷⃗ = 𝐷𝜌 𝑎𝜌⃗
Also, we know that,
𝑄 = 𝜌𝐿 . 𝑑𝑙
Self-Instructional
Material 13
Electro and Since the length of the conductor is assumed to be infinite with length 'l',
Magnetostatics
𝑄 = 𝜌𝐿 . 𝑙 = 𝐷⃗ . 𝑑𝑆⃗ = 𝐷𝜌 . 𝑎𝜌⃗ 𝑑𝑆⃗
NOTES
𝑄 = 𝜌𝐿 . 𝑙 = 𝐷𝜌 (2𝜋𝜌). 𝑙 𝑎𝜌⃗ ∵ 𝑑𝑆⃗ = 2𝜋𝜌𝑙
Therefore,
𝜌𝐿
𝐷⃗ = 𝑎⃗
2𝜋𝜌 𝜌
Or
𝜌𝐿
𝐷=
2𝜋𝜌
Fig. 1.7 Electric Flux Density 𝐷⃗ Due to Infinite Line Charge
(c) Determining 𝐷⃗ due to Charged Sphere
Fig. 1.8 Electric Flux Density 𝐷⃗ Due to Charged Sphere
Consider a sphere of radius, r. Electric flux density, 𝐷⃗ may either be inside

the sphere (R < r) or outside the sphere (R > r). Hence accordingly, we have
two cases to analysis as follows:
Self-Instructional
14 Material
Case (i) When R < a Electro and
Magnetostatics
We know that,
=Q
RHS:
NOTES
𝑅 𝜋 2𝜋
𝑄= 𝜌𝑉 . 𝑑𝑉 = 𝜌𝑉 𝑑𝑉 = 𝜌𝑉 𝜌2 sin 𝜃 𝑑𝜌 𝑑𝜃 𝑑𝜙
𝑉 𝑉 𝜌=0 𝜃=0 𝜙 =0
4 3
𝑄 = 𝜌𝑉 𝜋𝑅 ...(1.6)
3
LHS:
𝜋 2𝜋
𝜓= 𝐷⃗ . 𝑑𝑆⃗ = 𝐷𝜌 𝑑𝑆 = 𝐷𝜌 𝜌2 sin 𝜃 𝑑𝜃 𝑑𝜙
𝑆 𝑆 𝜃=0 𝜙 =0
𝜓 = 𝐷𝜌 [4𝜋𝑅 2 ] ...(1.7)
Equating Equation (1.6) and Equation (1.7),
4
𝜌𝑉 3 𝜋𝑅 3
𝐷𝜌 =
4𝜋𝑅 2
𝜌𝑉 (𝑅)
𝐷𝜌 =
3
𝑅
𝐷⃗ = 𝜌𝑉 . 𝑎𝜌⃗
3
Case (ii) When R > a
RHS:
4 3
𝑄= 𝜌𝑉 . 𝑑𝑉 = = 𝜌𝑉 𝜋𝑅
𝑉 3
LHS:
𝜓 = 𝐷𝜌 [4𝜋𝑅 2 ]
𝑟3 𝑟3
𝐷𝜌 = 𝜌 𝑜𝑟 𝐷⃗ = 𝜌 𝑎⃗
3𝑅 2 𝑉 3𝑅 2 𝑉 𝜌
𝑅
𝜌 𝑎⃗ 0<𝑟<𝑎
⃗ 3 𝑉 𝜌
𝐷=
𝑟3
𝜌 𝑎⃗ 𝑟>𝑎
3𝑅 2 𝑉 𝜌
Self-Instructional
Material 15
Electro and 1.2.3 Electric Potential (V)
Magnetostatics
Electric field, 𝐸⃗ can be obtained by three ways.

(1) By using Coulomb's Law
NOTES
−𝐸⃗ = 𝐹⃗ /𝑄
(2) By using Gauss's Law
𝐷⃗
−𝐸⃗ =
𝜖0
(3) By a Scalar Potential Function, V
It is always simpler to determine the electric field, 𝐸⃗ by using the vector
fields 𝐹⃗ and 𝐷⃗ . Hence it is imperative to determine V.
The scalar potential V is defined as the amount of work done in moving a
charge Q. Hence V is expressed as,
V = W/Q
When the work done is to move the charge from A to B, then the potential
is renamed as ‘potential difference’. Consider moving a charge Q from A to
B subjected to an electric field 𝐸⃗. From Coulomb's law, the force experienced
by the charge, Q is given as,
𝐹⃗ = Q 𝐸⃗
Therefore, small work done in moving the charge over a small distance 𝑑𝑙⃗
is given as,
𝑑𝑊⃗ = −𝐹⃗ . 𝑑𝑙⃗ = −𝑄 𝐸⃗ . 𝑑𝑙⃗

The negative sign indicates that the work done will be opposite to the force
developed. Integrating 𝑑𝑤⃗ to obtain 𝑤⃗ in moving the longer distance from
A to B,
𝐵 𝐵
𝑊⃗ = 𝑑𝑊⃗ = − 𝑄 𝐸⃗ . 𝑑𝑙⃗
𝐴 𝐴
We know that,
𝑄
𝐸⃗ = 𝑎⃗
4𝜋𝜖𝑟 2 𝑛
𝐵
𝑄
𝑊⃗ = −𝑄 𝑎 ⃗. 𝑑𝑙⃗
𝐴 4𝜋𝜖𝑟 2 𝑛
Self-Instructional
16 Material
Potential difference, VAB is Electro and
Magnetostatics
𝐵
𝑊 1 𝑄
𝑉𝐴𝐵 = = −𝑄 𝑑𝑙⃗
𝑄 𝑄 𝐴 4𝜋𝜖𝑟 2
NOTES
𝐵
𝑄 1
𝑉𝐴𝐵 = −
4𝜋𝜖 𝑟 2 𝐴
If A is at a distance of rA from origin and B is at a distance of rB from origin,

then,
𝑟𝐵
𝑄 1
𝑉𝐴𝐵 = −
4𝜋𝜖 𝑟 2 𝑟𝐴
𝑄 1 1
𝑉𝐴𝐵 = − −
4𝜋𝜖 𝑟𝐵 𝑟𝐴
𝑄 1 1
= −
4𝜋𝜖 𝑟𝐴 𝑟𝐵
𝑄 𝑄
𝑉𝐴𝐵 = −
4𝜋𝜖𝑟𝐴 4𝜋𝜖𝑟𝐵
𝑉𝐴𝐵 = 𝑉𝐴 − 𝑉𝐵
If rB is moved to infinity, then VB 0, then

𝑉𝐴𝐵 = 𝑉𝐴 − 0 = 𝑉𝐴
In general, the potential in moving a charge from infinity to zero,
𝑄
𝑉= 𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑡𝑠
4𝜋𝜖𝑟
We know that potential difference between two points A and B is negative of
potential difference between B and A. in other words, creating a loop between A
and B must satisfy Kirchhoff's voltage law and hence,
Fig. 1.9 Voltage Around a Loop

Self-Instructional
Material 17
Electro and
Magnetostatics 𝑉𝐴𝐵 = −𝑉𝐵𝐴
or 𝑉𝐴𝐵 + 𝑉𝐵𝐴 = 0
NOTES ⇒ 𝑉= 𝐸⃗ . 𝑑𝑙⃗
𝐿
Therefore, applying Stokes's theorem to above closed line integral expression,
𝐸⃗ . 𝑑𝑙⃗ = 0 = ∇⃗ × 𝐸⃗ . 𝑑𝑆⃗
𝐿 𝑆
Hence,
∇⃗ × 𝐸⃗ = 0
The above equation is called Maxwell's second equation in differential form.
The equation can be briefed as ‘differential circulation of an electric field vector
𝐸⃗ is always zero or electric field vector, 𝐸⃗ vanishes when curled’. Such types
of fields are CONSERVATIVE FIELDS.
1.2.5 Relation between 𝐸⃗ and V

From the previous section on electric potential (V), we know that, work done is
given as,
𝐵
𝑊⃗ = − 𝑄 𝐸⃗ . 𝑑𝑙⃗
𝐴
𝐵
𝑊
𝑉= = − 𝐸⃗ . 𝑑𝑙⃗
𝑄 𝐴
Differentiating the above expression,

𝑑𝑉 = −𝐸⃗ . 𝑑𝑙⃗
In Cartesian coordinate system,
𝑑𝑉 = − 𝐸𝑥 𝑎𝑥⃗ + 𝐸𝑦 𝑎𝑦⃗ + 𝐸𝑧 𝑎𝑧⃗ . 𝑑𝑥 𝑎𝑥⃗ + 𝑑𝑦 𝑎𝑦⃗ + 𝑑𝑧 𝑎𝑧⃗
𝑑𝑉 = − 𝐸𝑥 𝑑𝑥 + 𝐸𝑦 𝑑𝑦 + 𝐸𝑧 𝑑𝑧
But, LHS can be equated as,
𝜕𝑉 𝜕𝑉 𝜕𝑉
𝑑𝑉 = 𝑑𝑥. + 𝑑𝑦. + 𝑑𝑧.
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑧
Therefore,
𝜕𝑉 𝜕𝑉 𝜕𝑉
𝑑𝑥. + 𝑑𝑦. + 𝑑𝑧. = − 𝐸𝑥 𝑑𝑥 + 𝐸𝑦 𝑑𝑦 + 𝐸𝑧 𝑑𝑧
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑧
Comparing LHS and RHS of the above expression, we get,
𝜕𝑉 𝜕𝑉 𝜕𝑉
𝐸𝑥 = − , 𝐸𝑦 = − , 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝐸𝑧 = −
Self-Instructional 𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑧
18 Material
In general, Electro and
Magnetostatics
𝐸⃗ = −∇⃗𝑉
Relating the above expression with Maxwell's second equation, i.e.,
𝐸⃗ = −∇⃗𝑉 𝑎𝑛𝑑 ∇⃗ × 𝐸⃗ = 0 NOTES
Substituting for 𝐸⃗ in Maxwell’s second equations,

Substituting
∇⃗ × −∇⃗𝑉 = 0
The above is true from the property of curl described in chapter 1, that curl
of gradient is zero. The negative sign in 𝐸⃗ = −∇⃗𝑉 represents that electric
potential 'V' is always opposite to the one created it, i.e.,
Substituting for 𝐸⃗ according to Lenz's
law.
Similar to the poles of the magnet, when equal and opposite electric charges are
separated by a short distance, they form an electric dipole as shown in Figure
(1.10).
Fig. 1.10 Electric Dipole

The objective of this section is to determine the scalar electric potential 'V'
due to the dipole. When two equal and opposite charges are separated by a
distance 'd' an electric dipole moment is formed equivalent to,
m = Qd
Consider the Figure (1.11) to determine the scalar potential 'V' at a point
'P' due to dipole.
Fig. 1.11 Potential Due to an Electric Dipole

Self-Instructional
Material 19
Electro and Scalar potential due to +Q is,
Magnetostatics
𝑄
𝑉1 =
4𝜋𝜖0 𝑟1
NOTES Scalar potential due to -Q is,
−𝑄
𝑉1 =
4𝜋𝜖0 𝑟2
Total potential is,
𝑉 = 𝑉1 + 𝑉2
𝑄 𝑄
= −
4𝜋𝜖0 𝑟1 4𝜋𝜖0 𝑟2
𝑄 1 1
𝑉= −
4𝜋𝜖0 𝑟1 𝑟2
For a far-field analysis, i.e., assuming that point P is at a faraway distance,

then
𝑑
𝑟1 ≃ 𝑟 − cos 𝜃
2
𝑑
𝑟2 ≃ 𝑟 + cos 𝜃
2
Therefore,
𝑄 1 1
𝑉= −
4𝜋𝜖0 𝑟 − 𝑑 cos 𝜃 𝑟 + 𝑑 cos 𝜃
2 2
𝑑 𝑑
𝑄 𝑟 + 2 cos 𝜃 − 𝑟 − 2 cos 𝜃
𝑉=
4𝜋𝜖0 𝑑2
𝑟 2 − 4 cos2 𝜃
𝑄 𝑑 cos 𝜃
𝑉=
4𝜋𝜖0 𝑑2
𝑟 2 − 4 cos2 𝜃
Self-Instructional
20 Material
For a far field analysis and in general, d << r, Electro and
Magnetostatics
𝑄 𝑑 cos 𝜃
𝑉=
4𝜋𝜖0 𝑟2
NOTES
𝑄𝑑 cos 𝜃 𝑚 cos 𝜃
𝑉= =
4𝜋𝜖0 𝑟 2 4𝜋𝜖0 𝑟 2
𝑚 cos 𝜃
𝑉=
4𝜋𝜖0 𝑟 2
The scalar potential is inversely proportional to the square of the distance

between the observing point and the electric dipole.
1.3 MAGNETOSTATIC
Magnetic Flux
Magnetic flux lines are imaginary lines that flow from the north to south poles.
Magnetic flux lies constitutes the magnetic field. Magnetic field is denoted by .
The unit of magnetic flux is weber and denoted as .
Magnetic Flux Density
Magnetic flux density is defined as the magnetic flux lines passing through a unit
surface area. It is denoted as and the unit is or Tesla.
Magnetic flux density, is given as,

(1.8)
Also in terms of magnetic field intensity. ,
(1.9)
Where
= Permeability
= Free space permeability
= Relative permeability = 1 (for air).
In electrostatics, it is possible to have an isolated charge and the isolated
charge has electric field. Whereas there is nothing known as magnetic charge and
magnetic field exists only if there are two equal and opposite poles.
Self-Instructional
Material 21
Electro and
Magnetostatics
The magnetic flux, is given as,
(1.10)
In electrostatics, from Gauss’s law,
NOTES
The above electrostatic equation states that electric flux is created due to
the source ‘Q’. But, in magnetostatics, there is no magnetic source to create a
magnetic flux, , hence Equation (1.10) is given as,
(1.11)
Applying divergence theorem to Equation (1.11),
Therefore,
(1.12)
Equation 1.12 is Maxwell’s third equation in differential form and reveals
that, divergence of magnetic field is zero. Equation (1.11) is called the integral
form of Maxwell’s Equation.
Steady Electric Currents and Current Density
The electric currents are produced either by conduction or convection. Current is
defined as the rate of movement of charge across a plane in a given time. They are
expressed as,
Current Density
Current density is defined as the amount of current flowing through a given area of
a material. It is a vector component with magnitude equivalent to the electric current
per cross sectional area. Current is related to current density as,
Different current density are produced based on the nature of movement of

charges. They are classified as,
Self-Instructional
22 Material
(a) Convection Current Density Electro and
Magnetostatics
(b) Conduction Current Density
(c) Displacement Current Density
Based on the above classification, currents are classified as Conduction Currents NOTES
and Convection Currents.
(a) Convection Current
The flow of charges through convection constitutes convection current. Beam of
electrons inside Cathode Ray Tube (CRT) or in vacuum tubes are due to convection
currents. Convection currents neither they obey Ohm’s law nor they involve any
conductor for the flow of current. Convection current density, is given as,
where is the directional vector indicating the flow of charges. Convection

currents are depicted in Figure (1.12).
Fig. 1.12 Convection Current
(b) Conduction Current

Conduction current requires conductor to flow. The flow of charges from one end
of conductor to the other is facilitated by application of electric field between the
conductors. When an electric field is applied, the electrons experience a force
given as,
The force on the electrons make them move constituting the flow of current.
conduction current density also depends on the conductivity of the conducting
medium. Hence the conduction current density is given as,
Where is the conductivity of the conductor and is the applied electric

field in . Unlike convection current, conduction current obeys Ohm’s law
and depends on the medium or the conductor.
Conductivity of the conductor in turn depends on the resistivity of the
medium and given as,
Self-Instructional
Material 23
Electro and
Magnetostatics
Where . Resistance of the conductor is R, the length of the conductor

NOTES
is in and the area is in .
1.3.1 Ohm’s Law
Ohm’s law states that electric current is proportional to voltage and inversely
proportional to resistance.
I=V/R
The term Ohm’s law is also used to refer to various generalizations of the
law originally formulated by Ohm. The current density and the electric field are
related as:
The above expression will be useful in the electric circuit analysis when the
above expression is expressed in terms of potential and current rather than in
terms of electric field and current density. The above expression may be expressed
as,
We know that, in a closed conductor, the scalar electric potential is given

as,
Hence,
Where is the length of the conductor with terminals as . Therefore,
The current density is defined as the current passing through a unit area
cross section and is given as,
Where is the area of cross section of the conductor. Substituting for J and
E in the expression , we get,
Self-Instructional
24 Material
Electro and
Magnetostatics
NOTES
Where,

From the properties of conductor, it is well known for conductors that the electric
field inside a conductor must be zero. If it were not, it would cause current to flow,
and propagation of current involves the dissipation of energy, and this cannot occur
without any external sources of energy. Hence, it follows that any charges in the
conductor must be located on its surface.
Since the mean magnetic field is assumed to be zero, the derivative,
And since the electric field inside the vacuum is satisfied as,
The boundary conditions on the field at the surface of the conductor follow
from the equation , and is both valid outside and inside the body..
Take the z-axis in the direction of the normal to the surface at some point in
the conductor. If the surface is homogeneous, the derivatives, and
along the surface remain finite even though may be quite large.
Hence, since , we find that is
finite. This means that is continuous at the surface since a discontinuity
in would mean an infinity of the derivative 𝜕𝐸𝑦/𝜕𝑧 . The same applies
to Ex and since E = 0 inside the conductor, this implies that the tangential
components of the electric field at the surface must be zero,
Et = 0
For the case of two conductors under static field conditions
(i.e., 𝜕𝐸/𝜕𝑡 = 0 and 𝜕𝐵/𝜕𝑡 = 0,) there can be no charge build up at the
interface and hence
The normal components must be equal, , because otherwise

there would be an accumulation of charge into the surface, which cannot be
sustained in the steady state. This is because, for a normal from 1 into 2, the
flow of charge that exits Medium 1 in a small area is and the
charge entering Medium 2 is .
Self-Instructional
Material 25
Electro and The tangential components on the other hand, can be different, because
Magnetostatics
charge is just flowing past the boundary at different speeds. On the other
hand, the electric field’s tangential components must be continuous across
the boundary, because otherwise there would be a nonzero circulation in
NOTES the loop. In a metal where Ohm’s law holds, the current density is
proportional to electric field,
and therefore the current density’s tangential components will not in general
be constant across the boundary.
Continuity equation on the basis of law of conservation of charge states that in a
given volume, the total current coming out of the volume is equal to the rate of
decrease of charge inside the volume. It is expressed as,
𝑑𝑄
𝐼𝑜𝑢𝑡 = − (1.13)
𝑑𝑡
We know that,
And
Substituting and in Equations (1.13), we have,
𝑑
𝐽⃗. 𝑑𝑠⃗ = − 𝜌𝑉 . 𝑑𝑉 (1.14)
𝑑𝑡 𝑉
Equation (1.14) is called the integral from of continuity equation. Also,

invoking divergence theorem on LHS of Equation (1.14), we have,
𝐽⃗. 𝑑𝑠⃗ = ∇⃗. 𝐽⃗ 𝑑𝑉

𝑉 (1.15)
Now RHS of Equations (1.14) is given as,
𝑑 𝜕𝜌𝑉
− 𝜌𝑉 . 𝑑𝑉 = − − 𝑑𝑉
𝑑𝑡 𝑉 𝑉 𝜕𝑡 (1.16)
Equating Equations (1.15) and (1.16), we have,
Therefore,
𝜕𝜌𝑉
∇⃗. 𝐽⃗ = − (1.17)
𝜕𝑡
Self-Instructional
26 Material
Electro and
When steady current flows out of the volume, i.e., Magnetostatics
Equation (1.17) is known as the continuity equation which states that there NOTES
is no accumulation of charges at any position.
Kirchhoff’s Law
In general, Kirchhoff Law relates the potential in a closed circuit or current in the
nodes of a circuit. Hence Kirchhoff’s Voltage Law, states that the sum of voltage
drop and voltage rises in a closed loop of an electric circuit is zero and is given as,
Where indicates the number of circuit elements in the loop. is positive

for voltage rise across an element or negative if voltage drops across an element.
Similarly, at any node of an electric circuit, Kirchhoff’s current law states that,
Where indicates the number of circuit branches connected to a node.

is positive, if the current enters the node and negative if the current leaves the
node.
1.3.4 Postulates of Magnetostatics: Biot – Savart’s Law
Similar to the postulates of electrostatics governed by Coulombs and Gauss law,
Magnetostatics postulates are governed by the Biot-Savart law and Ampere
circuital law. These law relates the magnetic field with the current flowing in the
circuit.
Biot – Savart’s Law
Assume a current carrying conductor with current magnitude, I amperes. The
objective is to find the effect of magnetic field intensity at an observing point, p due
to a small length of the conductor carrying current.
Fig. 1.13 Biot – Savart’s Law Self-Instructional

Material 27
Electro and Biot – Savart’s law states that, the magnetic field intensity at a point p away
Magnetostatics
by a distance of r from a current carrying conductor due to a differential element
‘dl’ is proportional to the product of current flowing through the differential
element and sine of angle, between the current carrying conductor and the line
NOTES
joining the current element with p, and inversely proportional to the square of
the distance between them. Mathematically,
(1.18)
Removing the proportionality constant,
(1.19)
We know that
Similarly,
(1.20)
Where,
But
(1.21)
To obtain magnetic field intensity, integrating Equation (1.20),
For line current,
For surface current,
For volume current,

Where I’= = Surface current density and I’’ = = Volume current density..
Magnetic Field Intensity and Magnetic Field Due to Line

Current: On an Infinite Conductor
Consider an infinite long conductor carrying a line current I. The objective of this
section is to determine and at an observing point P(x, y, z) due to a differential
Self-Instructional
28 Material
current element I dl. The observing point P is located at a distance ‘r’. The Electro and
Magnetostatics
arrangement is depicted in Figure (1.14).
NOTES
Fig. 1.14 Infinte Current Carrying Conductor

From Equation (1.19), we have,
(1.22)
From Figure (1.14). in
From
(1.23)
Substituting Equations (1.23) in (1.22)
(1.24)
From Figure (1.14),
(1.25)
Substituting Equations (1.25) in (1.24), we get,
Self-Instructional
Material 29
Electro and
Magnetostatics
NOTES
and Due to Finite Conductor

Consider a finite conductor carrying a current I with a small differential current
element Idl at a distance of r from the observing point p(x, y, z) at which the
magnetic field, and magnetic field intensity is to be determined.
Fig. 1.15 Finite Length Conductor

The procedure is similar to the infinite conductor case discussed in the earlier
section till Equation (1.25). Hence, repeat the derivation.
According to Biot-Savart’s law,
Also,
Self-Instructional
30 Material
From Figure (1.15), Electro and
Magnetostatics
NOTES
Therefore,
Integrating from limits
When the conductors are infinitely long, i.e.,
The magnetic field intensity H is given as,
B and H Due to a Circular Loop

Consider a circular loop as shown in Figure (1.16). The observing point is at a
height, h on the z-axis. Since the structure under consideration is a circular loop,
let us solve this analysis using cylindrical coordinate system with coordinates
Fig. 1.16 Circular Loop Self-Instructional

Material 31
Electro and From Biot-Savart’s law, given in Equation (1.21),
Magnetostatics
NOTES in cylindrical coordinate system is given as, and
(1.26)
At a point p, and only component exists. Therefore,
The magnetic field, is given as,
(a) Scalar Magnetic Potential
Similar to electrostatics, scalar potential V, the scalar potential is denoted as

In electrostatics,
In magnetostatics, applying the equivalence,
(1.27)
Self-Instructional
32 Material
From Maxwell’s fourth equation, Electro and
Magnetostatics
(1.28)
NOTES
But, from a vector identity, curl of gradient is zero, given by,
Equation (1.28) becomes,
From the above, the equation is valid only if,

=0
From Maxwell’s third equation,
From Equation (1.27),
The above equation is the Laplace’s equation. Hence scalar magnetic potential
satisfies Laplace’s equation.
(b) Vector Magnetic Potential
Vector magnetic potential is denoted as . When , vector magnetic potential

exists.
From a vector identity, divergence of a curl of a zero given as,
Comparing the above two equations,
Where is the magnetic vector potential. In electrostatics, scalar potential

v is given as,
Self-Instructional
Material 33
Electro and
Magnetostatics Similarly can be defined as,
For line current

NOTES
For surface current
For volume current

We may also define,
The magnetic flux in terms of magnetic flux density is defined as,
Applying Stoke’s Theorem,
Therefore,
From vector triple product identity,

(1.29)
Equation in Equation (1.29)
(1.30)
For a static magnetic field, there will be no current and in turn the current
density, i.e., .
(1.31)
We know that,
(1.32)
Self-Instructional
34 Material
Substituting Equations (1.31) and (1.32) in (1.30), we get, Electro and
Magnetostatics
Which means, NOTES

For the force to be developed, there must be at least two fields with a phase
difference. Hence force due to magnetic field can be experienced by either of the
following,
(a) A unit charge, Q travelling in a magnetic field experiences a force.
(b) A current element placed in a magnetic field experiences a force.
(c) Two current carrying conductor when placed close to each other experience
force between them.
(a) Force Due to a Unit Charge, Q or Lorentz Force
In electrostatics, recall the force on a charge, given as,
The suffix ‘e’ represents the electrostatics. Similarly, force is experienced in

magnetic field only when charge is moving. Hence force in magnetic field is given
as,
Where is the velocity at which charge Q is moving in a magnetic field .

The total force exerted on a charge when influenced by electromagnetic fields
is given as,
This is called as Lorentz- force equation.
Self-Instructional
Material 35
Electro and (b) Force Due to a Current Element
Magnetostatics
Let the current element be for which the force is to be determined. The
NOTES differential current element induces a differential force, , hence,

(1.33)
Total force, is obtained by integrating Equation (1.33) on both sides,
(For line current)

= .
Similarly,
(For surface current density)
(For volume current density)
(c) Force between two Current Elements (Wires)
Consider two current elements and with currents , respectively,,

current element 1, produced a magnetic field that links with current
element 2, and similarly vice versa. Therefore force on element 1 due to
field from element 2 is given as
(1.34)
And force on element 2 due to field from element 1 is given as,
(1.35)
It is and in Equations (1.35) and (1.34), respectively, as only
differential field links and other fields fringes away.
But, from Biot – Savart’s law (Equation 1.21), we get,
And we know that,
= (1.36)
Substituting Equations (1.36) in (1.34) and (1.35), we get,
(1.37)
Integrating Equation (1.37),
Self-Instructional
36 Material
Similarly, Electro and
Magnetostatics
NOTES
Fig. 1.17 Force Due to Two Current Elements.

Ampere’s circuit law states that the closed line integral of magnetic field intensity is
equal to the current circulating in the closed path.
Mathematically,
(1.38)
Similar to Gauss law, from which we applied stoke’s theorem to arrive at
Maxwell’s 2nd equation.
From Equation (1.38), applying Stoke’s Theorem,
(1.39)
We also know that,
(1.40)
Equating Equations (1.39) and (1.40), we get
This is Maxwell’s fourth equation which states that curl of magnetic field
intensity is equal to the current density.
1.4 WAVE EQUATION IN TERMS OF SCALAR

AND VECTOR POTENTIAL
In this equation, the general form of wave equations despite medium properties will
be covered. During the process of deriving we’ll observe the conditions for relations
between the scalar electric potential, ‘V’ and vector magnetic potential . This
condition is called Lorentz condition. The procedure to obtain the wave equations
include, starting from Maxwell’s equation and applying the vector identities and simple
manipulations of the obtained equations will result in the wave equations.
Self-Instructional
Material 37
Electro and From Maxwell’s second equation,
Magnetostatics
NOTES We know that,
Therefore,
𝜕𝐴⃗
∇⃗ × 𝐸⃗ + =0 (1.41)
𝜕𝑡
We know the vector identity that curl of a gradient is zero. Therefore,
∇⃗ × −∇⃗𝑉 = 0 (1.42)
Comparing Equations (1.41) and (1.42), we get,
𝜕𝐴⃗
𝐸⃗ = − ∇⃗𝑉 + (1.43)
𝜕𝑡
Taking divergence of Equations (1.43), we get,
𝜕
∇⃗. 𝐸⃗ = − ∇2 𝑉 + ∇⃗. 𝐴⃗ (30)
𝜕𝑡
But from Maxwell’s First equation,
Therefore, equating the above equation with Equation (1.44).
Or
Self-Instructional
38 Material
Electro and
𝜕 𝜌𝑉 Magnetostatics
2
∇ 𝑉+ ∇⃗. 𝐴⃗ = − (1.45)
𝜕𝑡 𝜖
So far, we have used Maxwell’s equation for electric field and now let us
use Maxwell’s equation for magnetic field to couple the two fields to arrive at the NOTES
electromagnetic waves. Considering, Maxwell’s fourth equation,
But, . Therefore,
Also,
𝜕𝐸⃗
∇⃗ × 𝐵⃗ = 𝜇𝐽⃗ + 𝜇𝜖 (1.46)
𝑑𝑡
Substituting for , from Equation (1.43), we get,
But , Hence,
𝜕𝑉 𝜕 2 𝐴⃗
∇⃗ × ∇⃗ × 𝐴⃗ = 𝜇𝐽⃗ − 𝜇𝜖∇⃗ − 𝜇𝜖 2 (1.47)
𝑑𝑡 𝜕𝑡
Applying vector identity to the LHS of Equation (1.47), we get,
∇⃗ × ∇⃗ × 𝐴⃗ = ∇⃗ ∇⃗. 𝐴⃗ − ∇2 𝐴⃗
𝜕𝑉 𝜕 2 𝐴⃗
∇⃗ ∇⃗. 𝐴⃗ − ∇2 𝐴⃗ = 𝜇𝐽⃗ − 𝜇𝜖∇⃗ − 𝜇𝜖 2 (1.48)
𝑑𝑡 𝜕𝑡
Observing Equation (1.48), we find that scalar potential and vector
potential can be separated and decoupled. Therefore for vector potential, ,
Equation (1.48) becomes,
𝜕 2 𝐴⃗
−∇2 𝐴⃗ = 𝜇𝐽⃗ − 𝜇𝜖 2
𝜕𝑡
Or
𝜕 2 𝐴⃗
∇2 𝐴⃗ − 𝜇𝜖 2 = 𝜇𝐽⃗ (1.49)
𝜕𝑡 Self-Instructional
Material 39
Electro and
Magnetostatics
Check Your Progress
1. What does the term static mean?
NOTES 2. What does Gauss law state?
3. What are the applications of Gauss law?
4. What are magnetic flux lines?
5. What is current?
6. What is convection current?
7. What are plane waves?
1.5 ANSWERS TO CHECK YOUR PROGRESS

QUESTIONS
1. The term static means a situation where the field does not vary with time.
2. Gauss law states that total flux through a closed surface is equal to the
charge enclosed by that surface. Mathematically, it is given as, Electric flux,
(Charge enclosed).
3. The applications of Gauss law includes determination of electric field due to
a point charge, sheet of charge, line charge on surface of conductor and
sphere of charges.
4. Magnetic flux lines are imaginary lines that flow from the north to south
poles. Magnetic flux lies constitutes the magnetic field.
5. Current is defined as the rate of movement of charge across a plane in a
given time.
6. The flow of charges through convection constitutes convection current. Beam
of electrons inside Cathode Ray Tube (CRT) or in vacuum tubes are due to
convection currents.
7. Plane waves are waves with same phase at all points of existence.
1.6 SUMMARY
The term static means a situation where the field does not vary with time.
Static electric field also referred as electrostatics is created by the fixed
charges in space.
Coulomb’s law provides the relation between forces experienced by the
charges when they are separated by a distance.
Electric field intensity is defined as the strength of electric field at any point.
It is equal to force per unit charge as experienced by test charge kept at
that point.
Self-Instructional
40 Material
Electric flux density is an imaginary field lines that do not exist unlike magnetic Electro and
Magnetostatics
field lines. Electric flux density do not exist practically and generally
considered for theoretical reasoning only.
Gauss’ law is a powerful tool for the calculation of electric fields. The
applications of Gauss law includes determination of electric field due to a NOTES
point charge, sheet of charge, line charge on surface of conductor and sphere
of charges.
A mathematically closed surface is called as a Gaussian surface. These
surfaces are assumed to have a uniform symmetric charge distribution which
are ideal for determining the electric field vector, by applying Gauss law..
The scalar potential is inversely proportional to the square of the distance
between the observing point and the electric dipole.
Magnetic flux lines are imaginary lines that flow from the north to south
poles. Magnetic flux lies constitutes the magnetic field.
Magnetic flux density is defined as the magnetic flux lines passing through a
unit surface area.
The electric currents are produced either by conduction or convection.
Current density is defined as the amount of current flowing through a given
area of a material.
Ohm’s law states that electric current is proportional to voltage and inversely
proportional to resistance.
In general, Kirchhoff law relates the potential in a closed circuit or current in
the nodes of a circuit. Hence Kirchhoff’s voltage law, states that the sum of
voltage drop and voltage rises in a closed loop of an electric circuit is zero.
Ampere’s circuit law states that the closed line integral of magnetic field
intensity is equal to the current circulating in the closed path.
Electromagnetic waves transport energy or information from one point to
the other.
1.7 KEY WORDS
Permittivity: It is the ability of a substance to store electrical energy in an

electric field.
Electric field intensity: It is equal to the electric force per unit charge
experienced by a test charge placed at that point.
Electric flux: It is the measure of flow of the electric field through a given
area.
Magnetic flux: It is the density is defined as the magnetic flux lines passing
through a unit surface area.
Current density: It is the amount of current flowing through a given area
of a material. Self-Instructional
Material 41
Electro and
Magnetostatics 1.8 SELF ASSESSMENT QUESTIONS AND
EXERCISES
NOTES Short Answer Questions

1. What are the sources of electric field and magnetic field?
2. State Coulomb’s law.
3. Define electric potential and potential difference.
4. State Gauss law for electric fields.
5. Discuss few applications of Gauss law in electrostatics.
6. Define electric flux and electric flux density.
7. Define magnetic flux density.
8. What do you understand by the term current density?
9. Discuss the types of current density.
10. State Ohm’s law and Kirchhoff’s law.
Long Answer Questions
1. Derive the expression for electric field due to an infinite long line charge
from its principles.
2. State and prove Gauss law and also explain the applications of Gauss law.
3. What is a dipole? Derive the expressions for potential and electric field
intensity due to dipole.
4. State and derive an expression for Biot-Savart’s law.
5. Derive an expression for magnetic field intensity and magnetic field due to
line current.
6. Explain vector magnetic potential and derive its expression.
7. State and prove boundary conditions for magnetic field.
8. Derive the electromagnetic wave equation for free space in terms of electric field.
1.9 FURTHER READINGS

Prakash, Satya. 2007. Electromagnetic Theory and Electrodynamics: Including
Electrostatics and Magnetostatics. Meerut: Kedar Nath Ram Nath.
Griffiths, David J. 2013. Introduction to Electrodynamics, 4th Edition. Noida:
Pearson Education Ltd.
Kraus, John D. and Keith R. Carver. 1973. Electromagnetics. New York:
McGraw-Hill Education.
Stratton, Adams Julius. 2007. Electromagnetic Theory. London: John Wiley &
Sons.
Heaviside, Oliver. 2008. Electromagnetic Theory. New York: Cosimo Classics
Inc.
Bakshi, U.A. 2010. Electromagnetic Fields. Delhi: Technical Publications.
Khurana, Rohit. 2014. Electromagnetic Field Theory. Noida: Vikas Publishing
Self-Instructional
House Pvt. Ltd.
42 Material
Field Equations and
UNIT 2 FIELD EQUATIONS AND Conservation Laws
CONSERVATION LAWS
NOTES
Structure
2.0 Introduction
2.1 Objectives
2.2 Maxwell’s Equations
2.3 Poynting Theorem
2.4 Conservation of Energy and Momentum, Continuity Equation
2.6 Summary
2.7 Key Words
2.0 INTRODUCTION
Maxwell’s equations are a set of partial differential equations that, together with
the Lorentz force law, form the foundation of classical electromagnetism, classical
optics, and electric circuits. The equations provide a mathematical model for
electric, optical, and radio technologies, such as power generation, electric motors,
wireless communication, lenses, radar, etc. Maxwell’s equations describe how
electric and magnetic fields are generated by charges, currents, and changes of the
fields. One important consequence of the equations is that they demonstrate how
fluctuating electric and magnetic fields propagate at the speed of light. Known as
electromagnetic radiation, these waves may occur at various wavelengths to
produce a spectrum from radio waves to -rays. The equations are named after
the physicist and mathematician James Clerk Maxwell, who between 1861 and
1862 published an early form of the equations that included the Lorentz Force
Law. He also first used the equations to propose that light is an electromagnetic
phenomenon.
The term ‘Maxwell’s Equations’ is often also used for equivalent alternative
formulations. Versions of Maxwell’s equations based on the electric and magnetic
potentials are preferred for explicitly solving the equations as a boundary value
problem, analytical mechanics, or for use in quantum mechanics. The spacetime
formulations (i.e., on spacetime rather than space and time separately), are
commonly used in high energy and gravitational physics because they make the
compatibility of the equations with special and general relativity manifest. In fact,
Einstein developed special and general relativity to accommodate the invariant
speed of light that drops out of the Maxwell equations with the principle that only
relative movement has physical consequences.
Self-Instructional
Material 43
Field Equations and In electrodynamics, Poynting’s theorem is a statement of conservation of
Conservation Laws
energy for the electromagnetic field, in the form of a partial differential equation,
and is named after the British physicist John Henry Poynting. Poynting’s theorem
is analogous to the work-energy theorem in classical mechanics, and mathematically
NOTES similar to the continuity equation, because it relates the energy stored in the
electromagnetic field to the work done on a charge distribution (i.e., an electrically
charged object), through energy flux.
In physics, a conservation law states that a particular measurable property
of an isolated physical system does not change as the system evolves over time.
Exact conservation laws include conservation of energy, conservation of linear
momentum, conservation of angular momentum, and conservation of electric charge.
There are also many approximate conservation laws, which apply to such quantities
as mass, parity, lepton number, baryon number, strangeness, hypercharge, etc.
These quantities are conserved in certain classes of physics processes, but not in
all. A continuity equation in physics is an equation that describes the transport of
some quantity. It is particularly simple and powerful when applied to a conserved
quantity, but it can be generalized to apply to any extensive quantity. Since mass,
energy, momentum, electric charge and other natural quantities are conserved
under their respective appropriate conditions, a variety of physical phenomena
may be described using continuity equations.
In this unit, you will study about Maxwell’s equation in differential and integral
form. You will learn how energy flow may be determined using the Maxwell’s
equation. In the end, this unit discusses continuity equation.
2.1 OBJECTIVES

Discuss Maxwell’s equations
State and prove Poynting theorem
Derive continuity equation for conservation of energy and momentum
2.2 MAXWELL’S EQUATIONS
Maxwell’s equations state the fundamentals of electricity and magnetism. The

working relationships in the field of electricity and magnetism can be derived using
these equations. As a consequence of their brief statement, they symbolize a high
level of mathematical sophistication, and hence are typically defined as unifying
equations for studying of electrical and magnetic phenomena.
Self-Instructional
44 Material
Principally, the Maxwell’s equations are a set of partial differential equations Field Equations and
Conservation Laws
that, together with the Lorentz Force Law, form the foundation of classical
electromagnetism, classical optics, and electric circuits. The equations provide a
mathematical model for electric, optical, and radio technologies, such as power
generation, electric motors, wireless communication, lenses, radar, etc. Maxwell’s NOTES
equations specifically describe how electric and magnetic fields are generated by
charges, currents, and changes of the fields. One significant consequence of the
Maxwell’s equations is that they demonstrate how fluctuating electric and magnetic
fields propagate at the speed of light. Acknowledged as electromagnetic radiation,
the Maxwell’s waves may occur at various wavelengths to produce a spectrum
from radio waves to -rays. The equations are named after the physicist and
mathematician James Clerk Maxwell, who between 1861 and 1862 published an
early or initial form of the equations that included the Lorentz Force law. Maxwell
also was the first to use the equations to recommend that light is an electromagnetic
phenomenon.
The Maxwell equations have two major variations/variants. Though the
microscopic Maxwell equations have universal applicability, but these are
cumbersome for common calculations. They relate the electric and magnetic fields
to total charge and total current, including the complicated charges and currents in
materials at the atomic scale.
In addition, the term ‘Maxwell’s Equations’ is also frequently used for
equivalent alternative formulations. Versions of Maxwell’s equations that are based
on the electric and magnetic potentials are ideal for explicitly solving the equations,
such as a boundary value problem, analytical mechanics, and in quantum mechanics.
In the spacetime formulations, i.e., on spacetime rather than space and time
separately, the Maxwell’s equations are commonly used in high energy and
gravitational physics because they make the compatibility of the equations with
special and general dependence evident. Essentially, Einstein developed special
and general relativity/ dependence to accommodate the invariant speed of light
that drops out of the Maxwell equations with the principle that only relative
movement has physical consequences. Principally, the Maxwell’s equations are
not exact, but a classical limit of the fundamental theory of quantum electrodynamics.
Maxwell’s four equations describe the electric and magnetic fields arising from
distributions of electric charges and currents, and how those fields change in time.
The second Maxwell equation is the analogous one for the magnetic field, which
has no sources or sinks, i.e., no magnetic monopoles, the field lines just flow
around in closed curves.
Maxwell’s Equation for Static Fields and Magnetic Dipole
Summarizing all the Maxwell’s equation from electrostatics and magnetostatics,
we get the following four Maxwell’s equation for static fields.
Self-Instructional
Material 45
Field Equations and Sl. No Differential form Integral form
Conservation Laws
1 ∇⃗ ⋅ 𝐷⃗ = 𝛿𝑣
𝐷⃗ ⋅ 𝑑𝑠⃗ = 𝛿𝑣 ⋅ 𝑑𝑣
𝑠 𝑣
NOTES
2 ∇⃗ ⋅ 𝐸⃗ = 0
𝐸⃗ ⋅ 𝑑𝑙⃗ = 0
𝐿
3 ∇⃗ ⋅ 𝐵⃗ = 0
𝐵⃗ ⋅ 𝑑𝑠⃗ = 0
𝑠
4 ∇⃗ ⋅ 𝐻⃗ = 𝐽⃗
𝐻⃗ ⋅ 𝑑𝑙⃗ = 𝐽⃗ ⋅ 𝑑𝑠⃗
𝐿 𝑠
Magnetic Dipole
The Magnetic Dipole Moment, is equal to the product of the current flowing through
the loop and area of the loop with the moment acting normal to the loop.
Mathematically,
(2.1)
Where, I is the current in the loop with area
Fig. 2.1 Magnetic Moment
Magnetic dipole naturally exists on permanent magnets as North and South

poles or in current carrying coils.
Unlike electrostatics, in magnetostatics monopole does not exist. When a
magnet is broken into two pieces, North and South poles exists within the broken
pieces (Refer Figure 2.2)
Fig. 2.2 Magnetic Dipoles
Recalling the and V for electric dipoles, and comparing for magnetic
dipoles, there exists an equivalence.
Self-Instructional
46 Material
Electrostatics Magnetostatics Field Equations and
Conservation Laws
𝜃 1
𝑉 = 𝑄 cos 𝐴⃗ = 4𝜋𝑟 2 (𝜇0 )𝑚 sin 𝜃𝑎𝜙⃗ (59)
4𝜋𝜖𝑜 𝑟 2
Rewritten as NOTES
1
1 1 𝐵⃗ = (𝜇 )𝑚[2 cos 𝜃𝑎𝛿⃗ + sin 𝜃𝑎𝜃⃗]
𝑉= 2
𝑄 cos 𝜃 4𝜋𝑟 3 0
4𝜋𝑟 𝜖𝑜
(60)
1 1
𝐸⃗ = 𝑄 [2 cos 𝜃𝑎𝛿⃗
4𝜋𝑟 𝜖𝑜 𝑑
3
+ sin 𝜃𝑎𝜃⃗]
Magnetization
The equivalence of magnetization in electrostatics is polarisation, . Consider a

single magnetic moment shown in Figure 2.1. When a magnetic material is non
magnetised, i.e., when , the magnetisation . Also in a non-magnetised
materials, the different dipole moments that exists within the atoms of the material
are not polarized, or in other words, their unit vectors of the moment, points in
random direction as shown in Figure 2.3(a).
(a) (b)
Fig. 2.3 (a) (b) Magnetization
When a magnetic field is applied to the magnetic material, then the magnetic
moments align in a particular direction. Hence, magnetisation is defined as the net
magnetic dipole moment in a given volume. For a single magnetic moment,

m
Volume
For N magnetic moments,
Self-Instructional
Material 47
Field Equations and Magnetic Susceptibility
Conservation Laws
According to Maxwell’s fourth equation, in free space, with magnetisation, ,
NOTES
But for a magnet, with magnetisation, ,
But Therefore,
Therefore, . Also
Hence, magnetic susceptibility is defined as the ratio of magnetisation to

magnetic field intensity.
Therefore,
Maxwell’s Equations in Time Varying Fields

Maxwell’s equations in time varying fields are the final form of equations that
interlinks the electric and magnetic fields. This section summarizes the interlinked
electric and magnetic fields for time varying fields with modified form.
1. Maxwell’s First Equation
We know from electrostatics,
As, ,
Self-Instructional
48 Material
Field Equations and
Conservation Laws
𝜌𝑉
∇⃗. 𝐸⃗ =
𝜖
NOTES
2. Maxwell's Second Equation
From electrostatics and from Faraday's Law for electromagnetic fields,
As, ,
𝜕𝐻⃗
∇⃗ × 𝐸⃗ = −𝜇
𝑑𝑡
3. Maxwell’s Third Equation
From Gauss’s Law,
As, ,
∇⃗. 𝐻⃗ = 0
4. Maxwell’s Fourth Equation
Applying Ampere’s Law, the modified Maxwell’s equation is given as,
Also, and . Therefore,
𝜕𝐸⃗
∇⃗ × 𝐻⃗ = 𝜎𝐸⃗ + 𝜖
𝑑𝑡
Self-Instructional
Material 49
Field Equations and Maxwell’s Equation in Final Form
Conservation Laws
Table 2.1 Maxwell’s Equation in Differential and Integral Form
Sl. No Differential Form Integral Form

NOTES
1 ∇⃗. 𝐷⃗ = 𝜌𝑣 𝐷⃗ . 𝑑𝑠⃗ = 𝜌𝑣 . 𝑑𝑣
𝑆 𝑣
or
𝜌𝑉
∇⃗. 𝐸⃗ =
𝜖
2 𝜕𝐵⃗ 𝜕
∇⃗ × 𝐸⃗ = − 𝐸⃗ . 𝑑𝑙⃗ = − 𝐵⃗. 𝑑𝑆⃗
𝑑𝑡 𝐿 𝜕𝑡 𝑆
or or
𝜕𝐻⃗ 𝜕𝐻⃗
∇⃗ × 𝐸⃗ = −𝜇 𝐸⃗ . 𝑑𝑙⃗ = −𝜇 . 𝑑𝑆⃗
𝑑𝑡 𝐿 𝑆 𝜕𝑡
3 ∇⃗. 𝐵⃗ = 0 𝐵⃗. 𝑑𝑆⃗ = 0

𝑆
or
∇⃗. 𝐻⃗ = 0
4 𝜕𝐷⃗ 𝜕𝐷⃗
∇⃗ × 𝐻⃗ = 𝐽⃗ + 𝐻⃗ . 𝑑𝑙⃗ = 𝐽⃗ + . 𝑑𝑆⃗
𝑑𝑡 𝐿 𝑆 𝑑𝑡
or
𝜕𝐸⃗
∇⃗ × 𝐻⃗ = 𝜎𝐸⃗ + 𝜖
𝑑𝑡
Maxwell’s Equation in Free Space
In free space, and therefore, the Maxwell’s equation in free

space are written in the Table 2.2 below:
Self-Instructional
50 Material
Table 2.2 Maxwell’s Equation in Free Space Field Equations and
Conservation Laws
Sl. No Differential Form Integral Form
1 ∇⃗. 𝐷⃗ = 0 𝐷⃗. 𝑑𝑠⃗ = 0 NOTES

𝑆
or
∇⃗. 𝐸⃗ = 0
2 𝜕𝐵⃗ 𝜕
∇⃗ × 𝐸⃗ = − 𝐸⃗ . 𝑑𝑙⃗ = − 𝐵⃗. 𝑑𝑆⃗
𝑑𝑡 𝐿 𝜕𝑡 𝑆
3 ∇⃗. 𝐵⃗ = 0 𝐵⃗. 𝑑𝑆⃗ = 0

𝑆
or
∇⃗. 𝐻⃗ = 0
4 𝜕𝐷⃗ 𝜕𝐷⃗
∇⃗ × 𝐻⃗ = 𝐻⃗. 𝑑𝑙⃗ = . 𝑑𝑆⃗
𝑑𝑡 𝐿 𝑆 𝑑𝑡
Check Your Progress

1. What does Maxwell's equations state?
2. Explain the term magnetic dipole.
3. What is magnetization?
4. Define magnetic susceptibility.
5. Write Maxwell's first equation in free space in differential form.
2.3 POYNTING THEOREM
In electrodynamics, Poynting’s theorem is a statement of conservation of energy

for the electromagnetic field, in the form of a partial differential equation, and is
named after the British physicist John Henry Poynting. Poynting’s theorem is
analogous to the work-energy theorem in classical mechanics, and mathematically
similar to the continuity equation, because it relates the energy stored in the
electromagnetic field to the work done on a charge distribution (i.e., an electrically
charged object), through energy flux. In words, the theorem is an energy balance
and is stated as follows,
‘The rate of energy transfer, per unit volume, from a region of space equals
the rate of work done on a charge distribution plus the energy flux leaving that
region.’
Self-Instructional
Material 51
Field Equations and As per the second statement, ‘The decrease in the electromagnetic energy
Conservation Laws
per unit time in a certain volume is equal to the sum of work done by the field
forces and the net outward flux per unit time.’
When electromagnetic waves travel from a source to destination, they
NOTES
transport energy between those points. The power transferred is given by the
Poynting vector which is defined as the product of electric field intensity, and
magnetic field intensity, at a point determines the rate of flow of energy per unit
area. It is given as below,
℘⃗ = 𝐸⃗ . 𝐻⃗
Poynting vector is a vector pointing in the direction perpendicular to both
field and field. Direction of Poynting vector are similar to that of TEM (Transverse
Electron-Magnetic) waves. The energy flow may be determined using the Maxwell’s
equation as below
𝜕𝐵⃗ 𝜕𝐻⃗
∇⃗ × 𝐸⃗ = − = −𝜇
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡
𝜕𝐷⃗ 𝜕𝐸⃗
∇⃗ × 𝐻⃗ = 𝐽⃗ + = = 𝜎𝐸⃗ + 𝜖
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡
Taking a dot product of with ,
𝜕𝐸⃗
𝐸⃗ . ∇⃗ × 𝐻⃗ = 𝜎𝐸 2 + 𝐸⃗ . 𝜖 (2.2)
𝑑𝑡
Applying a vector identity,
∇⃗. 𝐴⃗ × 𝐵⃗ = 𝐵⃗ . ∇⃗ × 𝐴⃗ − 𝐴⃗. ∇⃗ × 𝐵⃗
is equivalent to and is equivalent to . Therefore,
∇⃗. 𝐻⃗ × 𝐸⃗ = 𝐸⃗ . ∇⃗ × 𝐻⃗ − 𝐻⃗ . ∇⃗ × 𝐸⃗
𝐸⃗ . ∇⃗ × 𝐻⃗ = ∇⃗. 𝐻⃗ × 𝐸⃗ − 𝐻⃗ . ∇⃗ × 𝐸⃗ (2.3)
Equating Equation (2.2) and Equation (2.3),
𝜕𝐸⃗
∇⃗. 𝐻⃗ × 𝐸⃗ − 𝐻⃗ . ∇⃗ × 𝐸⃗ = 𝜎𝐸 2 + 𝐸⃗ . 𝜖 (2.4)
𝑑𝑡
Since
𝐴⃗ × 𝐵⃗ = −𝐵⃗ × 𝐴⃗
𝐻⃗ × 𝐸⃗ = −𝐸⃗ × 𝐻⃗
Self-Instructional
52 Material
Equation (2.4) becomes, Field Equations and
Conservation Laws
𝜕𝐸⃗
∇⃗. 𝐸⃗ × 𝐻⃗ − 𝐻⃗ . ∇⃗ × 𝐸⃗ = 𝜎𝐸 2 + 𝐸⃗ . 𝜖 (2.5)
𝑑𝑡
From Maxwell’s equation, NOTES
Also,
𝜕 𝜖𝐸 2 𝜇𝐻 2
∇⃗. 𝐸⃗ × 𝐻⃗ = − 𝜎𝐸 2 − + (2.6)
𝜕𝑡 2 2
Taking volume integral of Equation (2.6),
𝜕 𝜕 𝜖𝐸 2 𝜇𝐻 2
∇⃗. 𝐸⃗ × 𝐻⃗ . 𝑑𝑉 = − 𝜎𝐸 2 . 𝑑𝑉 − + . 𝑑𝑉 (2.7)
𝑉 𝑉 𝜕𝑡 𝑉 𝜕𝑡 2 2
Applying divergence theorem to LHS of Equation (2.7),
𝜕 𝜕 𝜖𝐸 2 𝜇𝐻 2
𝐸⃗ × 𝐻⃗ . 𝑑𝑆 = − 𝜎𝐸 2 . 𝑑𝑉 − + . 𝑑𝑉
𝑆 𝑉 𝜕𝑡 𝑉 𝜕𝑡 2 2 (2.8)
In Equation (2.7), LHS expression represents the total power enclosed in a

closed surface which is equivalent to the total power leaving the volume.
The first term in the RHS of Equation (2.8) represents ohmic power dissipated
and the second term represents the rate of decrease of energy stored in electric
and magnetic fields.
Physical Representations of Equation (2.8)
𝐸⃗ × 𝐻⃗ . 𝑑𝑆
𝑆
− 𝜎𝐸 2 . 𝑑𝑉
𝑉
𝜕 𝜕 𝜖𝐸 2 𝜇𝐻2
− + . 𝑑𝑉
𝜕𝑡 𝑉 𝜕𝑡 2 2
Self-Instructional
Material 53
Field Equations and Properties of Poynting Vector
Conservation Laws
Since Poynting vector is orthogonal to the electric and magnetic field, which is
similar to the TEM wave, therefore, the Poynting vector points in the same direction
NOTES as that of the direction of propagation of the wave.
Instantaneous, Average and Total Time Average Poynting Vector
Instantaneous Poynting vector denoted as is a time variant vector with units

.
Average Poynting vector denoted as is a time average Poynting vector
with units .
Total time average power is denoted as is a scalar with unit .
The time average Poynting vector is given as,
Proof
Let 𝐸⃗ = 𝐸𝑟⃗ + 𝑗𝐸⃗𝑖 𝑒 𝑗𝜔𝑡 (2.9)
and 𝐻⃗ = 𝐻𝑟⃗ + 𝑗𝐻⃗𝑖 𝑒 𝑗𝜔𝑡

Equation (2.9) implies,
𝐸⃗ = 𝐸𝑟⃗ + 𝑗𝐸⃗𝑖 [cos 𝜔𝑡 + 𝑗 sin 𝜔𝑡 ]
= 𝐸𝑟⃗ cos 𝜔𝑡 + 𝑗𝐸𝑟⃗ sin 𝜔𝑡 + 𝑗𝐸⃗𝑖 cos 𝜔𝑡 − 𝐸⃗𝑖 sin 𝜔𝑡
𝑅𝑒 𝐸⃗ = 𝐸𝑟⃗ cos 𝜔𝑡 − 𝐸⃗𝑖 sin 𝜔𝑡

Similarly,
𝑅𝑒 𝐻⃗ = 𝐻𝑟⃗ cos 𝜔𝑡 − 𝐻⃗𝑖 sin 𝜔𝑡
We know from the basic definition that,
℘⃗ = 𝐸⃗ . 𝐻⃗
= 𝐸𝑟⃗ cos 𝜔𝑡 − 𝐸⃗𝑖 sin 𝜔𝑡 . 𝐻𝑟⃗ cos 𝜔𝑡 − 𝐻⃗𝑖 sin 𝜔𝑡
1
℘⃗ = 𝐸𝑟⃗. 𝐻𝑟⃗ cos2 𝜔𝑡 + 𝐸⃗𝑖 . 𝐻⃗𝑖 sin2 𝜔𝑡 − 𝐸𝑟⃗. 𝐻⃗𝑖 + 𝐸⃗𝑖 . 𝐻𝑟⃗ sin 2𝜔𝑡
2
Self-Instructional
54 Material
𝑇
Field Equations and
1 Conservation Laws
℘𝑎𝑣⃗(𝑡) = ℘⃗ . 𝑑𝑡
𝑇 0
𝑇 𝑇 𝑇
1 1 1 1
= 𝐸𝑟⃗. 𝐻𝑟⃗ cos2 𝜔𝑡 . 𝑑𝑡 + 𝐸⃗𝑖 . 𝐻⃗𝑖 sin2 𝜔𝑡 . 𝑑𝑡 − 𝐸⃗. 𝐻⃗ + 𝐸⃗𝑖 . 𝐻𝑟⃗ sin 2𝜔𝑡 . 𝑑𝑡
𝑇 𝑇 𝑇 2 𝑟 𝑖
0
𝑇
0
𝑇
0
NOTES
1 1 1 1 1
= 𝐸⃗𝑟 . 𝐻⃗𝑟 𝑑𝑡 + 𝐸⃗𝑖 . 𝐻⃗𝑖 𝑑𝑡 − 𝐸⃗ . 𝐻⃗ + 𝐸⃗𝑖 . 𝐻⃗𝑟 (0)
𝑇 2 𝑇 2 2𝑇 𝑟 𝑖
0 0
1
= 𝐸⃗ . 𝐻⃗ + 𝐸⃗𝑖 . 𝐻⃗𝑖 . (𝑡)𝑇0
2𝑇 𝑟 𝑟
1
= 𝐸⃗𝑟 . 𝐻⃗𝑟 + 𝐸⃗𝑖 . 𝐻⃗𝑖
2
1
= 𝑅𝑒 𝐸⃗𝑟 + 𝑗𝐸⃗𝑖 . 𝐻⃗𝑟 − 𝑗𝐻⃗𝑖
2
1
= 𝑅𝑒 𝐸⃗ . 𝐻⃗∗
2
Therefore,
1
℘𝑎𝑣⃗(𝑡) = 𝑅𝑒 𝐸⃗ . 𝐻⃗ ∗
2
Now, total time-average power crossing a given surface, is,
The Poynting vector represented in terms of field equations are given below.
Let 𝐸⃗ = 𝐸𝑥 1 𝑒 −𝛼𝑧 cos(𝜔𝑡 − 𝛽𝑧) 𝑎⃗𝑥
𝐸𝑥 1 −𝛼𝑧
and 𝐻⃗ = 𝑒 cos 𝜔𝑡 − 𝛽𝑧 − 𝜃𝜂 𝑎⃗𝑦
|𝜂|
℘⃗ = 𝐸⃗ . 𝐻⃗
𝐸𝑥21 −2𝛼𝑧
= 𝑒 cos(𝜔𝑡 − 𝛽𝑧) cos 𝜔𝑡 − 𝛽𝑧 − 𝜃𝜂 𝑎⃗𝑧
|𝜂|
Applying cosine rule,

1
cos 𝐴 cos 𝐵 = [cos(𝐴 − 𝐵) + cos(𝐴 + 𝐵)]
2
𝐸𝑥21 −2𝛼𝑧
℘⃗ = 𝑒 cos 𝜃𝜂 + cos 2𝜔𝑡 − 2𝛽𝑧 − 2𝜃𝜂 𝑎⃗𝑧 𝑑𝑡
|𝜂|
𝑇
1 1
℘𝑎𝑣⃗(𝑡) = ℘⃗. 𝑑𝑡 = 𝑅𝑒 𝐸⃗ × 𝐻⃗ ∗
𝑇 2
0
Self-Instructional
Material 55
Field Equations and 𝑇
Conservation Laws 1 𝐸𝑥21 −2𝛼𝑧
1= 𝐸 𝑒 cos 𝜃𝜂 + cos 2𝜔𝑡 − 2𝛽𝑧 − 2𝜃𝜂 𝑎⃗𝑧 𝑑𝑡
𝑇 𝑒|𝜂| cos 𝜃𝜂 + cos 2𝜔𝑡 − 2𝛽𝑧 − 2𝜃𝜂 𝑎⃗𝑧 𝑑𝑡
𝑇 |𝜂|
0
0
NOTES 𝑇
1 2 𝐸𝑥21 −2𝛼𝑧
= . 𝑒 cos 𝜃𝜂 + cos 2𝜔𝑡 − 2𝛽𝑧 − 2𝜃𝜂 𝑎⃗𝑧 𝑑𝑡
𝑇 𝑇 |𝜂|
0
𝑇
1 𝐸𝑥21 𝑇 sin 2𝜔𝑡 − 2𝛽𝑧 − 2𝜃𝜂
= 𝑒 −2𝛼𝑧 𝑡 cos 𝜃𝜂 + 𝑎⃗𝑧
2𝑇 |𝜂| 0 2𝜔 0
1 𝐸𝑥21 −2𝛼𝑧 sin(𝜃)
= 𝑒 𝑇 cos 𝜃𝜂 . 𝑎⃗𝑧 sin(2𝜋 + 𝜃) =
2𝑇 |𝜂| 0 𝑙𝑖𝑚𝑖𝑡𝑠
1 𝐸𝑥21 −2𝛼𝑧
℘𝑎𝑣⃗ = 𝑒 cos(𝜃𝜂 ) 𝑎⃗𝑧
2 |𝜂|
2.4 CONSERVATION OF ENERGY AND

MOMENTUM, CONTINUITY EQUATION
In physics, the law of conservation of energy states that the total energy of an
isolated system remains constant, i.e., it is said to be conserved over time. This
law means that energy can neither be created nor destroyed; rather, it can only be
transformed or transferred from one form to another.
Therefore, the laws of conservation of energy and momentum are considered
as the most fundamental and useful laws of physics. They provide the solution of
several mechanics problems. These laws fundamentally state that if there are no
net forces on a system, then that system will have the same momentum, p = mv, at
all times. Additionally, if there are no external or internal forces acting in or on a
system, then the energy of that system will remain constant. Newton’s First Law
specifies these conservation laws. Newton’s First Law states that bodies at rest
will remain at rest as long as no forces act upon them, and bodies in motion will
remain in motion as long as no forces act upon them. Thus, the Newton’s First
Law is a statement about conservation of momentum and energy.
To discuss the ‘Equation of Continuity’, we should have an idea about
‘Conservation of Charge’ very well. According to the conservation of charge
‘the net amount of charge within an isolated system always remains constant’. If
the charge density is a function of time (i.e., if we consider a time-varying field),
then the principle of conservation of charge many be stated as:
‘‘If the net amount of charge crossing a surface bounded by a closed volume is
not zero, then the charge density within the volume must change with time in such
a way that the time rate of increase of charge within the volume equals to the net
rate of flow of charge into the volume.’’
Self-Instructional
56 Material
 Field Equations and
Let us assume S be a surface enclosing a volume V and dS be a small element Conservation Laws
 
of the surface S. Direction of dS be taken to be that of the outward normal. If J
is the current density (i.e., current per unit area, placed normal of the direction of
  
current flow) at a point on the surface element dS , then J . dS represents the NOTES

charge per unit time (i.e., current) leaving volume V across dS . The time rate at
which charge leaves the volume V bounded by the entire surface S is given by
 

 J . dS
S
If q is the charge contain in volume V, then according to the charge conservation

law, we can write
 

 J . dS
dq
=– ...(2.10)
dt
S
But, we have q = 

 ρ dv , where is the charge density and we consider
V
here –ve sign because of the current flow and charge flow are in opposite direction.
Therefore, rearranging Equation (2.10), we have,
 

 J . dS 
 ρ. dv
d
=–
dt
S V
=– 
 t
. dv
V
dv
V dS
Fig. 2.4 Direction of Current Density Due to a Charge Flow

According to Gauss’s divergence theorem, the above equation can be rewritten
as,
 r

 div J . dv = – 
 t . dv
V V


 div J
t
. dV = 0.
V
Self-Instructional
Material 57
Field Equations and Since, the volume is arbitrary, the integrand must vanish
Conservation Laws
 ρ
Hence, div J 0
t
NOTES  
.J 0
t
The above equation is called ‘Equation of Continuity’ and it expresses the
‘Conservation of Charge’.
If there is no charge, i.e., for stationary current, = 0; so, for stationary flow
t
of current, the equation of continuity has the form,

div J  0
 
or, . J  0
Continuity Equation
In physics, a continuity equation is an equation that describes the transport of
some quantity. It is particularly simple and powerful when applied to a conserved
quantity, but it can be generalized to apply to any extensive quantity. Since mass,
energy, momentum, electric charge and other natural quantities are conserved
under their respective appropriate conditions, hence several physical phenomena
can be explained using continuity equations.
Continuity equations are basically a stronger, local form of conservation
laws. For example, a weak version of the law of conservation of energy states that
energy can neither be created nor destroyed, i.e., the total amount of energy in the
universe is fixed. This statement does not rule out the possibility that a quantity of
energy could disappear from one point while simultaneously appearing at another
point. A stronger statement is that energy is locally conserved: energy can neither
be created nor destroyed, nor can it ‘teleport’ from one place to another, it can
only move by a continuous flow. A continuity equation is the mathematical way to
express this kind of statement. For example, the continuity equation for electric
charge states that the amount of electric charge in any volume of space can only
change by the amount of electric current flowing into or out of that volume through
its boundaries.
In electromagnetic theory, the continuity equation is an empirical law
expressing (local) charge conservation. Mathematically it is an automatic
consequence of Maxwell’s equations, although charge conservation is more
fundamental than Maxwell’s equations. It states that the divergence of the current
density J (in amperes per square metre) is equal to the negative rate of change of
the charge density (in coulombs per cubic metre),
Self-Instructional
58 Material
Current is the movement of charge. The continuity equation says that, ‘If Field Equations and
Conservation Laws
charge is moving out of a differential volume, i.e., divergence of current density is
positive, then the amount of charge within that volume is going to decrease, so the
rate of change of charge density is negative. Therefore, the continuity equation
amounts to a conservation of charge. If magnetic monopoles exist, there would be NOTES
a continuity equation for monopole currents as well, see the monopole article for
background and the duality between electric and magnetic currents.
Fluid Dynamics
In fluid dynamics, the continuity equation states that the rate at which mass enters
a system is equal to the rate at which mass leaves the system plus the accumulation
of mass within the system. The differential form of the continuity equation is:
Where,
= Fluid Density
t = Time
u = Flow Velocity Vector Field
The time derivative can be understood as the accumulation (or loss) of
mass in the system, while the divergence term represents the difference in flow in
versus flow out. Therefore, this equation is also one of the Euler equations (fluid
dynamics). The Navier–Stokes equations form a vector continuity equation which
explain the conservation of linear momentum.
If the fluid is an incompressible flow (ñ is constant), the mass continuity
equation simplifies to a volume continuity equation of the form,
This specifies that the divergence of velocity field is zero everywhere.

Physically, this is equivalent to saying that the local volume dilation rate is zero,
hence a flow of water through a converging pipe will adjust solely by increasing its
velocity because water is basically incompressible.
Energy and Heat
Conservation of energy says that energy cannot be created or destroyed.
Therefore, there is a continuity equation for energy flow of the form,
Where,
u = Local Energy Density, Energy ‘Per Unit Volume’
q = Energy Flux, Transfer of Energy ‘Per Unit Cross-Sectional Area Per
Unit Time’ as a Vector Self-Instructional
Material 59
Field Equations and The significant real-world example is the flow of heat. When heat flows
Conservation Laws
inside a solid, the continuity equation can be combined with Fourier’s law (heat
flux is proportional to temperature gradient) to arrive at the heat equation. The
equation of heat flow may also have source terms. Although energy cannot be
NOTES created or destroyed, heat can be created from other types of energy, for example
via friction or Joule heating.
Check Your Progress

6. State Poynting's theorem as per electrodynamics. Why it is named as
Poynting's theorem?
7. What is Poynting vector?
8. Give the properties of Poynting vector.
9. Explain the law of conservation of energy.
10. What do you mean by conservation of charge?
11. What is continuity equation?
12. What does the continuity equation states in fluid dynamics?

QUESTIONS
1. Maxwell’s equations state the fundamentals of electricity and magnetism.

The working relationships in the field of electricity and magnetism can be
derived using these equations. As a consequence of their brief statement,
they symbolize a high level of mathematical sophistication, and hence are
typically defined as unifying equations for studying of electrical and magnetic
phenomena.
2. Magnetic dipole naturally exists on permanent magnets as North and South
poles or in current carrying coils. Unlike electrostatics, in magnetostatics
monopole does not exist. When a magnet is broken into two pieces, North
and South poles exists within each of the broken pieces. The ‘Magnetic
Dipole Moment’ is equal to the product of the current flowing through the
loop and area of the loop with the moment acting normal to the loop.
Mathematically,

3. When a magnetic field is applied to the magnetic material, then the magnetic
moments align in a particular direction. Hence magnetisation is defined as
the net magnetic dipole moment in a given volume.
Self-Instructional
60 Material
4. Magnetic susceptibility is defined as the ratio of magnetization to magnetic Field Equations and
Conservation Laws
field intensity.
5. Maxwell’s first equation in free space in differential form is .
6. In electrodynamics, Poynting’s theorem is a statement of conservation of NOTES
energy for the electromagnetic field, in the form of a partial differential
equation, and is named after the British physicist John Henry Poynting.
Poynting’s theorem is analogous to the work-energy theorem in classical
mechanics, and mathematically similar to the continuity equation, because it
relates the energy stored in the electromagnetic field to the work done on a
charge distribution (i.e., an electrically charged object), through energy flux.
7. When electromagnetic waves travel from a source to destination, they
transport energy between those points. The power transferred is given by
the Poynting vector which is defined as the product of electric field
intensity and magnetic field intensity at a point determines the rate of flow
of energy per unit area and is represented as, .
8. Since Poynting vector is orthogonal to the electric and magnetic field, which
is similar to the TEM (Transverse Electro-Magnetic) wave, hence the
Poynting vector points in the same direction as that of the direction of
propagation of the wave.
9. In physics, the law of conservation of energy states that the total energy of
an isolated system remains constant, i.e., it is said to be conserved over
time. This law means that energy can neither be created nor destroyed;
rather, it can only be transformed or transferred from one form to another.
10. According to the conservation of charge ‘the net amount of charge within
an isolated system always remains constant’.
11. In physics, a continuity equation is an equation that describes the transport
of some quantity. It is particularly simple and powerful when applied to a
conserved quantity, but it can be generalized to apply to any extensive
quantity. In electromagnetic theory, the continuity equation is an empirical
law expressing (local) charge conservation. Mathematically it is an automatic
fundamental than Maxwell’s equations.
12. In fluid dynamics, the continuity equation states that the rate at which mass
enters a system is equal to the rate at which mass leaves the system plus the
accumulation of mass within the system. The differential form of the continuity
equation is:
Self-Instructional
Material 61
Field Equations and Where,
Conservation Laws
= Fluid Density
t = Time
NOTES u = Flow Velocity Vector Field
2.6 SUMMARY
Maxwell’s equations state the fundamentals of electricity and magnetism.

The working relationships in the field of electricity and magnetism can be
derived using these equations. As a consequence of their brief statement,
they symbolize a high level of mathematical sophistication, and hence are
typically defined as unifying equations for studying of electrical and magnetic
phenomena.
Principally, the Maxwell’s equations are a set of partial differential equations
that, together with the Lorentz Force Law, form the foundation of classical
electromagnetism, classical optics, and electric circuits.
Maxwell’s equations specifically describe how electric and magnetic fields
are generated by charges, currents, and changes of the fields.
One significant consequence of the Maxwell’s equations is that they
demonstrate how fluctuating electric and magnetic fields propagate at the
speed of light.
The Maxwell’s equations are named after the physicist and mathematician
James Clerk Maxwell, who between 1861 and 1862 published an early or
initial form of the equations that included the Lorentz Force law. Maxwell
also was the first to use the equations to recommend that light is an
electromagnetic phenomenon.
Maxwell’s four equations describe the electric and magnetic fields arising
from distributions of electric charges and currents, and how those fields
change in time. The second Maxwell equation is the analogous one for the
magnetic field, which has no sources or sinks, i.e., no magnetic monopoles,
the field lines just flow around in closed curves.
Magnetic dipole naturally exists on permanent magnets as North and South
poles or in current carrying coils. Unlike electrostatics, in magnetostatics
monopole does not exist. When a magnet is broken into two pieces, North
and South poles exists within each of the broken pieces.
The ‘Magnetic Dipole Moment’ is equal to the product of the current flowing
through the loop and area of the loop with the moment acting normal to the
loop. Mathematically,
Self-Instructional
62 Material
When a magnetic field is applied to the magnetic material, then the magnetic Field Equations and
Conservation Laws
moments align in a particular direction. Hence magnetisation is defined as
the net magnetic dipole moment in a given volume.
Magnetic susceptibility is defined as the ratio of magnetization to magnetic
NOTES
field intensity.
Maxwell’s equations in time varying fields are the final form of equations
that interlinks the electric and magnetic fields.
In electrodynamics, Poynting’s theorem is a statement of conservation of
equation, and is named after the British physicist John Henry Poynting.
Poynting’s theorem is analogous to the work-energy theorem in classical
mechanics, and mathematically similar to the continuity equation, because it
relates the energy stored in the electromagnetic field to the work done on a
charge distribution (i.e., an electrically charged object), through energy flux.
The Poynting’s theorem is an energy balance and is stated as, ‘The rate of
energy transfer, per unit volume, from a region of space equals the rate of
work done on a charge distribution plus the energy flux leaving that region’,
or as per the second statement, ‘The decrease in the electromagnetic energy
per unit time in a certain volume is equal to the sum of work done by the
field forces and the net outward flux per unit time’.
When electromagnetic waves travel from a source to destination, they
transport energy between those points. The power transferred is given by
the Poynting vector which is defined as the product of electric field intensity
and magnetic field intensity at a point determines the rate of flow of energy
per unit area and is represented as, .
Since Poynting vector is orthogonal to the electric and magnetic field, which
is similar to the TEM (Transverse Electro-Magnetic) wave, hence the
Poynting vector points in the same direction as that of the direction of
propagation of the wave.
In physics, the law of conservation of energy states that the total energy of
an isolated system remains constant, i.e., it is said to be conserved over
time. This law means that energy can neither be created nor destroyed;
rather, it can only be transformed or transferred from one form to another.
In physics, a continuity equation is an equation that describes the transport
of some quantity. It is particularly simple and powerful when applied to a
conserved quantity, but it can be generalized to apply to any extensive
quantity.
Since mass, energy, momentum, electric charge and other natural quantities
are conserved under their respective appropriate conditions, hence several
physical phenomena can be explained using continuity equations.
Self-Instructional
Material 63
Field Equations and Continuity equations are basically a stronger, local form of conservation
Conservation Laws
laws. For example, a weak version of the law of conservation of energy
states that energy can neither be created nor destroyed, i.e., the total amount
of energy in the universe is fixed.
NOTES
In electromagnetic theory, the continuity equation is an empirical law
expressing (local) charge conservation. Mathematically it is an automatic
fundamental than Maxwell’s equations. It states that the divergence of the
current density J (in amperes per square metre) is equal to the negative rate
of change of the charge density (in coulombs per cubic metre),
In fluid dynamics, the continuity equation states that the rate at which mass
enters a system is equal to the rate at which mass leaves the system plus the
accumulation of mass within the system. The differential form of the continuity
equation is:
Where,
= Fluid Density
t = Time
u = Flow Velocity Vector Field
Conservation of energy says that energy cannot be created or destroyed.
Therefore, there is a continuity equation for energy flow of the form,
Where,
u = Local Energy Density, Energy ‘Per Unit Volume’
q = Energy Flux, Transfer of Energy ‘Per Unit Cross-Sectional Area
Per Unit Time’ as a Vector
The significant real-world example is the flow of heat. When heat flows
inside a solid, the continuity equation can be combined with Fourier’s law
(heat flux is proportional to temperature gradient) to arrive at the heat
equation.
Self-Instructional
64 Material
Field Equations and
2.7 KEY WORDS Conservation Laws
Maxwell’s equations: Maxwell’s equations describe how electric and

magnetic fields are generated by charges, currents, and changes of the fields. NOTES
Poynting’s theorem: Poynting’s theorem is a statement of conservation of
equations.
Conservation law: a conservation law states that a particular measurable
property of an isolated physical system does not change as the system evolves
over time.
Continuity equation: A continuity equation in physics is an equation that
describes the transport of some quantity. It is particularly simple and powerful
when applied to a conserved quantity, but it can be generalized to apply to
any extensive quantity.
2.8 SELF ASSESSMENT QUESTIONS AND

EXERCISES
Short Answer Questions

1. Why are Maxwell’s equations used?
2. Give the Maxwell’s equations in both integral form and differential form.
3. What is magnetic dipole?
4. Define magnetization.
5. Write a short note on magnetic susceptibility.
6. State Maxwell’s equations for time varying fields.
7. Explain about the Poynting Theorem and Poynting Vector.
8. What do you understand by conservation of energy?
9. What is continuity equation?
1. Derive and explain the various types of Maxwell’s equations with the help
of appropriate examples.
2. Briefly discuss the magnetic dipole moment and magnetic susceptibility.
3. Prove Poynting theorem. Also discuss its significance in physics.
4. Differentiate between electrostatics and magnetostatics giving appropriate
examples.
Self-Instructional
Material 65
Field Equations and 5. Explain the significance of conservation of energy and momentum.
Conservation Laws
6. Discuss continuity equation for conservation of energy.
7. Discuss continuity equation for conservation of momentum.
NOTES

Sons.
Inc.
House Pvt. Ltd.
Self-Instructional
66 Material
UNIT 3 ELECTROMAGNETIC and Wave Propagation
WAVES AND WAVE

NOTES
PROPAGATION
Structure
3.0 Introduction
3.1 Objectives
3.2 Motion in Electromagnetic Waves
3.3 Propagation of Plane Electromagnetic Waves
3.3.2 Intrinsic Impedance
3.5 Summary
3.6 Key Words
3.0 INTRODUCTION
In physics, a plane wave is a special case of wave or field - a physical quantity

whose value, at any moment, is constant over any plane that is perpendicular to a
fixed direction in space. Principally, the electromagnetic wave equation is a second
order partial differential equation that describes the propagation of electromagnetic
waves through a medium or in a vacuum. It is a three dimensional form of the wave
equation.
Electromagnetic waves are the specific waves which can travel through the
vacuum of outer space. Mechanical waves, unlike electromagnetic waves, require
the presence of a material medium in order to transport their energy from one
location to another. Sound waves are examples of mechanical waves while light
waves are examples of electromagnetic waves. Possibly the most significant
prediction of Maxwell’s equations is the existence of electromagnetic fields, i.e.,
combined electric and magnetic fields that propagate through space as
electromagnetic waves. Because Maxwell’s equations hold in free space, therefore
the predicted electromagnetic waves, unlike mechanical waves, do not require a
medium for their propagation.
Self-Instructional
Material 67
Electromagnetic Waves Wave propagation is any of the ways in which waves travel. With respect to
and Wave Propagation
the direction of the oscillation relative to the propagation direction, we can distinguish
between longitudinal wave and transverse waves. For electromagnetic waves,
propagation may occur in a vacuum as well as in a material medium.
NOTES
In this unit, you will study about the motion in electromagnetic waves,
propagation of plane electromagnetic waves in free space, isotropic and non-
conducting medium, conducting medium and skin depth. You will learn to drive
various related equations for propagation of electromagnetic waves.
3.1 OBJECTIVES
Discuss about the motion in electromagnetic waves
State and prove propagation of plane electromagnetic waves
Derive the equations for isotropic and anisotropic non-conducting medium
Derive the equations for conducting medium in free space
Explain the depth of penetration or the skin depth
3.2 MOTION IN ELECTROMAGNETIC WAVES
All of us have experienced waves, when we dropped a stone in the stationary

water of a calm pond. The disturbance produced by the stone moved outward
from the point where the stone hit the water. If we float a leaf on the disturbance,
we will see that the leaf moves up and down, that is, back and forth about its
primary position but does not move or cover any net displacement away from or
towards the primary disturbance (position). This means that the disturbance in the
water propagates from one place to another, though the water is not propagating.
This is our primary sense of wave motion.
Generally, there are two kinds of wave—Mechanical Waves and
Electromagnetic Waves. The waves on strings, sound waves, seismic waves are
the examples of mechanical waves; whereas radio waves, light waves, X-rays
are the examples of electromagnetic waves.
The propagation of the wave (disturbance) is also accom-panied by the transfer
of energy. Therefore, we can say that the propagation of waves means transfer of
energy.
For the propagation of any mechanical wave, we require the following:
(a) A source of disturbance
(b) A medium that does carry the wave
(c) Some physical mechanisms through which particles of the said medium
Self-Instructional can perturb or influence one another
68 Material
Figure (3.1) shows how a mechanical progressive wave has propagated through Electromagnetic Waves
a string (one end fixed string).
NOTES
Fig. 3.1 A Travelling Wave Through a Stretched String
Remember that the pulse travelling through a string is transverse in nature; as

each point on the pulse moves perpendicular to the direction of wave propagation.
The other class is longitudinal waves, where each point of the medium
experiences displacement parallel to the direction of the propagation of the wave.
For example, the sound waves in air are longitudinal in nature.
A continuous wave pulse may be created by shaking the end of the string, and
the result gives us a simple harmonic motion. The nature of the travelling pulse on
the said string is sinusoidal, as the shape of the pulse is of a sine wave (Refer Figure
3.2).
Y
P1 P3
A
X
P2 P4
T
P1 P3
A
X
P2 T
P4
Fig. 3.2 Wavelength ( ) and Time-Period (T) of a Progressive Wave (Sinusoidal)

Self-Instructional
Material 69
Electromagnetic Waves The points (P1, P3) with maximum positive displacement of the pulse are called
crests, while the points (P2, P4) with maximum negative displacement of the pulse
are called troughs.
The length of a wave (wavelength) is defined as, ‘The minimum distance between
NOTES
any two identical points on the wave or the distance between two consecutive crests
or troughs’. The wavelength is denoted by (Lambda, the Greek Letter).
The time-period (T) of a sinusoidal wave is defined as, ‘the time taken by a
point of the medium to execute one complete oscillation’; is equal to the inverse of
1
the frequency; T = , where is the linear frequency of the sinusoidal wave.
The Amplitude (A) of a sinusoidal wave is defined as, ‘The maximum

displacement of a point of the medium from its equilibrium position’.
Let us visualise a progressive or travelling wave that is propagating along
x-direction (Reer Figure 3.3) without interacting with any other waves or particles.
+Y
v
–X +X
vt
–Y
Fig. 3.3 Propagation of a Progressive Wave;

Solid Line for t = 0 and Dashed Line for t = t
At t = 0, the equation of displacement of such a wave can be described by

2
y(x) = A sin x ...(3.1)
where A is the amplitude and is the wavelength. If the wave moves in the
positive x-direction with speed v, the displacement at time t can be described by
2
y(x, t) = A sin (x vt ) ...(3.2)
The speed (v) of the progressive wave is related to the wavelength and time-
period or linear frequency by,
v = ...(3.3)
T
Self-Instructional
70 Material
If the progressive wave propagates along the negative x-direction, then the Electromagnetic Waves
displacement equation can be described by,
2
y(x, t) = A sin (x vt ) ...(3.4)
NOTES
Rearranging Equation (3.2), we can write,
y(x, t) = A sin (Kx – t) ...(3.5)
2
Where K = is called the wave propagation vector, or the wave number
2
and = =2 ; is called the angular frequency of the progressive wave. The
T
above equation is the displacement equation of a progressive or travelling wave.
If the displacement y of a progressive wave is not zero at x = 0 and
t = 0, the general expression for the displacement can be written in the form
y (x, t) = A sin (kx – t + ) ...(3.6)
where is the phase constant; it can be obtained from the initial conditions.
To find out the differential form of a progressive wave, we can proceed as follows:
Differentiating Equation (3.5) with respect to time t, keeping x as constant, we
get,
dy y
= vl = = – A cos (kx – t) ...(3.7)
dt x constant t
Again by differentiation
dv y vy 2
y
= ay = 2
dt x constant t t
2 2
=– A sin (Kx – t) = – y ...(3.8)
From Equations (3.7) and (3.8), the maximum values of velocity and acceleration
are given by,
(vy)max = A
2 …(3.9)
And (ay)max = A
Differentiating Equation (3.5) with respect to position x, keeping t as constant,
we get
dy y
dx = = –kA cos (kx – t) ...(3.10)
t constant x
Self-Instructional
Material 71
Electromagnetic Waves Again by differentiation,
d2y 2
y
= = –k2A sin (kx – t) = –k2y ...(3.11)
dx 2 t constant x2
NOTES
Comparing Equations (3.8) and (3.11), we get
2
y k2 2
y
2 = 2 2
x t
2 2
y 1 y
or, 2 = ...(3.12)
x v2 t 2
Where v = = is the velocity of the propagating wave.

k
Equation (3.12) is the differential form of a progressive wave and is often called
linear wave equation.
Obviously, the solution of the differential equation of progressive wave will be
2
y(x, t) = A sin (x vt )
or, y(x, t) = A sin (kx – t)

From our previous discussions, we can differentiate the elastic (mechanical) waves
and electromagnetic waves by their distinct characteristics.
When an elastic or a mechanical wave propagates, it requires, (a) A source
of disturbance, (b) A medium that carries the wave and (c) Some physical
mechanism through which the particles of the said medium can perturb or influence
other particles. The wave carries energy, and the energy is transmitted through the
medium.
When a current flows through a transmission line due to voltage difference,
it shows a wave-like behaviour. The existence of voltage across the transmission
line produces an electric field in space between the cables. This helps us to
understand the propagation of electromagnetic waves in space. Thus, as the current
and voltage propagate through a transmission line in the form of waves, the electric
and magnetic fields must exhibit the same nature.
Therefore, the electromagnetic waves can propagate through space
(vacuum), whereas the mechanical waves can propagate through some medium.
Most of the properties and behaviours of mechanical waves and electromagnetic
waves are similar to each other.
Self-Instructional
72 Material
We can differentiate categorically elastic waves and electromagnetic waves Electromagnetic Waves
as shown in Table 3.1.
Table 3.1 Difference between Elastic and Electromagnetic Waves
Elastic (Mechanical) Waves Electromagnetic Waves NOTES

1. A medium is necessary for the 1. Medium is not necessary for the
propagation of an elastic wave. propagation of an electromagnetic wave.
2. An elastic wave is longitudinal 2. An electromagnetic wave is
in nature. transverse in nature.
3. As an elastic wave is longi- 3. As an electromagnetic wave is
tudinal in nature, it cannot be transverse in nature, it can be polarised
polarised
4. The speed of propagation of an 4. The speed of propagation of an
elastic wave is much smaller electromagnetic wave is much
than an electromagnetic wave. higher than an elastic wave. For
For example, the speed of a example, the speed of a light
sound wave is about 333 m/s. wave is about 2.998 × 108 m/s.
dy dy
Note: The relation between the particle velocity and wave velocity is given by =–v where
dt dx
dy
is the particle velocity and v is the wave velocity..
dt

Let us consider two progressive waves that are travelling in opposite directions in
the same medium and superimpose each other. The resultant of the superimposition
of two progressive waves in the same medium travelling in opposite directions is
called standing wave.
Consider the example, when we shake one end of a wire, keeping the other
end fixed to a rigid wall.
Let, the equations of displacement of two progressive waves, without any
phase difference travelling in opposite directions in the same medium be,
y1(x, t) = A sin (kx – t)
And y2(x, t) = A sin (kx + t)
The resultant wave will be (due to superimposition) in the form,
y = y1 + y2 = A sin (kx – t) + A sin (kx + t)
= (2 A sin kx) cos t ...(3.13)
The above Equation (3.13) represents the displacement wave equation of a
standing wave. Figure (3.4) shows the schematic diagram of a standing wave.
Self-Instructional
Material 73
Electromagnetic Waves The (2A sin kx) part in the Equation (3.13) is the amplitude of the standing wave.
2A sin kx antinode antinode
node
2A 2A
NOTES node
Fig. 3.4 A Standing Wave with Antinodes and Nodes
Maximum amplitude of the standing wave will be 2A, as the maximum value of
sin kx = 1, and here the amplitudes that hold the maximum values are termed as
antinodes.
When sin kx = 1, then
3 5
kx = ,
, , ..., etc.
2 2 2
2
As k = , we can write
3 5 n
x = ,
, , ... =
4 4 4 4
Where n = 1, 3, 5 .... (Odd integers)
3
The distance between two consecutive antinodes is –
2 4 4
Minimum amplitude of the standing wave will be zero (as the minimum value of
sin kx = 0) and the points on the waves where the amplitudes hold minimum values,
are termed as nodes.
When sin kx = 0, then
k x = , 2 , 3 , ..., etc.
2
As k = , we can write
2
3 n
x = , , ... =
2 2 2
Where n = 1, 2, 3, ... (Integers)
The distance between two consecutive nodes is also = –

2 2
Self-Instructional
74 Material
Table 3.2 illustrates the difference between the progressive and standing Electromagnetic Waves
waves.
Table 3.2 Difference between Progressive Waves and Standing Waves
Progressive Wave Standing Wave NOTES

1. A progressive wave is produced 1. A standing wave is produced
due to continuous harmonic due to superposition of two
motion of the particles of a identical progressive waves
medium. travelling in opposite directions
in a medium.
2. For a progressive wave, transfer 2. For a standing wave, no transfer
of energy happens along the of energy happens.
line of propagation of the wave.
3. For a progressive wave, there is 3. For a standing wave, the no particle
permanently at rest. particles of nodes are permanently at rest.
4. For a progressive wave, each 4. For a standing wave, the change
particle executes harmonically of amplitude, speed, pressure
the same cycle of change of etc. are not the same at different
amplitude, speed, pressure, etc. points, but their values are same
at each fixed point.
Example 1: The equation of displacement of a plane progressive wave is given
by,
y(x, t) = 0.02 sin (0.03 x – 4 t)
Where y and x are in metres and t in seconds. Calculate:
(i) The amplitude, wavelength, velocity and frequency of the wave.
(ii) The phase difference between two positions of the same particles at a time
interval of 0.50 s.
(iii) The phase difference at a given instant between two particles 33.33 m apart.
Solution.
(i) The plane progressive wave equation can be written as,
y (x, t) = A sin (kx – t)
Comparing it with the given equation, we get,
A = 0.02 m, k = 0.03 and =4
2
We know that k = ,
2 2
Hence = = 66.66 m
k 0.03
2
=2 = ;
Self-Instructional
Material 75
Electromagnetic Waves Hence
4 2
v = =
2 2 k
NOTES 4
= = 133.33 m/s
0.03
v 133.33
And frequency, v = = = 2 Hz.
66.66
(ii) Phase difference in a time interval t is given by,
2
. t =2 t = 2 × 2 × 0.50 = 2 = 360º
T
This result implies that the particles are in same phase after 0.50 seconds
So, its time-period is,
1 1
T = = 0.50 sec.
2
(iii) Phase difference for the path difference of x is given by,
2 2
. x = 33.33 = – = –180º
66.66
The result implies that the particle located 33.33 m ahead of another particle
will have a phase difference of 180º.
Example 2: A sinusoidal wave is propagating along positive x-direction with an
amplitude 10.0 cm, wavelength 50.0 cm and frequency of 10.0 Hz. The vertical
displacement of the wave is 10.0 cm at t = 0 and x = 0. Find: (i) The wave number,
time-period, angular frequency and speed of the wave, (ii) The phase constant
and (iii) The general expression for the wave function.
Solution.
(i) We know that
2 2 rad
k = = 0.04 rad/cm
50.0 cm
1 1
T = = 0.1 s
10.0 s –1
=2 = 2 × 10.0 s–1 = 20 rad/s
v = = 10.0 s–1 × 50.0 cm = 500 cm/s
(ii) According to Equation (3.6) we have 10.0 cm = 10.0 cm sin as the vertical
displacement is 10.0 cm and amplitude is 10.0 cm at t = 0, x = 0.
Thus, sin = 1,
Self-Instructional
76 Material
or, = rad
2
(iii) The general expression for the wave function can be written as,
NOTES
y (x, t) = A sin kx t
2
= A cos (kx – t)
= 10.0 cos (0.04x – 20 t)
Example 3: The wave function of a travelling wave is given by,
2.0
y (x, t) =
(x 3.0t )2 1
Find the differential form of the wave and its speed (in C.G.S. units).
Solution. By taking partial differentiation of the wave function twice with respect
to x and t, we have
2
y 12( x 3.0t )2 4.0
=
x2 [( x 3.0t )2 1]3
2
y 108( x 3.0t ) 2 36
And 2 =
t [( x 3.0t )2 1]3
Comparing these two equations, we get

2
y 1 y2
2 =
x 9.0 t 2
This is the differential form of the travelling wave. On solving the above equation
we have,
v 2 = 9.0
or, v = 3.0 cm/s
Example 4: A transverse, plane harmonic wave of amplitude 0.02 m is produced
at one end (x = 0) of a long straight string. The frequency of the wave is 800 Hz.
At a given instant, the displacement of the particle at x = 0.1 m is –0.01 m, and at
x = 0.2 m is +0.01 m. Determine the wavelength and wave speed. Also obtain the
equation of the wave along positive x-direction assuming that the end x = 0 is at
the equilibrium position at t = 0.
Solution. We know that the general equation of a travelling wave along positive
x-direction is given by,
2
y(x, t) = A sin (x vt ) = A sin (kx – t)
Self-Instructional
Material 77
Electromagnetic Waves When x = 0.1 m, y = – 0.01 m
2
–0.01 = 0.02 sin (0.1 vt )
NOTES
2 1
sin (0.1 vt ) =
2
2 1 7
(0.1 – vt) = sin–1 =
2 6
7
Phase 1 =
6
For x = 0.2 m, y = +0.01 m
2
+ 0.01 = 0.02 sin (0.2 vt )
2 1
(0.2 – vt) = sin–1 =
2 6
Phase 2 =
6
Thus, the phase difference is,
7
= 1 – 2 = – =
6 6
But, we can say that phase difference is,
2 2
(0.1 vt ) (0.2 vt )
2 2
=+ (0.1 – 0.2) = – × 0.1
2
= × 0.1
= 0.2 m (Taking +ve value)

Speed of the wave, v = = 800 × 0.2 = 160 m/s.
Hence, the wave equation is given by (in S.I. units)
2
y(x, t) = 0.02 sin 0.2 ( x 160t
= 0.02 sin [10 (x – 160t)]
Self-Instructional
78 Material
Check Your Progress
1. How many types of waves are there?
2. For the propagation of any mechanical wave what all is required? NOTES
3. How a continuous wave pulse created? What is the nature of the travelling
pulse?
4. Define the length of a wave (wavelength).
5. What is standing wave?
3.3 PROPAGATION OF PLANE

ELECTROMAGNETIC WAVES
In physics, a plane wave is a special case of wave or field - a physical quantity

whose value, at any moment, is constant over any plane that is perpendicular to a
fixed direction in space. Principally, the electromagnetic wave equation is a second
order partial differential equation that describes the propagation of electromagnetic
waves through a medium or in a vacuum. It is a three dimensional form of the wave
equation.
Electromagnetic waves are created by the vibration of an electric charge.
This vibration creates a wave which has both an electric and a magnetic component.
An electromagnetic wave transports its energy through a vacuum at a speed of
3.00 x 108 m/s. The propagation of an electromagnetic wave through a material
medium occurs at a net speed which is less than 3.00 x 108 m/s. An electromagnetic
wave consists of an electric field, typically defined in terms of the force per charge
on a stationary charge, and a magnetic field, defined in terms of the force per
charge on a moving charge.
As already discussed in the previous section, the mechanical waves travel
through a medium, such as a string, water or air. Possibly the most significant
prediction of Maxwell’s equations is the existence of electromagnetic fields, i.e.,
combined electric and magnetic fields that propagate through space as
electromagnetic waves. Because Maxwell’s equations hold in free space, therefore
the predicted electromagnetic waves, unlike mechanical waves, do not require a
medium for their propagation.
Electromagnetic Waves in One Direction
An electromagnetic wave consists of an electric field, typically defined in terms of
the force per charge on a stationary charge, and a magnetic field, defined in terms
of the force per charge on a moving charge.
Self-Instructional
Material 79
Electromagnetic Waves The one-dimensional scalar equation is given below,
NOTES For a wave traveling in free space, and . Therefore,

generalizing Equation for all three coordinates is given as,
𝜕 2 𝐸⃗ 𝜕 2 𝐸⃗
= 𝜇 𝜖
0 0 (3.14)
𝜕𝑥 2 𝜕𝑡 2
The general solution of the above second order equation is given by,
𝐸⃗ = 𝑓1 (𝑧 − 𝑢𝑡) + 𝑓2 (𝑧 + 𝑢𝑡)
For wave traveling in z direction,
𝐸⃗ = 𝑓1 (𝑧 − 𝑢𝑡) + 𝑓2 (𝑧 + 𝑢𝑡) (3.15)

Some examples of the above function include
In the above general solution given in Equation (3.15),
represents the wave traveling in positive direction and function
represents wave traveling in the negative z – direction.
Conduction based on the conductivity property of the material can be classified as
lossy dielectric with 0, lossless dielectric with = 0 and good conductors
with . Considering a lossy, charge free medium, Maxwell’s equation
becomes,
∇⃗. 𝐸⃗ = 0 (3.16a)
∇⃗. 𝐻⃗ = 0 (3.16b)
∇⃗ × 𝐸⃗ = −𝑗𝜔𝜇𝐻⃗ (3.16c)
∇⃗ × 𝐻⃗ = (𝜎 + 𝑗𝜔𝜖)𝐸⃗ (3.16d)
Taking a curl of Equation (3.16c),
∇⃗ × ∇⃗ × 𝐸⃗ = −𝑗𝜔𝜇 ∇⃗ × 𝐻⃗
∇⃗ × ∇⃗ × 𝐸⃗ = −𝑗𝜔𝜇(𝜎 + 𝑗𝜔𝜖)𝐸⃗ (3.17)

Applying vector identity to LHS of Equation (3.17),
∇⃗ × ∇⃗ × 𝐴⃗ = ∇⃗ ∇⃗. 𝐴⃗ − ∇2 𝐴⃗
Self-Instructional
80 Material
Equation (3.17) implies, Electromagnetic Waves
∇⃗ ∇⃗. 𝐸⃗ − ∇2 𝐸⃗ = −𝑗𝜔𝜇(𝜎 + 𝑗𝜔𝜖)𝐸⃗ (3.18)

From Equation (3.16a), . Therefore Equation (3.18) becomes, NOTES
−∇2 𝐸⃗ = −𝑗𝜔𝜇(𝜎 + 𝑗𝜔𝜖)𝐸⃗

∇2 𝐸⃗ + 𝑗𝜔𝜇(𝜎 + 𝑗𝜔𝜖)𝐸⃗ = 0
∇2 𝐸⃗ + ν2 𝐸⃗ = 0 (3.19)
Where,
ν2 = 𝑗𝜔𝜇(𝜎 + 𝑗𝜔𝜖) = −𝜔2 𝜇𝜖 + 𝑗𝜔𝜇𝜎 (3.20)
Similar to Equation (3.19), for magnetic field,
∇2 𝐻⃗ + ν2 𝐻⃗ = 0 (3.21)
ν2 = −𝜔2 𝜇𝜖 + 𝑗𝜔𝜇𝜎 = 𝛼 + 𝑗𝛽
𝑅𝑒(ν2 ) = 𝛼 = −𝜔2 𝜇𝜖 (3.22a)
Where,
𝐼𝑚(ν2 ) = 𝛽 = 𝜔𝜇𝜎 (3.22b)
In Equation (3.22) is called as attenuation constant and is called the
propagation constant.
|ν2 | = 𝛼 2 + 𝛽 2 = (−𝜔 2 𝜇𝜖)2 + (𝜔𝜇𝜎)2
𝛼 2 + 𝛽 2 = 𝜔𝜇 (𝜔𝜖)2 + (𝜎)2 (3.23)

ν2 = (𝛼 + 𝑗𝛽)2 = 𝛼 2 − 𝛽 2 + 2𝑗𝛼𝛽
From Equation (3.22a)
𝑅𝑒(ν2 ) = 𝛼 2 − 𝛽 2 = −𝜔2 𝜇𝜖 (3.24)
Adding Equation (3.23) and Equation (3.24)
𝛼 2 − 𝛽 2 = −𝜔2 𝜇𝜖
𝛼 2 + 𝛽 2 = 𝜔𝜇 (𝜔𝜖)2 + (𝜎)2
−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−
2𝛼 2 = −𝜔2 𝜇𝜖 + 𝜔𝜇 (𝜔𝜖)2 + (𝜎)2
2
𝜔 2 𝜇𝜖 𝜔𝜇
𝛼 = − + (𝜔𝜖)2 + (𝜎)2
2 2 Self-Instructional
Material 81
𝜔2 𝜇𝜖 𝜔𝜇 𝜎 2
=− + (𝜔𝜖) 1 +
𝜔 𝜇𝜖 𝜔𝜇
𝛼2 = − + (𝜔𝜖)2 + (𝜎)2
2 2
and Wave Propagation 𝜔 2 𝜇𝜖 𝜔𝜇 𝜎 2
=− + (𝜔𝜖)2 1 +
2 2 𝜔𝜖
NOTES 𝜔 2 𝜇𝜖 𝜔2 𝜇𝜖 𝜎 2
=− + 1+
2 2 𝜔𝜖
𝜇𝜖 𝜎 2 𝜇𝜖
𝛼 2 = 𝜔2 1+ −
2 𝜔𝜖 2
𝛼= 𝜔2 1+ −
2 𝜔𝜖 2
𝜇𝜖 𝜎 2
𝛼=𝜔 1+ −1 (3.25)
2 𝜔𝜖
Subtracting Equations (3.23) and (3.24):

𝛼 2 + 𝛽 2 = 𝜔𝜇 (𝜔𝜖)2 + (𝜎)2
−𝛼 2 + 𝛽 2 = 𝜔2 𝜇𝜖
2𝛽 2 = 𝜔2 𝜇𝜖 + 𝜔𝜇 (𝜔𝜖)2 + (𝜎)2
𝜔2 𝜇𝜖 𝜔𝜇
𝛽2 = + (𝜔𝜖)2 + (𝜎)2
2 2
𝜔2 𝜇𝜖 𝜔𝜇 𝜎 2
= + (𝜔𝜖)2 1 +
2 2 𝜔𝜖
𝜔2 𝜇𝜖 𝜔2 𝜇𝜖 𝜎 2
= + 1+
2 2 𝜔𝜖
𝛽 2 = 𝜔2 1+ +
2 𝜔𝜖 2
𝛽= 𝜔2 1+ +
2 𝜔𝜖 2
𝜇𝜖 𝜎 2
𝛽=𝜔 1+ +1 (3.26)
2 𝜔𝜖
Self-Instructional
82 Material
3.3.2 Intrinsic Impedance Electromagnetic Waves
Intrinsic impedance is also called as the wave impedance in free space. It is denoted
as . Intrinsic impedance relates the electric and magnetic field. Intrinsic
impedance is the ratio of electric to magnetic field given as, NOTES
Proof
Let the electric field, is given as,
If the electric field component has only direction component, then
𝐸⃗ = 𝐸𝑥 𝑎𝑥⃗ = 𝐸𝑥⃗ (3.27)

Therefore, if the wave is assumed to propagate in the positive direction,
with only component,
∇2 𝐸𝑥⃗ − 𝛾 2 𝐸𝑥⃗ = 0
Expanding the above equation with the coordinate components,
𝜕2 𝜕2 𝜕2
2
+ 2 + 2 [𝐸𝑥 𝑎𝑥⃗] − 𝛾 2 [𝐸𝑥 𝑎𝑥⃗] = 0
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑧
𝜕 2 𝐸𝑥 𝜕 2 𝐸𝑥 𝜕 2 𝐸𝑥
𝑎𝑥⃗ + + − 𝛾 2 𝐸𝑥 =0
𝜕𝑥 2 𝜕𝑦 2 𝜕𝑧 2
Since the wave with component alone is travelling in the direction,
. Hence,
𝜕 2 𝐸𝑥
− 𝛾 2 𝐸𝑥 = 0 (3.28)
𝜕𝑧 2
The solution of the Equation (3.28) is similar to the solution of Equation
(3.15). Therefore,
𝐸𝑥 = 𝐸𝑥 1 𝑒 −𝛾𝑧 + 𝐸𝑥 2 𝑒 𝛾𝑧 (3.29)
Since we assume the wave to travel in the direction, Equation (3.29)
becomes,
𝐸𝑥 = 𝐸𝑥 1 𝑒 −𝛾𝑧
Self-Instructional
Material 83
Electromagnetic Waves From Equation (3.27),
𝐸⃗ = 𝐸𝑥 1 𝑒 −𝛾𝑧 𝑎𝑥⃗
NOTES = 𝑅𝑒 𝐸𝑥 1 𝑒 −𝛾𝑧 . 𝑒 𝑗𝜔𝑡 . 𝑎𝑥⃗

= 𝑅𝑒 𝐸𝑥 1 𝑒 −(𝛼+𝑗𝛽 )𝑧 . 𝑒 𝑗𝜔𝑡 . 𝑎𝑥⃗
= 𝑅𝑒 𝐸𝑥 1 𝑒 −𝛼𝑧 𝑒 𝑗 (𝜔𝑡 −𝛽𝑧 ) . 𝑎𝑥⃗
𝐸⃗ = 𝐸𝑥 1 𝑒 −𝛼𝑧 cos(𝜔𝑡 − 𝛽𝑧) 𝑎𝑥⃗

Similarly,
𝐻⃗ = 𝐻𝑥 1 𝑒 −𝛼𝑧 cos(𝜔𝑡 − 𝛽𝑧) 𝑎𝑦⃗
𝐸𝑥 1
𝐻𝑥 1 = (3.30)
𝜂
Where,
∇⃗ × 𝐸⃗ = −𝑗𝜔𝜇𝐻⃗
𝐸𝑥 1 𝑒 −𝛾𝑧 . 𝑒 𝑗𝜔𝑡 (−𝛾) = −𝑗𝜔𝜇 𝐻𝑥 1 𝑒 −𝛾𝑧 . 𝑒 𝑗𝜔𝑡

⇒ 𝐸𝑥 1 (−𝛾) = −𝑗𝜔𝜇𝐻𝑥 1
γ
⇒ 𝐻𝑥 1 = 𝐸
𝑗𝜔𝜇 𝑥 1 (3.31)
Comparing Equation (3.30) and Equation (3.31),
𝑗𝜔𝜇
𝜂=
𝛾
𝑗𝜔𝜇 𝑗𝜔𝜇
= =
𝛼 + 𝑗𝛽 𝑗𝜔𝜇(𝜎 + 𝑗𝜔𝜖)
𝑗𝜔𝜇
𝜂= (3.32)
𝜎 + 𝑗𝜔𝜖
𝑗𝜔𝜇(𝜎 − 𝑗𝜔𝜖)
𝜂=
𝜎2 + 𝜔2𝜖 2
𝑗𝜔𝜇𝜎 𝜔2 𝜇𝜖
𝜂2 = +
𝜎2 + 𝜔2𝜖 2 𝜎2 + 𝜔2𝜖 2
Self-Instructional
84 Material
2
𝜔2 𝜇𝜖 𝜔𝜇𝜎 and Wave Propagation
𝜂 = 2 2 2
+𝑗 2
𝜎 +𝜔 𝜖 𝜎 + 𝜔2 𝜖 2
(𝜔 2 𝜇𝜖)2 + (𝜔𝜇𝜎)2 (𝜔𝜇)2 (𝜎 2 + (𝜔𝜖)2 )
|𝜂2 | = = NOTES
[𝜎 + (𝜔𝜖)2 ]2 [𝜎 + (𝜔𝜖)2 ]2
𝜔𝜇
|𝜂2 | =
𝜎 2 + (𝜔𝜖)2
𝜔𝜇 𝜔𝜇
|𝜂| = =
𝜎 2 + (𝜔𝜖)2 𝜎2
(𝜔𝜖)2 +1
(𝜔𝜖)2
𝜔𝜇 𝜔𝜇
= = 1
𝜎2 𝜎2 2
𝜔𝜖 +1 𝜔𝜖 +1
(𝜔𝜖)2 (𝜔𝜖)2
√𝜔𝜇
= 1
𝜎 2 4
√𝜔𝜖 1 + 𝜔𝜖
𝜇
𝜖
|𝜂| = 1
𝜎 2 4
1 + 𝜔𝜖
Let,
𝛼
𝜃𝜂 = tan−1 (3.33)
𝛽
⎧ 𝜇𝜖 𝜎 2 ⎫
⎪𝜔 2 1 + 𝜔𝜖 −1 ⎪
𝜃𝜂 = tan−1
⎨ 2 ⎬
𝜇𝜖 𝜎
⎪𝜔 1 + 𝜔𝜖 +1 ⎪
2
⎩ ⎭
𝜎 2
1 + 𝜔𝜖 −1
tan 𝜃𝜂 =
𝜎 2
1 + 𝜔𝜖 +1
Self-Instructional
Material 85
and Wave Propagation 𝜎 2
1 + 𝜔𝜖 −1
tan2 𝜃𝜂 = (3.34)
𝜎 2
1 + 𝜔𝜖 +1
NOTES
We know that,
𝜎 𝜎
tan 2𝜃𝜂 = ∵ ≫1
𝜔𝜖 𝜔𝜖 (3.35)
Therefore,
𝐸𝑥 1
𝐻⃗ = 𝐻𝑥 1 𝑒 −𝛼𝑧 cos(𝜔𝑡 − 𝛽𝑧) 𝑎𝑦⃗ = 𝑒 −𝛼𝑧 cos(𝜔𝑡 − 𝛽𝑧) 𝑎𝑦⃗
|𝜂|∠𝜃𝜂
𝐸𝑥 1 −𝛼𝑧
𝐻⃗ = 𝑒 cos 𝜔𝑡 − 𝛽𝑧 − 𝜃𝜂 𝑎𝑦⃗
|𝜂|

Wave propagation parameters gets altered when they travel across different
medium like free space, dielectric and conductors. In the below section, wave
parameters for different medium will be discussed.
(a) Plane Waves Traveling in Lossless Dielectric
In lossless dielectric, the material has the following properties.
𝜎≃0
𝜖 = 𝜖0 𝜖𝑟
𝜇 = 𝜇0 𝜇𝑟
Recalling and from Equation (3.25) and Equation (3.26),
𝜇𝜖 𝜎 2
𝛼=𝜔 1+ −1 =0
2 𝜔𝜖
𝜎=0
Substituting the material properties, we get =0. Similarly,
𝜇𝜖 𝜎 2
=𝜔 1+ + 1 = 𝜔 𝜇𝜖 (3.36)
2 𝜔𝜖
Self-Instructional
86 Material
√𝜇𝜖 𝜇
|𝜂| = 1 =
2 4 𝜖
𝜎
1 + 𝜔𝜖 NOTES
𝜎=0
𝜎
Also, tan 2𝜃𝜂 = =0
𝜔𝜖
2𝜃𝜂 = 0
𝜃𝜂 = 0°
𝜇
∴𝜂= ∠0°
𝜖
For lossless dielectric, electromagnetic waves does not undergo phase change
as .
(b) Plane Waves in Free Space
When plane waves travel in free space with the properties, and
Substituting in the and expressions,
𝛽 = 𝜔 𝜇𝜖 = 𝜔 𝜇0 𝜖0 = 𝜔/𝑐 (3.37)
Where, c = Velocity of light.
𝜇 𝜇0
𝜂= = = 120𝜋 = 377Ω
𝜖 𝜖0
𝜂 = 𝜂0 = 377Ω
(c) Plane Waves in Good Conductors

Good conductors have the following material properties with regard to conductivity,
𝜎≅∞
𝜖 = 𝜖0 𝜖𝑟
𝜇 = 𝜇0 𝜇𝑟
Self-Instructional
Material 87
From the expressions for and .
𝜇𝜖 𝜎 𝜔𝜇𝜎
𝛼=𝜔 =
2 𝜔𝜖 2
NOTES
𝜇𝜖 𝜎 𝜔𝜇𝜎
𝛽=𝜔 = (3.38)
2 𝜔𝜖 2
⇒𝛼=𝛽
𝜇 𝜇
𝜖 𝜖 𝜔𝜇
|𝜂| = 1 ≈ = (3.39)
2 4 𝜎 𝜎
𝜎
1+ 𝜔𝜖
𝜔𝜖
𝜎
tan 2𝜃𝜂 = =∞
𝜔𝜖
𝜃𝜂 = 45°
Therefore,
𝜔𝜇
∴𝜂= ∠45° (3.40)
𝜎
The electric field leads magnetic field by an angle of in good conductors.
Therefore and may be rewritten as,

When an electromagnetic wave travels, they tend to attenuate. This attenuation
depends on the frequency of the wave travelling. Attenuation is larger, when the
frequency is larger. This implies that wave die out faster for larger frequencies and
travel a very short distance. This distance of travel for a wave till they are attenuated
to a value of 36.8% of the original value is called as depth of penetration or
skin depth (Refer Figure 3.5). They are represented as .
We know that,
Self-Instructional
88 Material
If is the distance travelled as shown in Figure (3.5). Electromagnetic Waves
−𝛼𝛿 = −1
𝛼𝛿 = 1
NOTES
1
𝛼= (3.41)
𝛿
Where is the attenuation factor. Therefore,
1 1
𝛿= =
𝛼 2
𝜇𝜖 𝜎
𝜔 2 1 + 𝜔𝜖 −1
For good conductors, . Hence, from Equation (3.38), we have,
1 1 2
𝛿= = = (3.42)
𝛼 𝜔𝜇𝜎 𝜔𝜇𝜎
2
From Equation (3.42), it is observed that, as the frequency, increases,

increases and decreases.
Fig. 3.5 Skin Depth
Check Your Progress

6. What is a plane wave?
7. What does electromagnetic wave equation define?
8. Classify the conduction based on the conductivity property.
9. Define the term intrinsic impedance.
10. What do you mean by depth of penetration or skin depth?
Self-Instructional
Material 89
and Wave Propagation 3.4 ANSWERS TO CHECK YOUR PROGRESS
QUESTIONS
NOTES 1. Generally, there are two kinds of wave — Mechanical waves and
Electromagnetic waves. The waves on strings, sound waves, seismic waves
are the examples of mechanical waves; whereas radio waves, light waves,
X-rays are the examples of electromagnetic waves.
2. For the propagation of any mechanical wave, we require a source of
disturbance, a medium that does carry the wave and some physical
mechanisms through which particles of the said medium can perturb or
influence one another.
3. A continuous wave pulse may be created by shaking the end of the string,
and the result gives us a simple harmonic motion. The nature of the travelling
pulse on the said string is sinusoidal, as the shape of the pulse is of a sine
wave.
4. The length of a wave (wavelength) is defined as, ‘The minimum distance
between any two identical points on the wave or the distance between two
consecutive crests or troughs’. The wavelength is denoted by (Lambda,
the Greek letter).
5. When two progressive waves that are travelling in opposite directions in
the same medium and superimpose each other, then the resultant of the
superimposition of two progressive waves in the same medium travelling in
opposite directions is called standing wave.
6. In physics, a plane wave is a special case of wave or field - a physical
quantity whose value, at any moment, is constant over any plane that is
perpendicular to a fixed direction in space.
7. Principally, the electromagnetic wave equation is a second order partial
differential equation that describes the propagation of electromagnetic waves
through a medium or in a vacuum. An electromagnetic wave consists of an
electric field, typically defined in terms of the force per charge on a stationary
charge, and a magnetic field, defined in terms of the force per charge on a
moving charge.
8. Conduction based on the conductivity property of the material can be
classified as lossy dielectric with 0, lossless dielectric with = 0 and
good conductors with = .
9. Intrinsic impedance is also called as the wave impedance in free space. It is
denoted as 0. Intrinsic impedance relates the electric and magnetic field.
10. When an electromagnetic wave travels, they tend to attenuate. This
attenuation depends on the frequency of the wave travelling. Attenuation is
larger, when the frequency is larger. This implies that wave die out faster for
Self-Instructional
90 Material
larger frequencies and travel a very short distance. This distance of travel Electromagnetic Waves
for a wave till they are attenuated to a value of 36.8% of the original value
is called as depth of penetration or skin depth. They are represented as .
NOTES
3.5 SUMMARY
Generally, there are two kinds of wave — Mechanical Waves and

Electromagnetic Waves. The waves on strings, sound waves, seismic
waves are the examples of mechanical waves; whereas radio waves, light
waves, X-rays are the examples of electromagnetic waves.
For the propagation of any mechanical wave, we require a source of
disturbance, a medium that does carry the wave and some physical
mechanisms through which particles of the said medium can perturb or
influence one another.
A continuous wave pulse may be created by shaking the end of the string,
and the result gives us a simple harmonic motion. The nature of the
travelling pulse on the said string is sinusoidal, as the shape of the pulse
is of a sine wave.
The length of a wave (wavelength) is defined as, ‘The minimum distance
between any two identical points on the wave or the distance between
two consecutive crests or troughs’. The wavelength is denoted by
(Lambda, the Greek letter).
The electromagnetic waves can propagate through space (vacuum),
whereas the mechanical waves can propagate through some medium.
Most of the properties and behaviours of mechanical waves and
electromagnetic waves are similar to each other.
When two progressive waves that are travelling in opposite directions in
the same medium and superimpose each other, then the resultant of the
superimposition of two progressive waves in the same medium travelling
in opposite directions is called standing wave.
In physics, a plane wave is a special case of wave or field - a physical
quantity whose value, at any moment, is constant over any plane that is
perpendicular to a fixed direction in space.
Principally, the electromagnetic wave equation is a second order partial
differential equation that describes the propagation of electromagnetic
waves through a medium or in a vacuum.
An electromagnetic wave consists of an electric field, typically defined in
terms of the force per charge on a stationary charge, and a magnetic field,
defined in terms of the force per charge on a moving charge.
Self-Instructional
Material 91
Electromagnetic Waves The most significant prediction of Maxwell’s equations is the existence of
electromagnetic fields, i.e., combined electric and magnetic fields that
propagate through space as electromagnetic waves.
NOTES Because Maxwell’s equations hold in free space, therefore the predicted
electromagnetic waves, unlike mechanical waves, do not require a medium
for their propagation.
An electromagnetic wave consists of an electric field, typically defined in
Conduction based on the conductivity property of the material can be
classified as lossy dielectric with 0, lossless dielectric with 0 and
good conductors with .
Intrinsic impedance is also called as the wave impedance in free space.
It is denoted as 0. Intrinsic impedance relates the electric and magnetic
field.
When an electromagnetic wave travels, they tend to attenuate. This
attenuation depends on the frequency of the wave travelling.
Attenuation is larger, when the frequency is larger. This implies that wave
die out faster for larger frequencies and travel a very short distance. This
distance of travel for a wave till they are attenuated to a value of 36.8%
of the original value is called as depth of penetration or skin depth. They
are represented as .
3.6 KEY WORDS
Length of a wave/wavelength: The minimum distance between any two

identical points on the wave or the distance between two consecutive crests
or troughs, the wavelength is denoted by (Lambda, the Greek letter).
Standing wave: When two progressive waves that are travelling in opposite
directions in the same medium and superimpose each other, then the resultant
of the superimposition of two progressive waves in the same medium
travelling in opposite directions is called standing wave.
Electromagnetic wave: It consists of an electric field, typically defined in
Electromagnetic fields: This is the combined electric and magnetic fields
that propagate through space as electromagnetic waves.
Intrinsic impedance: It is also called as the wave impedance in free space.
It is denoted as 0. Intrinsic impedance relates the electric and magnetic
field.
Self-Instructional
92 Material
3.7 SELF ASSESSMENT QUESTIONS AND and Wave Propagation
EXERCISES
Short Answer Questions NOTES
1. Define wave motion.

2. What do you mean by transverse and longitudinal waves? Give one example
of each.
3. Define amplitude, wavelength, frequency and time-period of a progressive
wave with schematic representation.
4. Obtain the equation of displacement of a plane progressive wave travelling
along positive x-direction.
5. Deduce the differential equation of a plane progressive wave.
6. Find out the expressions for maximum velocity and acceleration of a plane
progressive wave.
7. What is the one dimensional scalar equation?
8. How does wave propagates in a lossy dielectric?
9. Give the Maxwell’s equation for a lossy and charge free medium.
10. Define the terms attenuation constant and the propagation constant.
11. What is the significance of intrinsic impedance?
12. Give the wave equation for conducting medium.
1. Find out the amplitude, time-period, wavelength, velocity and frequency
of a plane progressive wave given below in S.I. units.
y(x, t) = 0.02 sin 2 (2x – 3t)
2. The equation of a transverse wave is given by y(x, f ) = 0.01 sin (4x – 3t).
Answer the following in S.I. units.
(i) Find out the wavelength, frequency, amplitude and velocity of the wave.
(ii) at t = 0, what is the value of y at x = 0, 0.5 m and 1.0 m?
(iii) at x = 0.2 m, what is the value of y at t = 0, 0.5 s and /2 s?
3. Write down the equation for a harmonic wave propagating along positive
x-direction at a moment when t = 2T and compare it with the equation at
t = 0. Plot a graph of the wave at t = 0 for x lying between 0 and , where
and T is the wavelength and time-period of the wave.
4. By a wire vibrating with a frequency of 4.00 Hz, a transverse wave of
wavelength 60.0 cm is produced. Find out the speed of the wave along the
wire. (Ans. 2.40 m/s)
Self-Instructional
Material 93
Electromagnetic Waves 5. A transverse harmonic (sinusoidal) wave on a wire has T = 25.0 ms as
period. It travels along the negative x-direction with a speed of 30.0 m/s. At
t = 0, a particle on the wire at x = 0 has a displacement of 2.0 cm and is
travelling downwards with a speed of 2.0 m/s.
NOTES
6. Discuss about the motion in electromagnetic waves.
7. Briefly explain the progressive wave and its differential form.
8. Derive and explain the propagation of plane electromagnetic waves with
the help of appropriate examples.
9. Discuss and derive the equations for isotropic and anisotropic non-
conducting medium.
10. Explain the equations used for evaluating the depth of penetration or the
skin depth.

Sons.
Inc.
House Pvt. Ltd.
Self-Instructional
94 Material
Reflection and Refraction
BLOCK - II of Electromagnetic Waves
REFLECTION AND REFRACTION OF
ELECTROMAGNETIC WAVES
NOTES
UNIT 4 REFLECTION AND

REFRACTION OF
ELECTROMAGNETIC
WAVES
Structure
4.0 Introduction
4.1 Objectives
4.2 Boundary Conditions at the Surface of Discontinuity
4.3 Reflection and Refraction of Electromagnetic Waves at the Interface of Non-
Conducting Media
4.5 Summary
4.6 Key Words
4.0 INTRODUCTION
In physics, the term reflection refers to the change in direction of a wavefront at an

interface between two different media so that the wavefront returns into the medium
from which it originated. Common examples include the reflection of light, sound
and water waves. The law of reflection says that for specular reflection the angle
at which the wave is incident on the surface equals the angle at which it is reflected.
Mirrors exhibit specular reflection.
Reflection basically occurs when a wave is incident on a boundary between
two media in which the wave speed is different, and then remains in the original
medium rather than passing into the second medium. While reflection occurs at
any boundary, often only a small proportion of the wave is reflected. Refraction is
the change of the direction of propagation of waves when they pass into a medium
where they have a different speed. It is observed whenever the waves are incident
to the surface at an angle different to the normal to the surface.
When an electromagnetic field faces an abrupt change in the permittivity
and permeability, then certain conditions on electric and magnetic fields on the
Self-Instructional
Material 95
Reflection and Refraction interface are to be respected for the continuity. These conditions of continuity are
of Electromagnetic Waves
termed as the boundary conditions for the electromagnetic field.
When a plane wave travels across a medium they may be reflected at the
boundary of the medium and refracted after they cross the boundary. The amount
NOTES
of reflection and refraction depends on the type of medium in which the wave
travels and the angle of incidence of the wave. Based on the angle of incidence,
the incidence may be classified as, normal incidence and oblique incidence.
In this unit, you will study about the boundary conditions at the surface of
discontinuity, and reflection and refraction of electromagnetic waves at the interface
of non-conducting media. You will learn to drive various related Equations for
reflection and refraction of electromagnetic waves.
4.1 OBJECTIVES

Discuss about the boundary conditions at the surface of discontinuity
State and prove magnetostatics boundary conditions
Explain about the reflection and refraction of electromagnetic waves at the
interface of non-conducting media
Derive the equations for reflection and refraction of plane waves with normal
incidence
4.2 BOUNDARY CONDITIONS AT THE SURFACE

OF DISCONTINUITY
Reflection basically occurs when a wave is incident on a boundary between two

media in which the wave speed is different, and then remains in the original medium
rather than passing into the second medium. While reflection occurs at any boundary,
often only a small proportion of the wave is reflected. Refraction is the change of
the direction of propagation of waves when they pass into a medium where they
have a different speed. It is observed whenever the waves are incident to the
surface at an angle different to the normal to the surface.
and permeability, then certain conditions on electric and magnetic fields on the
interface are to be respected for the continuity. These conditions of continuity are
termed as the boundary conditions for the electromagnetic field.
Similar to electrostatics boundary conditions, magnetostatics boundary
conditions are formulated using the two parameters The magnetic field,
is defined using Gauss’s law and given as,
Self-Instructional
96 Material
In integral form, (4.1) of Electromagnetic Waves
The magnetic field intensity, is defined as Ampere’s circuit law,,
In integral form, (4.2) NOTES
(a) Magnetic Material Boundary

Consider two magnetic materials as shown in Figure (4.1) to identify the magnetic
boundary conditions using
(a)
(b)
Fig. 4.1 (a) Line Integral for (b) Surface Integral for
Using Equation (4.1) for the boundary condition in Figure (4.1b), integrating
the pill box from Medium 1 to Medium 2,
(4.3)
Since Equation (4.3) becomes,

Self-Instructional
Material 97
of Electromagnetic Waves (4.4)
From Equations (4.3) and (4.4), the normal component of is continuous
NOTES and the normal component of is discontinuous as undergoes a change by across

the boundary.
Similarly applying the line integral Equation (4.2) along the boundary path
abb ‘cda’a in Figure (4.1a),
+ +
+ = I.
As dh/2=0,
If I=0 at the boundary, the,

(4.5)
As
(4.6)
From Equations (4.5) and (4.6), the tangential component of magnetic field
intensity, is continuous across boundary and tangential component of flux density,,
is a discontinuous by a factor of across the boundary..
Additional relation can be obtained by considering the detailed representation
of Figure (4.1a) in Figure (4.2).
Self-Instructional
98 Material
NOTES
Fig. 4.2 Boundary Condition
From Figure (4.2),
.
But from Equation (4.3),
(4.7)
Also, from Equation (4.6), we have
(4.8)
But from Figure (4.2),

(4.9)
Dividing Equation (4.9) by Equation (4.7),
Therefore,
Self-Instructional
Material 99
(b) Magnetic Materials

NOTES
A material is considered to be magnetic based on the magnetic susceptibility .
If the material is a magnet.
If the material is a nonmagnet.
The magnetic materials are generally classified depending on the relative
permeability, Hence there are mainly three different types of magnetic materials.
They are:
(i) Diamagnets
(ii) Paramagnets
(iii) Ferromagnets
(i) Diamagnets
Diamagnets are weakly affected by magnetic field. They have r
< 1 and xm < 0.
The magnetic moment of each atom in diamagnet is m=0.
Examples: Diamond, Silicon, Copper, etc.,
(ii) Paramagnets
Paramagnets are temperature dependent with a positive magnetic moment, m.
They have
Examples: Tungsten, Potassium and Platinum.
(iii) Ferromagnets
Ferromagnets are largely affected by magnetic field with a strong magnetic moment
m. They have Ferromagnets loose their magnetic property
when temperature is raised above a certain level.
Ferromagnets exhibit a non-linear characteristics between the magnetic field,
and magnetic field intensity That is,
Hence is nonlinear. The nonlinear relationship between are

well understood by a Magnetisation Curve or a Hysterisis Curve.
Examples: Iron, Cobalt, etc.
These ferromagnets act as a short circuit path for the magnetic field. Hence they
are used in magnetic screening applications. For example, they are used in
Self-Instructional
100 Material
transformers that links or act as short circuit path for the magnetic field produced Reflection and Refraction
by the primary winding.
Table 4.1 illustrates the properties of different magnetic materials.
Table 4.1 Summary of Magnetic Materials NOTES
Sl. No Magnetic 𝜇𝑟 𝑥𝑚 m
Material
1 Diamagnets ≲1 −10−5 0
2 Paramagnets ≳1 10−5 >0
3 Ferromagnets ≫1 ≫0 ≫0
(c) Hysteresis Curve
Hysteresis Curve provide the nonlinear relationship between To obtain

a Hysterisis Curve or a Magnetisation Curve, assume a Ferromagnet, initially
magnetised. This initial magnetisation is represented in the Hysteresis Curve from
O to A in Figure (4.3).
Fig. 4.3. -B-H Curve or Hysteresis Curve
Once the Ferromagnet is saturated with , it is demagnetised.

When demagnetised, reducing the reduces but not on the same path of
magnetisation OA. It follows AB while demagnetisation in Figure (4.3) on further
reducing the to negative, reaches zero only at C. On further reducing , achieves
negative saturation, following the path CD. When magnetised again with increase
in , increases to attain saturation of through the path DEFA. The magnetisation
and demagnetisation of the ferromagnetic material creates a Hysteresis Loop. This
Self-Instructional
Material 101
Reflection and Refraction area of the closed loop indicates the energy loss of the material during magnetisation
and demagnetisation. The larger the area of the hysteresis, the higher will be the
losses and hence choice of the ferromagnetic material will be towards a narrower
Hysteresis Curve.
NOTES
4.3 REFLECTION AND REFRACTION OF
ELECTROMAGNETIC WAVES AT THE
INTERFACE OF NON-CONDUCTING MEDIA
In physics, the term reflection refers to the change in direction of a wavefront at an
interface between two different media so that the wavefront returns into the medium
from which it originated. Common examples include the reflection of light, sound
and water waves. The law of reflection says that for specular reflection the angle
at which the wave is incident on the surface equals the angle at which it is reflected.
Mirrors exhibit specular reflection.
When a plane wave travels across a medium they may be reflected at the boundary
of the medium and refracted after they cross the boundary. The amount of reflection
and refraction depends on the following factors:
1. The type of medium in which the wave travels.
2. The angle of incidence of the wave.
Based on the angle of incidence, the incidence may be classified as:
1. Normal Incidence
2. Oblique Incidence
Reflection and Refraction of Plane Waves with Normal Incidence
When a plane wave is incident normally on a plane, or in other words, if a wave is
incident on a plane perpendicular to the traveling wave, then they are said to
represent normal incidence as shown in Figure (4.4).
Fig. 4.4 Normal Incidence
Let the wave travel from Medium 1 to Medium 2. Medium 1 has the
following properties , and the Medium 2 has the properties
. The wave that is travelling has three stages and needs ti be
represented uniquely. Hence the following subscripts will be used.
Self-Instructional
102 Material
Wave Subscript Reflection and Refraction
Incident wave 𝑖
Reflected wave 𝑟
NOTES
Refracted or transmitted wave 𝑡
The EM wave is assumed to travel in the direction. Since the TEM

waves are considered electric field, the magnetic field and direction of travel are
mutually orthogonal. Following vectors identities should be recalled:
(a) Incident Wave
Let and travel in direction
𝐸⃗𝑖 (𝑧) = 𝐸0𝑖 𝑒 −𝑗𝛽 1 𝑧 𝑎𝑥⃗ [𝑙𝑒𝑡 𝛼1 = 0] (4.10a)
𝐻⃗𝑖 (𝑧) = 𝐻0𝑖 𝑒 −𝑗𝛽 1 𝑧 𝑎𝑦⃗ (4.10b)
In Equations (4.10a) and (4.10b), the time harmonic term is removed

for the sake of convenience and will be reinstated at the end of the derivation.
(b) Reflected Wave
The reflected wave consisting of and get reflected and travel in the
direction.
𝐸𝑟⃗(𝑧) = 𝐸0 𝑒 𝑗 𝛽1 𝑧 𝑎𝑥⃗
𝑟 (4.11a)
𝐻𝑟⃗(𝑧) = 𝐻0𝑟 𝑒 𝑗𝛽 1 𝑧 − 𝑎𝑦⃗ −𝑘⃗ × 𝐸⃗ = −𝐻⃗
𝐻𝑟⃗(𝑧) = −𝐻0𝑟 𝑒 𝑗𝛽 1 𝑧 𝑎𝑦⃗ (4.11b)
(c) Transmitted Wave
The transmitted wave, of and travel in the same direction as that of the
incident wave, i.e., in the direction.
𝐸⃗𝑡 (𝑧) = 𝐸0𝑡 𝑒 −𝑗𝛽 2 𝑧 𝑎𝑥⃗ (4.12)
𝐻𝑡⃗(𝑧) = 𝐻0𝑡 𝑒 −𝑗𝛽 2 𝑧 𝑎𝑦⃗
The incident, reflected and transmitted waves are shown in Figure (4.5).
Self-Instructional
Material 103
NOTES
Fig. 4.5 Reflection of Plane Waves at Normal Incidence
The total field in Medium 1 includes the incident field and the reflected field.
Similarly, total field in Medium 2 includes the transmitted field. Therefore,
In Medium 1,
𝐸1⃗ = 𝐸⃗𝑖 + 𝐸𝑟⃗ (4.13a)
𝐻1⃗ = 𝐻⃗𝑖 + 𝐻𝑟⃗ (4.13b)

In Medium 2,
𝐸2⃗ = 𝐸𝑡⃗ (4.14a)

𝐻2⃗ = 𝐻⃗𝑡 (4.14b)
Substituting Equations (4.10) and (4.11) in Equation (4.13), we have,
And
At the boundary, i.e., at ,
𝐸1⃗ = 𝐸0𝑖 + 𝐸0𝑟 (4.15a)
𝐻1⃗ = 𝐻0𝑖 − 𝐻0𝑟
𝐸0𝑖 𝐸0𝑟
= − (4.15b)
𝜂1 𝜂1
Similarly, substituting Equation (4.12) in Equation (4.14), we have,
Self-Instructional
104 Material
At the boundary at , NOTES
𝐸2⃗ = 𝐸0 𝑡 (4.16a)
𝐻2⃗ = 𝐻0 𝑡 (4.16b)
𝐸0 𝑡
=
𝜂2
Across the boundary, the fields are continuous and hence,
and
∴ 𝐸0𝑖 + 𝐸0𝑟 = 𝐸0𝑡 (4.17a)

And
𝐸0𝑖 𝐸0𝑟 𝐸0 𝑡
− =
𝜂1 𝜂1 𝜂2 (4.17b)
Multiplying Equation (4.17a) by and adding with eqn. Equation (4.17b),
1
we have Equation (4.17a) + Equation (4.17b)
n2
2𝜂2
𝐸0𝑡 = 𝐸0 𝑖 (4.18)
𝜂1 + 𝜂2
1
Similarly, Equation (4.17a) Equation (4.17b) implies,
n2
Self-Instructional
Material 105
𝜂2 − 𝜂1
NOTES 𝐸0𝑟 = 𝐸0 𝑡 (4.19)
2𝜂2
Substituting Equation (4.18) in Equation (4.19),
𝜂2 − 𝜂1
𝐸0𝑟 = 𝐸0 𝑖
𝜂1 + 𝜂2
Check Your Progress

1. How reflection occurs?
2. What is refraction?
3. How is magnetostatics boundary conditions formulated?
4. When a material is considered to be magnetic?
5. How are magnetic materials classified?
6. What are Ferromagnets?
7. On what factors does reflection and refraction depends?
8. Based on the angle of incidence, classify the incidence.
9. When a plane wave represent normal incidence?

QUESTIONS
1. Reflection basically occurs when a wave is incident on a boundary between

two media in which the wave speed is different, and then remains in the
original medium rather than passing into the second medium. While reflection
occurs at any boundary, often only a small proportion of the wave is reflected.
2. Refraction is the change of the direction of propagation of waves when they
pass into a medium where they have a different speed. It is observed
whenever the waves are incident to the surface at an angle different to the
normal to the surface.
3. Similar to electrostatics boundary conditions, magnetostatics boundary
conditions are formulated using the two parameters
Self-Instructional
106 Material
4. A material is considered to be magnetic based on the magnetic susceptibility Reflection and Refraction
Xm .
If Xm = 1, the material is a magnet.
If Xm = 0, the material is a nonmagnet NOTES
5. The magnetic materials are generally classified depending on the relative
permeability, . Hence there are mainly three different types of magnetic
materials, namely Diamagnets, Paramagnets and Ferromagnets.
6. Ferromagnets are largely affected by magnetic field with a strong magnetic
moment, m. Ferromagnets loose their magnetic property when temperature
is raised above a certain level. Examples include Iron, Cobalt, etc.
and magnetic field intensity .
7. When a plane wave travels across a medium they may be reflected at the
boundary of the medium and refracted after they cross the boundary. The
amount of reflection and refraction depends on the following factors:
(a) The type of medium in which the wave travels.
(b) The angle of incidence of the wave.
8. Based on the angle of incidence, the incidence may be classified as, normal
incidence and oblique incidence.
9. When a plane wave is incident normally on a plane, or in other words, if a
wave is incident on a plane perpendicular to the traveling wave, then they
are said to represent normal incidence.
4.5 SUMMARY
Reflection basically occurs when a wave is incident on a boundary between

two media in which the wave speed is different, and then remains in the
original medium rather than passing into the second medium. While reflection
occurs at any boundary, often only a small proportion of the wave is reflected.
Refraction is the change of the direction of propagation of waves when they
pass into a medium where they have a different speed. It is observed
and permeability, then certain conditions on electric and magnetic fields on
the interface are to be respected for the continuity. These conditions of
continuity are termed as the boundary conditions for the electromagnetic
field.
Self-Instructional
Material 107
Reflection and Refraction Similar to electrostatics boundary conditions, magnetostatics boundary
conditions are formulated using the two parameters
The tangential component of magnetic field intensity, is continuous across

NOTES
boundary and tangential component of flux density, is a discontinuous by
a factor of across the boundary..

A material is considered to be magnetic based on the magnetic susceptibility
Xm.
If Xm = 1, the material is a magnet.
If Xm = 0, the material is a nonmagnet.
The magnetic materials are generally classified depending on the relative
permeability, . Hence there are mainly three different types of magnetic
materials, namely Diamagnets, Paramagnets and Ferromagnets.
Diamagnets are weakly affected by magnetic field. The magnetic moment
of each atom in diamagnet is m=0. Examples include Diamond, Silicon,
Copper, etc.
Paramagnets are temperature dependent with a positive magnetic moment,
m. Examples include Tungsten, Potassium and Platinum.
Ferromagnets are largely affected by magnetic field with a strong magnetic
moment, m. Ferromagnets loose their magnetic property when temperature
is raised above a certain level. Examples include Iron, Cobalt, etc.
and magnetic field intensity .
Hysteresis Curve provide the nonlinear relationship between

To obtain a Hysterisis Curve or a Magnetisation Curve, a Ferromagnet is
taken which is initially magnetised.
In physics, the term reflection refers to the change in direction of a wavefront
at an interface between two different media so that the wavefront returns
into the medium from which it originated. Common examples include the
reflection of light, sound and water waves.
The law of reflection says that for specular reflection the angle at which the
wave is incident on the surface equals the angle at which it is reflected.
When a plane wave travels across a medium they may be reflected at the
boundary of the medium and refracted after they cross the boundary. The
amount of reflection and refraction depends on the following factors.
1. The type of medium in which the wave travels.
Self-Instructional 2. The angle of incidence of the wave.
108 Material
Based on the angle of incidence, the incidence may be classified as: Reflection and Refraction
1. Normal incidence
2. Oblique incidence
When a plane wave is incident normally on a plane, or in other words, if a NOTES
wave is incident on a plane perpendicular to the traveling wave, then they
are said to represent normal incidence.
The TEM waves are considered electric field, the magnetic field and direction
of travel are mutually orthogonal.
4.6 KEY WORDS
Reflection: It basically occurs when a wave is incident on a boundary

between two media in which the wave speed is different, and then remains
in the original medium rather than passing into the second medium.
Refraction: It is the change of the direction of propagation of waves when
they pass into a medium where they have a different speed and is observed
Diamagnets: These are weakly affected by magnetic field. The magnetic
moment of each atom in diamagnet is m=0.
Paramagnets: Paramagnets are temperature dependent with a positive
magnetic moment, m.
Ferromagnets: These are largely affected by magnetic field with a strong
magnetic moment, m. Ferromagnets loose their magnetic property when
temperature is raised above a certain level.
Hysteresis curve: It provide the nonlinear relationship between

EXERCISES

1. What are electrostatics boundary conditions?
2. State the parameters required for formulating magnetostatics boundary
conditions.
3. Define magnetic field using Gauss law.
4. What is magnetic material boundary?
Self-Instructional
Material 109
Reflection and Refraction 5. What is the tangential component of magnetic field intensity and tangential
component of flux density?
6. How are magnetic materials classified?
NOTES 7. Why Hysteresis Curve is used?
8. How will you evaluate the reflection and refraction of plane waves with
normal incidence?
9. Write short notes on the following:
(a) Incident Wave
(b) Reflected Wave
(c) Transmitted Wave
1. Discuss about the significance of reflection and refraction in
electromagnetism.
2. Briefly explain about the boundary conditions at the surface of discontinuity.
3. Derive the equations for magnetic material boundary conditions with the
help of appropriate examples.
4. Explain in detail the characteristic features of different types of magnetic
materials with the help of appropriate examples.
5. Discuss and derive the equations for reflection and refraction of
electromagnetic waves at the interface of non-conducting media.
6. Explain the equations used for evaluating the reflection and refraction of
plane waves with normal incidence.

Sons.
Inc.
Self-Instructional House Pvt. Ltd.
110 Material
Fresnel’s Equation
UNIT 5 FRESNEL’S EQUATION

Structure NOTES
5.0 Introduction
5.1 Objectives
5.2 Reflection and Transmission Coefficients at the Interface between Two
Dielectric Media
5.3 Fresnel’s Equations
5.5 Summary
5.6 Key Words
5.0 INTRODUCTION
In physics, the term Fresnel equations or Fresnel coefficients describe the reflection
and transmission of light, or electromagnetic radiation in general, when incident on
an interface between different optical media. They were deduced by Augustin-
Jean Fresnel, who was the first to understand that light is a transverse wave, even
though no one realized that the ‘vibrations’ of the wave were electric and magnetic
fields. Fundamentally, the Fresnel equations describe the ratios of the reflected
and transmitted waves, electric fields to the incident wave’s electric field, i.e., the
waves’ magnetic fields can also be related using similar coefficients. Since these
are complex ratios, they describe not only the relative amplitude, but also phase
shifts between the waves.
Principally, the fact that a plane wave propagates through a uniform dielectric
medium with a constant wave vector, and, therefore, a constant direction of motion,
is equivalent to the well-known law of rectilinear propagation, which states that a
light ray, i.e., the normal to a constant phase surface, propagates through a uniform
medium in a straight line (Hecht 1974). The laws of geometric optics, i.e., the law
of rectilinear propagation, the law of reflection, and the law of refraction, are fully
consistent with the wave properties of light.
When an electromagnetic wave strikes at an air dielectric interface, from air
to the dielectric medium, part of it is reflected back and part of it is transmitted into
the dielectric medium. The amount of light reflected and transmitted depends on
the angle of incidence, refractive indices of the medium forming the interface and
the angle of incidence. Fresnel’s equation relates the ratio of the amplitude of the
electric field reflected and transmitted to that of the incident field, angle of incidence
and the refractive indices of two media forming the interface.
Self-Instructional
Material 111
Fresnel’s Equation In this unit, you will study about the Fresnel’s equations, and the reflection
and transmission coefficients at the interface between two dielectric media. You
will learn to drive various Fresnel’s equations.
NOTES
5.1 OBJECTIVES

Discuss about the reflection and transmission coefficients at the interface
between two dielectric media
Define reflection coefficient, transmission coefficient
Understand reflection and refraction from non-conducting boundary
Analyse reflection and refraction of plane waves at an oblique incidence
Understand and drive the Fresnel’s equations
5.2 REFLECTION AND TRANSMISSION

COEFFICIENTS AT THE INTERFACE
BETWEEN TWO DIELECTRIC MEDIA
medium with a constant wave vector, and, therefore, a constant direction of motion,
is equivalent to the well-known law of rectilinear propagation, which states that a
light ray, i.e., the normal to a constant phase surface, propagates through a uniform
medium in a straight line (Hecht 1974). The laws of geometric optics, i.e., the law
of rectilinear propagation, the law of reflection, and the law of refraction, are fully
consistent with the wave properties of light.
In physics and electrical engineering the reflection coefficient is a parameter
that describes how much of an electromagnetic wave is reflected by an impedance
discontinuity in the transmission medium. It is equal to the ratio of the amplitude of
the reflected wave to the incident wave, with each expressed as phasors. For
example, it is used in optics to calculate the amount of light that is reflected from a
surface with a different index of refraction, such as a glass surface, or in an electrical
transmission line to calculate how much of the electromagnetic wave is reflected
by an impedance. The reflection coefficient is closely related to the transmission
coefficient. The reflectance of a system is also sometimes called a ‘Reflection
Coefficient’.
The term ‘Transmission Coefficient’ is specifically used in physics and
electrical engineering when wave propagation in a medium containing discontinuities
is considered. A transmission coefficient describes the amplitude, intensity, or total
power of a transmitted wave relative to an incident wave.
Self-Instructional
112 Material
Reflection Coefficient
Reflection coefficient is defined as the ratio of to . Therefore, mathematically,,

𝐸0 𝜂2 − 𝜂1 NOTES
Δ𝐸 = 𝑟 = (5.1)
𝐸0𝑖 𝜂1 + 𝜂2
Reflection and Refraction from Non-Conducting Boundary

Non-conducting boundary medium includes perfect dielectric. For perfect
dielectrics,
Therefore,
Therefore,
√𝜖1 − √𝜖2
Δ𝐸 = (5.2)
√𝜖1 + √𝜖2
(a) Transmission Coefficient
Transmission coefficient is defined as the ratio of to . Therefore,

mathematically,
𝐸0𝑡 2𝜂2
τ𝐸 = = (5.3)
𝐸0𝑖 𝜂1 + 𝜂2
Similarly,
𝜇0
2
2𝜂2 𝜖2
τ𝐸 = =
𝜂1 + 𝜂2 𝜇0 𝜇0
𝜖2 + 𝜖1
Self-Instructional
Material 113
1
2 2√𝜖1
𝜖2
τ𝐸 = =
1 1 √𝜖1 + √𝜖2 (5.4)
NOTES 𝜖2 + 𝜖1
Also,
√𝜖2 − √𝜖1
Δ𝐻 = (5.5)
√𝜖1 + √𝜖2
Similarly,
𝜇0
2
𝜖1
𝜏𝐻 =
𝜇0 𝜇0
𝜖2 + 𝜖1
2 √𝜖 2
𝜏𝐻 = (5.6)
√𝜖1 + √𝜖2
(b) Standing Waves
Assume a conductor-dielectric medium for a conductor, and hence,
𝜇
𝜖
|𝜂| = 1 =0
𝜎 2 4
1 + 𝜔𝜖
Therefore, if dielectric is Medium 1 and conductor is Medium 2, then,

𝐸0𝑟 𝜂2 − 𝜂1
Δ𝐸 = = = −1 [∵ 𝜂2 = 0]
𝐸0𝑖 𝜂1 + 𝜂2
Self-Instructional
114 Material
And Fresnel’s Equation
2𝜂2
τ𝐸 = =0 [∵ 𝜂2 = 0]
𝜂1 + 𝜂2
NOTES
When 𝜏𝐸 = 0, it indicates that the wave do not travel across the boundary
to Medium 2. Also, when Δ𝐸 = −1, it indicates that the wave when reflected is
opposite to that of the incident wave as shown in Figure (5.1). Such waves are
called as standing waves.
Fig. 5.1 Standing Waves
Reflection and Refraction of Plane Waves at an Oblique Incidence

Oblique incidence include an angle that is not at a normal incidence, i.e., non-
perpendicular incidence to the medium boundary. Fig. (5.2) represents an oblique
incidence diagram. In Figure (5.2), represents the angle of incidence,
represents the angle of reflection and represents the angle of transmission.
In a perfect dielectric, the incident power is equal to the sum of the reflected
power and transmitted power. Therefore,
𝑃𝑖 = 𝑃𝑟 + 𝑃𝑡 (5.7)
Where, is the incident power and given as,
Fig. 5.2 Oblique Incidence Self-Instructional

Material 115
Similarly, reflected power, is given as,
NOTES
And transmitted power, is given as,
Therefore, Equation (5.7) is rewritten as,

𝐸𝑖2 𝐸𝑟2 𝐸𝑡2
cos 𝜃𝑖 = cos 𝜃𝑟 + cos 𝜃𝑡
𝜂𝑖 𝜂1 𝜂2 (5.8)
According to law of reflection, . Therefore, Equation (109) is given
as,
𝐸𝑖2 𝐸𝑟2 𝐸𝑡2

− cos 𝜃𝑖 = cos 𝜃𝑡
𝜂𝑖 𝜂1 𝜂2
cos 𝜃𝑖 2 cos 𝜃𝑡 2
[𝐸𝑖 − 𝐸𝑟2 ] = 𝐸𝑡
𝜂1 𝜂2
cos 𝜃𝑖 𝐸𝑟2 cos 𝜃𝑡 2
𝐸𝑖2 1− 2 = 𝐸𝑡
𝜂1 𝐸𝑖 𝜂2
𝐸𝑟2 cos 𝜃𝑡 𝜂1 𝐸𝑡2

1− 2 =
𝐸𝑖 cos 𝜃𝑖 𝜂2 𝐸𝑖2 (5.9)
Equation (5.9) is given as,
𝜇1
𝐸𝑟2 𝐸𝑡2 cos 𝜃𝑡 𝜂1 𝜖1
=1− 2
𝐸𝑖2 𝐸𝑖 cos 𝜃𝑖 𝜂2 𝜇2
𝜖2
Since
𝐸𝑟2 𝐸𝑡2 cos 𝜃𝑡 √𝜖2
= 1− 2 (5.10)
𝐸𝑖2 𝐸𝑖 cos 𝜃𝑖 √𝜖1
5.3 FRESNEL’S EQUATIONS
In physics, the term Fresnel equations or Fresnel coefficients describe the reflection
and transmission of light, or electromagnetic radiation in general, when incident on
Self-Instructional
116 Material
an interface between different optical media. They were deduced by Augustin- Fresnel’s Equation
Jean Fresnel, who was the first to understand that light is a transverse wave, even
though no one realized that the ‘vibrations’ of the wave were electric and magnetic
fields. Fundamentally, the Fresnel equations describe the ratios of the reflected
and transmitted waves, electric fields to the incident wave’s electric field, i.e., the NOTES
waves’ magnetic fields can also be related using similar coefficients. Since these
are complex ratios, they describe not only the relative amplitude, but also phase
shifts between the waves.
When an electromagnetic wave strikes at an air dielectric interface, from air
to the dielectric medium, part of it is reflected back and part of it is transmitted into
the dielectric medium. The amount of light reflected and transmitted depends on
the angle of incidence, refractive indices of the medium forming the interface and
the angle of incidence. Fresnel’s equation relates the ratio of the amplitude of the
electric field reflected and transmitted to that of the incident field, angle of incidence
and the refractive indices of two media forming the interface.
In parallel polarization, electric field, is parallel to the plane of incidence.
At the boundary, tangential component of electric field is continuous and hence
resolving the direction components of electric field, we get,
(𝐸𝑖 − 𝐸𝑟 ) cos 𝜃𝑖 = 𝐸𝑡 cos 𝜃𝑡
Fig. 5.3 Parallel Polarization
𝐸𝑖 (1 − 𝐸𝑟 /𝐸𝑖 ) cos 𝜃𝑖 = 𝐸𝑡 /𝐸𝑖 cos 𝜃𝑡

𝐸𝑡 cos 𝜃𝑖 𝐸𝑟
= 1− (5.11)
𝐸𝑖 cos 𝜃𝑡 𝐸𝑖
But from Equation (5.10),
𝐸𝑟2 𝐸𝑡2 cos 𝜃𝑡 √𝜖2
= 1− 2
𝐸𝑖2 𝐸𝑖 cos 𝜃𝑖 √𝜖1
Self-Instructional
Material 117
Fresnel’s Equation Substituting, Equation (5.11) in the above equation,
2 2
𝐸𝑟2 𝐸𝑟 cos 𝜃𝑖 cos 𝜃𝑡 √𝜖2
2 = 1− 1− 𝐸 cos 𝜃𝑡 cos 𝜃𝑖 √𝜖1
𝐸𝑖 𝑖
NOTES
2
𝐸𝑟2 𝐸𝑟 cos 𝜃𝑖 √𝜖2
= 1 − 1 −
𝐸𝑖2 𝐸𝑖 cos 𝜃𝑡 √𝜖1
2
𝐸𝑟2 𝐸𝑟 cos 𝜃𝑖 √𝜖2
1− 2 = 1− 𝐸
𝐸𝑖 𝑖 cos 𝜃𝑡 √𝜖1
2
𝐸𝑟 𝐸𝑟 𝐸𝑟 cos 𝜃𝑖 √𝜖2
1− 1+ = 1−
𝐸𝑖 𝐸𝑖 𝐸𝑖 cos 𝜃𝑡 √𝜖1
𝐸𝑟 𝐸𝑟 cos 𝜃𝑖 √𝜖2
1+ = 1−
𝐸𝑖 𝐸𝑖 cos 𝜃𝑡 √𝜖1
𝐸𝑟 cos 𝜃𝑖 √𝜖2 𝐸𝑟 cos 𝜃𝑖 √𝜖2

1+ = −
𝐸𝑖 cos 𝜃𝑡 √𝜖1 𝐸𝑖 cos 𝜃𝑡 √𝜖1
𝐸𝑟 cos 𝜃𝑖 √𝜖2 cos 𝜃𝑖 √𝜖2

1+ = −1
𝐸𝑖 cos 𝜃𝑡 √𝜖1 cos 𝜃𝑡 √𝜖1
𝐸𝑟 √𝜖1 cos 𝜃𝑡 + √𝜖2 cos 𝜃𝑖 √𝜖2 cos 𝜃𝑖 − √𝜖1 cos 𝜃𝑡
=
𝐸𝑖 √𝜖1 cos 𝜃𝑡 √𝜖1 cos 𝜃𝑡
𝐸𝑟 √𝜖2 cos 𝜃𝑖 − √𝜖1 cos 𝜃𝑡

Δ𝐸 = = (5.12)
𝐸𝑖 √𝜖1 cos 𝜃𝑡 + √𝜖2 cos 𝜃𝑖
Similarly,
2 √𝜖2 cos 𝜃𝑖
𝜏𝐸 =
√𝜖2 cos 𝜃𝑡 + √𝜖1 cos 𝜃𝑖 (5.13)
The above two equations are called as Fresnel’s Equation.
According to Snell's Law,
sin 𝜃𝑖 𝑣1
= (5.14)
sin 𝜃𝑟 𝑣2
Where is the velocity of wave in Medium 1 and is the velocity of
wave in Medium 2. Also, we know that,
Self-Instructional
118 Material

NOTES
In a perfect dielectric, . Therefore,
𝜖1 2
sin2 𝜃𝑟 = sin 𝜃𝑖 (5.15)
𝜖2
We know that . therefore,
𝜖1
𝐸𝑟 √𝜖2 cos 𝜃𝑖 − 𝜖1 1 − 𝜖 sin2 𝜃𝑖
2
Δ𝐸 = =
𝐸𝑖 𝜖1
√𝜖2 cos 𝜃𝑖 + 𝜖1 1 − 𝜖 sin2 𝜃𝑖
2
𝜖2
√𝜖2 cos 𝜃𝑖 − 𝜖1 − 𝜖1 sin2 𝜃𝑖
𝐸𝑟 2
Δ𝐸 = =
𝐸𝑖
𝜖2
√𝜖2 cos 𝜃𝑖 + 𝜖1 − 𝜖1 sin2 𝜃𝑖
2
𝜖1 𝜖2
√𝜖2 cos 𝜃𝑖 − 𝜖 − sin2 𝜃𝑖
√ 2 𝜖1
=
𝜖1 𝜖2 2
√𝜖2 cos 𝜃𝑖 + 𝜖 𝜖1 − sin 𝜃𝑖
√ 2
Self-Instructional
Material 119
𝜖2 𝜖2 2
𝜖1 cos 𝜃𝑖 − 𝜖1 − sin 𝜃𝑖
Δ𝐸 =
𝜖2 𝜖2 2
𝜖1 cos 𝜃𝑖 + 𝜖1 − sin 𝜃𝑖
NOTES
√𝜖2 cos 𝜃𝑖 − √𝜖1 cos 𝜃𝑡

1 + Δ𝐸 = 1 +
√𝜖1 cos 𝜃𝑡 + √𝜖2 cos 𝜃𝑖
2√𝜖2 cos 𝜃𝑖
= = 𝜏𝐸
√𝜖1 cos 𝜃𝑡 + √𝜖2 cos 𝜃𝑖
1 + Δ 𝐸 = 𝜏𝐸
Check Your Progress

1. Define the term reflection coefficient.
2. What is transmission coefficient?
3. What does oblique incidence include?
4. Explain the term Fresnel equations.
5. What happens when an electromagnetic wave strikes at an air dielectric
interface?
6. On what factors does amount of light reflected and transmitted depends?
How Fresnel's equation is related to it?

QUESTIONS
1. The reflection coefficient is a parameter that describes how much of an

electromagnetic wave is reflected by an impedance discontinuity in the
transmission medium. It is equal to the ratio of the amplitude of the reflected
wave to the incident wave, with each expressed as phasors. The reflection
coefficient is closely related to the transmission coefficient.
2. The term ‘Transmission Coefficient’ is specifically used in physics and
electrical engineering when wave propagation in a medium containing
discontinuities is considered. A transmission coefficient describes the
amplitude, intensity, or total power of a transmitted wave relative to an
incident wave.
3. Oblique incidence include an angle that is not at a normal incidence, i.e.,
non-perpendicular incidence to the medium boundary.
Self-Instructional
120 Material
4. The term Fresnel equations or Fresnel coefficients describe the reflection Fresnel’s Equation
and transmission of light, or electromagnetic radiation in general, when

incident on an interface between different optical media. They were deduced
by Augustin-Jean Fresnel, who was the first to understand that light is a
transverse wave, even though no one realized that the ‘vibrations’ of the NOTES
wave were electric and magnetic fields. Fundamentally, the Fresnel equations
describe the ratios of the reflected and transmitted waves, electric fields to
the incident wave’s electric field, i.e., the waves’ magnetic fields can also be
related using similar coefficients.
5. When an electromagnetic wave strikes at an air dielectric interface, from air
to the dielectric medium, part of it is reflected back and part of it is transmitted
into the dielectric medium.
6. The amount of light reflected and transmitted depends on the angle of
incidence, refractive indices of the medium forming the interface and the
angle of incidence. Fresnel’s equation relates the ratio of the amplitude of
the electric field reflected and transmitted to that of the incident field, angle
of incidence and the refractive indices of two media forming the interface.
5.5 SUMMARY
medium with a constant wave vector, and, therefore, a constant direction of
motion, is equivalent to the well-known law of rectilinear propagation, which
states that a light ray, i.e., the normal to a constant phase surface, propagates
through a uniform medium in a straight line (Hecht 1974).
In physics and electrical engineering the reflection coefficient is a parameter
that describes how much of an electromagnetic wave is reflected by an
impedance discontinuity in the transmission medium. It is equal to the ratio
of the amplitude of the reflected wave to the incident wave, with each
expressed as phasors.
The reflection coefficient is closely related to the transmission coefficient.
The reflectance of a system is also sometimes called a ‘Reflection
Coefficient’.
The term ‘Transmission Coefficient’ is specifically used in physics and
electrical engineering when wave propagation in a medium containing
discontinuities is considered.
A transmission coefficient describes the amplitude, intensity, or total power
of a transmitted wave relative to an incident wave.
Non-conducting boundary medium includes perfect dielectric. For perfect
dielectrics,
Self-Instructional
Material 121
Transmission coefficient is defined as the ratio of to . Therefore,
mathematically,
𝐸0𝑡 2𝜂2
NOTES τ𝐸 = =
𝐸0𝑖 𝜂1 + 𝜂2
When 𝜏𝐸 = 0, it indicates that the wave do not travel across the boundary
to Medium 2. Also, when Δ𝐸 = −1, it indicates that the wave.
Oblique incidence include an angle that is not at a normal incidence, i.e.,
non-perpendicular incidence to the medium boundary.
In a perfect dielectric, the incident power is equal to the sum of the reflected
power and transmitted power.
In physics, the term Fresnel equations or Fresnel coefficients describe the
reflection and transmission of light, or electromagnetic radiation in general,
when incident on an interface between different optical media.
The term Fresnel equations were deduced by Augustin-Jean Fresnel, who
was the first to understand that light is a transverse wave, even though no
one realized that the ‘vibrations’ of the wave were electric and magnetic
fields.
Fundamentally, the Fresnel equations describe the ratios of the reflected
and transmitted waves, electric fields to the incident wave’s electric field,
i.e., the waves’ magnetic fields can also be related using similar coefficients.
When an electromagnetic wave strikes at and air dielectric interface, from
air to the dielectric medium, part of it is reflected back and part of it is
transmitted into the dielectric medium.
The amount of light reflected and transmitted depends on the angle of
incidence, refractive indices of the medium forming the interface and the
angle of incidence.
Fresnel’s equation relates the ratio of the amplitude of the electric field
reflected and transmitted to that of the incident field, angle of incidence and
the refractive indices of two media forming the interface.
5.6 KEY WORDS
Reflection coefficient: It is a parameter that describes how much of an

electromagnetic wave is reflected by an impedance discontinuity in the
transmission medium. It is equal to the ratio of the amplitude of the reflected
wave to the incident wave, with each expressed as phasors.
Self-Instructional
122 Material
Transmission coefficient: It is specifically used when wave propagation Fresnel’s Equation
in a medium containing discontinuities is considered. It describes the

amplitude, intensity, or total power of a transmitted wave relative to an
incident wave.
NOTES
Oblique incidence: It include an angle that is not at a normal incidence,
i.e., non-perpendicular incidence to the medium boundary.
Fresnel equations or Fresnel coefficients: It describes the reflection
and transmission of light, or electromagnetic radiation in general, when
incident on an interface between different optical media.

EXERCISES

1. State the law of rectilinear propagation.
2. How is the reflection coefficient related to the transmission coefficient?
3. Give standard equations for reflection coefficient and transmission coefficient.
4. What are standing waves?
5. What is oblique incidence?
6. When is Fresnel’s equation used?
7. State the equations for the Snell’s law.
1. Discuss about the significance of reflection and transmission coefficients
with the help of appropriate examples.
2. Briefly explain about the reflection and transmission coefficients at the
interface between two dielectric media.
3. Derive the equations for reflection and transmission coefficients.
4. Explain in detail the characteristic features of reflection and refraction from
non-conducting boundary.
5. Explain the equations used for reflection and refraction of plane waves at an
oblique incidence.
6. Discuss and derive the Fresnel’s equations with the help of appropriate
examples.
Self-Instructional
Material 123

NOTES Electrostatics and Magnetostatics. Meerut: Kedar Nath Ram Nath.
Sons.
Inc.
House Pvt. Ltd.
Self-Instructional
124 Material
Polarization
UNIT 6 POLARIZATION
Structure NOTES
6.0 Introduction
6.1 Objectives
6.2 Polarization
6.3 Brewster’s Law and Total Internal Reflection
6.5 Summary
6.6 Key Words
6.0 INTRODUCTION
In physics, the term Polarization or Polarisation is a property applied to transverse

waves that specifies the geometrical orientation of the oscillations. In a transverse
wave, the direction of the oscillation is perpendicular to the direction of motion of
the wave. Transverse waves that exhibit polarization include electromagnetic waves,
such as light and radio waves, gravitational waves, and transverse sound waves
(shear waves) in solids. An electromagnetic wave, such as light consists of a coupled
oscillating electric field and magnetic field which are always perpendicular. By
convention, the ‘Polarization’ of electromagnetic waves refers to the direction of
the electric field. In linear polarization, the fields oscillate in a single direction. In
circular or elliptical polarization, the fields rotate at a constant rate in a plane as the
wave travels. Basically, the electric and magnetic vibrations of an electromagnetic
wave occur in numerous planes. A light wave that is vibrating in more than one
plane is referred to as unpolarized light. It is possible to transform unpolarized light
into polarized light. Polarized light waves are light waves in which the vibrations
occur in a single plane. The process of transforming unpolarized light into polarized
light is known as polarization.
Brewster’s law states that the relationship for light waves as the maximum
polarization (vibration in one plane only) of a ray of light may be achieved by
letting the ray fall on a surface of a transparent medium in such a way that the
refracted ray makes an angle of 90° with the reflected ray. The law is named after
a Scottish physicist, Sir David Brewster, who first proposed it in 1811. Brewster’s
angle, also known as the polarization angle, is an angle of incidence at which light
with a particular polarization is perfectly transmitted through a transparent dielectric
Self-Instructional
Material 125
Polarization surface, with no reflection. When unpolarized light is incident at this angle, the light
that is reflected from the surface is therefore perfectly polarized.
In this unit, you will study about the polarization, Brewster’s law, total internal
reflection and degree of polarization. You will learn to drive various equations
NOTES
related to polarization and Brewster’s law.
6.1 OBJECTIVES

Discuss about the different forms of wave polarization
Define the Brewster’s law
Understand what total internal reflection is
Analyse the degree of polarization
6.2 POLARIZATION
Polarization or Polarisation is a property applied to transverse waves that specifies

the geometrical orientation of the oscillations. In a transverse wave, the direction
of the oscillation is perpendicular to the direction of motion of the wave. A simple
example of a polarized transverse wave is vibrations traveling along a taut string,
for example, in a musical instrument like a guitar string. Depending on how the
string is plucked, the vibrations can be in a vertical direction, horizontal direction,
or at any angle perpendicular to the string. In contrast, in longitudinal waves, such
as sound waves in a liquid or gas, the displacement of the particles in the oscillation
is always in the direction of propagation, so these waves do not exhibit polarization.
Transverse waves that exhibit polarization include electromagnetic waves, such as
light and radio waves, gravitational waves, and transverse sound waves (shear
waves) in solids. In some types of transverse waves, the wave displacement is
limited to a single direction, so these also do not exhibit polarization; for example,
in surface waves in liquids (gravity waves), the wave displacement of the particles
is always in a vertical plane.
An electromagnetic wave, such as light consists of a coupled oscillating
electric field and magnetic field which are always perpendicular; by convention,
the ‘Polarization’ of electromagnetic waves refers to the direction of the electric
field. In linear polarization, the fields oscillate in a single direction. In circular or
elliptical polarization, the fields rotate at a constant rate in a plane as the wave
travels. The rotation can have two possible directions; if the fields rotate in a right
hand sense with respect to the direction of wave travel, it is called right circular
polarization, or, if the fields rotate in a left hand sense, it is called left circular
polarization.
Self-Instructional
126 Material
Light or other electromagnetic radiation from many sources, such as the Polarization
sun, flames, and incandescent lamps, consists of short wave trains with an equal
mixture of polarizations; this is called unpolarized light. Polarized light can be
produced by passing unpolarized light through a polarizer, which allows waves of
only one polarization to pass through. The most common optical materials (such NOTES
as, glass) are isotropic and do not affect the polarization of light passing through
them; however, some materials—those that exhibit birefringence, dichroism, or
optical activity—can change the polarization of light. Some of these are used to
make polarizing filters. Light is also partially polarized when it reflects from a surface.
Basically, the electric and magnetic vibrations of an electromagnetic wave
occur in numerous planes. A light wave that is vibrating in more than one plane is
referred to as unpolarized light. It is possible to transform unpolarized light into
polarized light. Polarized light waves are light waves in which the vibrations occur
in a single plane. The process of transforming unpolarized light into polarized light
is known as polarization.
Electromagnetic waves travel through any medium. These wave are produced by
the vibration of the electron charges. These wave are traverse waves that has both
the electric and magnetic components.
Polarization, also called wave polarization, is an expression of the orientation
of the lines of electric flux in an ElectroMagnetic field (EM field). Polarization can
be constant — that is, existing in a particular orientation at all times, or it can
rotate with each wave cycle.
Polarization is important in wireless communications systems. The physical
orientation of a wireless antenna corresponds to the polarization of the radio waves
received or transmitted by that antenna. Thus, a vertical antenna receives and
emits vertically polarized waves, and a horizontal antenna receives or emits
horizontally polarized waves. The best short-range communications is obtained
when the transmitting and receiving (source and destination) antennas have the
same polarization. The least efficient short-range communications usually takes
place when the two antennas are at right angles (for example, one horizontal and
one vertical). Over long distances, the atmosphere can cause the polarization of
a radio wave to fluctuate, so the distinction between horizontal and vertical
becomes less significant.
Some wireless antennas transmit and receive EM waves whose polarization
rotates 360 degrees with each complete wave cycle. This type of polarization,
called elliptical or circular polarization, can be either clockwise (right handed)
or counter clockwise (left handed). The best communications results are obtained
when the transmitting and receiving antennas have the same sense of polarization
(both clockwise or both counter clockwise). The worst communications usually
takes place when the two antennas radiate and receive in the opposite sense (one
clockwise and the other counter clockwise).
Self-Instructional
Material 127
Polarization Polarisation may be defined as the orientation of the field in a particular
direction. Considering a uniform plane wave when traveling in +z direction,
assuming the y component of the electric field to be zero, i.e., , then only
component exists pointing towards x-direction. Then the electric field is said
NOTES
to be oriented towards x direction or in other words, the wave is said to be
polarised in x-direction. Similarly when , wave is polarised to be in y-
direction.
Polarisation of waves may be:
(1) Linear Polarisation
(2) Circular Polarisation
(3) Elliptical Polarisation
1. Linear Polarisation
If the electric field components are in phase with each other, the resultant
electric field, given as,
𝐸⃗ = 𝐸𝑥 𝑎𝑥⃗ + 𝐸𝑦 𝑎𝑦⃗
𝐸⃗ = 𝐸𝑥2 + 𝐸𝑦2
𝐸𝑦
𝜃 = tan−1
𝐸𝑥
𝐸⃗ is said to be linear. The resultant vector is said to be linear, if the magnitude

and the phase of the vector is constant with time, then the wave is said to be
linearly polarized.
Fig. 6.1 Linear Polarisation
2. Circular Polarisation
When the field components and are out of phase by with each other..
The variation of these field components makes the resultant vector rotate in a
circular path. Such polarisation is called circular polarisation.
We know that,
Since the fields vary sinusoidally, each component of electric field is

represented with an instantaneous value with magnitude .
And
Self-Instructional
128 Material
Polarization
NOTES
The above expression is a locus of a circle and hence said to be circularly

polarised.
Fig. 6.2 Circularly Polarized
3. Elliptical Polarisation
When the field components and have different magnitude but have
phase difference, the resultant field envelopes results in elliptical polarisation.
We know that,
Let the magnitudes of and be and , respectively. Therefore,

(6.1)
(6.2)
Therefore,
From Equations (6.1) and (6.2), we have
Self-Instructional
Material 129
Polarization The locus of the above expression is ellipse and hence said to be elliptically
polarised.
NOTES
Fig. 6.3 Elliptical Polarisation
The following are four different methods of polarisation:

Polarisation by Transmission
Polarization by Reflection
Polarization by Refraction
Polarization by Scattering
In perpendicular polarization, electric field is perpendicular to the plane of incidence,
across the boundary, electric field must be continuous and hence,
We how that,
Following the similar procedure as that of parallel polarization
Self-Instructional
130 Material
Polarization
NOTES
𝐸𝑟 √𝜖1 cos 𝜃𝑖 − √𝜖2 cos 𝜃𝑡

Δ𝐸 = =
𝐸𝑖 √𝜖1 cos 𝜃𝑖 + √𝜖2 cos 𝜃𝑡
Similarly,
2 √𝜖2 cos 𝜃𝑖
𝜏𝐸 =
√𝜖2 cos 𝜃𝑖 + √𝜖1 cos 𝜃𝑡
√𝜖1 cos 𝜃𝑖 − √𝜖2 cos 𝜃𝑡

1 + Δ𝐸 = 1 +
2√𝜖1 cos 𝜃𝑖
= = 𝜏𝐸
1 + Δ𝐸 = 𝜏 𝐸
Check Your Progress

1. Define the term polarisation.
2. What is wave polarization?
3. What are the types of wave polarisation?
4. Define circular polarization.
5. Explain elliptical polarization.
6.3 BREWSTER’S LAW AND TOTAL INTERNAL

REFLECTION
According to electromagnetic theory of light, electric field, magnetic field and the
propagation vector of light travel along three mutually perpendicular directions. It
is the electric field of light that creates optical sensation in our eyes, in photographic
cameras and in all other optical instruments. That is why electric field is known as
light vector.
Self-Instructional
Material 131
Polarization
NOTES
Fig. 6.4 Direction of Propagation

In case of propagation of light, electric field, being always perpendicular to the
direction of propagation, vibrates in its own plane with all possible orientations. If
we consider a circular cross-section perpendicular to the direction of propagation,
the oscillating profile of the electric field in all possible directions will be similar to
that in Figure (6.4). Here the propagation vector of light is perpendicular to the
plane of the paper. If, by some means, all the oscillating directions except a single
one of the electric field are cut off, the resultant light will be said to be polarised
light and this phenomenon of eliminating all directions of electric field and retaining
a single preferred direction of light vector perpendicular to the propagation vector
is known as polarisation.
Production of Polarised Light
Suppose, S is some source of unpolarised light (natural light). If we place a tourmaline
crystal in the path of the unpolarised light in such a way that the optic axis of the
crystal is perpendicular to the direction of propagation of the unpolarised light, then
those vibrations of the electric field of unpolarised light which are parallel to the
optic axis of the crystal, will pass through the crystal and the resultant light is polarised
(containing only one preferred direction of electric field). If a second tourmaline
crystal is placed in the path of polarised light in such a manner that both the crystals
have their optic axes parallel, then polarised light will be visible beyond the second
crystal also.
Fig. 6.5 Propagation of Polarized Light

Now, if the optic axis of the second crystal is rotated around the direction of
propagation of polarised light coming from the first crystal, then the intensity of
palarised light beyond the second crystal goes on decreasing and ultimately becomes
zero when the optic axis of the 2nd crystal is perpendicular to that of the first crystal.
Self-Instructional
132 Material
The first tourmaline crystal is called polariser and the 2nd one is called analyser. Polarization
NOTES
Fig. 6.6 Unpolarised Fig. 6.7 Polarised Light Fig. 6.8 Polarised Light
Light (Vibrations are Perpendicular Vibrations are in
to the Plane of Paper) the Plane of Paper)
Planes of Vibration and Polarisation

The imaginary plane which contains the vibrations of electric field of a polarised
light is called plane of vibration. An imaginary plane perpendicular to the plane of
vibration is called plane of polarisation.
Fig. 6.9 Plane of Vibration and Polarization
Qualitative Discussion on Types of Polarised Light

In general, there are three types of polarised light. These are:
Plane Polarised Light: The direction of electric field remains fixed, but its
magnitude changes during vibration.
Circularly Polarised Light: The magnitude of electric field remains fixed, but its
direction changes during vibration.
Elliptically Polarised Light: Both the magnitude and direction change continuously
during vibration.
Let us consider two mutually orthogonal light vectors given by,
Ex = E1 sin t ...(6.3)
Ey = E2 sin ( t + ) ...(6.4)
[ Phase difference between them]
Ex
= sin t ...(6.5)
E1
Ey
= sin t cos + cos t sin ...(6.6)
E2
Self-Instructional
Material 133
Polarization Using Equations (6.5) in (6.6), we get
Ey Ex E x2
= E cos   1  sin 
E2 1 E12
NOTES 2
 E y Ex   Ex2  2
or,   cos   = 1  2  sin 
 E2 E1   E1 
2
 E y   Ex 
2
E y Ex  Ex2  2
or   
2
 cos   2 . cos  = 1  2  sin 
 E2   E1  E2 E1  E1 
2 2
 E y   Ex   E y   Ex  2
or,      2   cos  = sin ...(6.7)
 E2   E1   E2   E1 
This represents the general equation for an ellipse. If Equation (6.7) is held, the
associated state of polarisation is called Elliptical polarisation in general.
For = n , n = 0, 1, 2, ...
2 2
 E y   Ex   E y   Ex 
Equation (6.7)      2  =0
 E2   E1   E1   E1 
[ sin(n ) = 0, cos(n ) = 1]
2
 E y Ex 
   =0
 E2 E1 
 E2 
Ey =   Ex ...(6.8)
 E1 
 E2 
Equation (6.8) represents a straight line with slope   . If Equation (6.8) is
 E1 
held, the associated state of polarisation is called plane polarisation.
For = (2n + 1) , n = 0, 1, 2, ...

2
2 2
 Ex   E y 
Equation (6.7)     =1 ...(6.9)
 E1   E2 
This represents Elliptical state of polarisation.
For E1 = E2 = E, and = (2n + 1) , n = 0, 1, 2, ...

2
2 2 2
(Ex) + (Ey) = E ...(6.10)
This represents Circular state of polarisation.
Self-Instructional
134 Material
Polarization
NOTES
Fig. 6.10 State of Polarisation
Thus, it is clear that elliptical polarisation is the most general type of polarisation.
Other types of polarisation are merely special cases of elliptical polarisation.
polarization (vibration in one plane only) of a ray of light may be achieved by
letting the ray fall on a surface of a transparent medium in such a way that the
refracted ray makes an angle of 90° with the reflected ray. The law is named after
a Scottish physicist, Sir David Brewster, who first proposed it in 1811. Brewster’s
angle, also known as the polarization angle, is an angle of incidence at which light
with a particular polarization is perfectly transmitted through a transparent dielectric
surface, with no reflection. When unpolarized light is incident at this angle, the light
that is reflected from the surface is therefore perfectly polarized.
Suppose AB is the interface between two dielectric media having refractive
indices µ1 and µ2, respectively. It is found that if an ordinary (unpolarised) ray of
light is incident on the interface at a particular angle B such that the reflected and
refracted rays are mutually perpendicular, then the reflected ray will be plane
polarised with plane of vibration perpendicular to the plane of incidence.
Fig. 6.11 Polarisation through Reflection

Here the angle of incidence is called Brewster’s angle after the name of physicist
Sir David Brewster who first studied this phenomenon.
Self-Instructional
Material 135
Polarization From the Figure (6.11), it is clear that
µ1 sin B = µ2 sin r (Snell’s law)
2 sin  B
or, = = µ (say)
NOTES 1 sin r
Again, B + 90° – r = 180° r = 90° – B
sin B sin  B
=µ= = tan B
sin (90 B) cos  B
tan B = µ ...(6.11)
This is Brewster’s Law.
Brewster’s Law
When unpolarised light is incident on the interface between two dielectric media at
the Brewster’s angle B (= tan–1 µ), the reflected light is plane polarised with the
plane of vibration perpendicular to the plane of incidence and the angle between
reflected and refracted rays is 90°.
Malus’s Law
When light (unpolarised) is incident on a polariser, the transmitted light is plane
polarised with its plane of polarisation perpendicular to the optic axis of the
polariser. If this transmitted plane polarised light is allowed to pass through an
analyser, the intensity of the transmitted ray through the analyser varies with the
angle between the plane of polariser and that of the analyser. Malus studied this
problem and stated that the variation of intensity in terms of a law known as Malus’s
law.
It states that the intensity of the polarised light transmitted through the analyser
varies as the square of cosine of the angle between the plane of transmission of the
analyser and the plane of polariser.
Mathematically, intensity of the polarised light transmitted through the analyser
I = A2cos2
or, I = Iocos2 ...(6.12)
A Amplitude of the light vector of plane polarised light
Angle between the transmission plane of analyser and the plane of
polariser
If = , I=0
2
This shows that when the two planes are at right angle to each other, the intensity
of the transmitted light is zero.
Double Refraction
If a beam of unpolarised light is allowed to pass through an anisotropic crystal
(Calcite or Quartz), it splits up into two refracted beams instead of one. This
Self-Instructional
136 Material
phenomenon is called Double Refraction or Birefringence. If a ray of light SA Polarization
from a point source is incident on a calcite crystal making an angle of incidence ‘i’,
it is refracted along two paths AB and AC making angles of refraction r1 and r2,
respectively. These rays emerge out as BO and CE parallel to each other as shown
in Figure (6.12). If the calcite crystal is rotated about the incident beam as axis, O- NOTES
ray remains fixed but E-ray rotates round O-ray. Here the O-ray obeys ordinary
laws of refraction and hence it is called Ordinary ray. The E-ray does not obey
the ordinary laws of refraction. It is called Extra-ordinary ray. It is noteworthy
that both O-ray and E-ray are plane polarised with the vibrations of O-ray are
perpendicular and those of the E-ray are parallel to the principal section of the
 sin i   sin i 
calcite crystal. For O-ray,   Constant, for E-ray   Function
 sin r1   sin r2 
of ‘i’.
Fig. 6.12 Principal Section of Calcite (CaCO3)

If we place a calcite crystal in front of a point marked on a paper, we will, in
general, see two images of the point. The appearence of the two images is due to
the phenomenon of double refraction. When a light ray entering such a crystal
will split up into two rays and for a crystal like calcite, one of the rays will follow
the Snell’s law of refraction and the other will not. The former is termed as ordinary
ray (O-ray) and the latter as extra-ordinary ray (E-ray). The velocity of the O-
ray is same in all directions whereas the velocity of E-ray is different in different
directions. But, along a particular direction the velocity of O-ray and E-ray is same;
this direction is known as the optic axis of the crystal.
Indeed, the wavefront due to the ordinary ray is spherical whereas the wavefront
due to the extra-ordinary ray is an ellipsoid in nature. If the ellipsoid of revolution
lies outside the sphere (i.e., the velocity of E-ray is greater than the velocity of O-
ray everywhere except optic axis), then the crystal is known as a negative crystal
(example: Calcite).
On the other hand, if the ellipsoid of revolution lies inside the sphere (i.e., the
velocity of E-ray is less than the O-ray except optic axis), then the crystal is known
as a positive crystal (example: Quartz).
Self-Instructional
Material 137
Polarization The images formed by the O-ray and E-ray are given in Figure (6.13(a)) and
Figure (6.13(b)) for negative and positive crystal, respectively.
NOTES
(a) Negative crystal (Calcite) (b) Positive crystal (Quartz)

Fig. 6.13 Images by O-Ray and E-Ray
Nicol Prism
It is an optical device made from a calcite crystal and is used to produce and analyse
the plane polarised light of extra-ordinary nature.
When unpolarised light is incident on a Nicol prism, two plane polarised lights
are produced by double refraction, the O-ray, thus produced, is eliminated by total
internal reflection and the E-ray is transmitted through the crystal.
Construction: The Nicol prism is constructed from a calcite crystal whose length
is nearly three times its width. The crystal is cut through AC and the cut faces are
joined together by some adhesive material canadabalsam. The angles of principal
section are 112° and 68°. In calcite medium, the refractive indices for O-ray and
E-ray are µo = 1.66, µe = 1.49, respectively. The refractive index of canadabalsam
is µcd = 1.55.
Polarising Action: Nicol prism can be used as a polariser to produced plane
polarised (E-ray) light from unpolarised light. The unpolarised light after entering
at principal section of a Nicol prism is split up into E-ray and O-ray by the technique
of double refraction. Since µo > µcd, the O-ray suffers total internal reflection at
Calcite-Canadabalsam Interface and thus it is eliminated. For µe < µcd, the extra-
ordinary E-ray is transmitted through the end face CD of the Nicol prism. Thus by
using a Nicol prism we can get plane polarised E-rays from unpolarised light.
Fig. 6.14 Polarising Action
Self-Instructional
138 Material
Analysing Action: Nicol prism can be used to analyse a polarised light. If two Polarization
Nicol prisms are placed one-by-one such that their principal sections are parallel
to one another, then the first prism is used as polariser and second one as analyser.
NOTES
Fig. 6.15 Analysing Action

If we rotate the principal section of the analysing Nicol prism with respect to
that of the polariser, the intensity of the E-ray emitted from the analyser decreases
and it becomes zero when the principal planes of the two Nicol prisms are
perpendicular to one another.
Polaroids
Due to the non-availability of larger sizes of polarising crystals (Tourmaline, Nicol
prisms, etc.) it is not possible to obtain larger cross-section of plane polarised light.
To obtain plane polarised light with larger cross-sections, polaroids are used.
Fig. 6.16 Polarids

The materials used to produce polaroids is basically Iodoquinine Sulphate which
is also known as Herapathite. These look like tiny needles. This is mixed in
Nitrocellulose solution. The solution is placed between two glass plates to produce
polaroids. If a polaroid is placed in the path of unpolarised light, plane polarised
light is produced. In this case, the tiny needles behave as parallel optic axes.
Polaroids are two types: (i) H-Polaroid and (ii) K-Polaroid.
H-Polaroid: It is prepared by using Polyvinyl Alcohol (PVA) with Iodine dopant.
K-Polaroid: It is prepared by using the same material PVA heated in the presence
of dehydrating agent, such as HCl.
Self-Instructional
Material 139
Polarization Applications of Polaroid
Polaroids are used in Liquid Crystal Display (LCD), sunglasses, optical
microscopes, etc., but the major use of these is in production of polarised light of
large cross-section.
NOTES
Polarisation by Absorption
A number of crystalline materials absorb more light in one incident plane than another,
so that light progressing through the material become more and more polarised as
they proceed. This anisotropy in absorption is called dichroism. There are several
naturally occurring dichroic materials, and the commercial material polaroid also
polarises by selective absorption.
Fig. 6.17 Absorption

Polariod is the trade name for the most commonly used dichroic material. It
selectively absorbs light from one plane, typically transmitting less than 1% through
a sheet of polariod. It may transmit more than 80% of light in the perpendicular
plane. The word ‘polaroid’ usually refers to polaroid H-sheet, which is a sheet of
iodine-impregnated polyvinyl alcohol. A sheet of polyvinyl alcohol is heated and
stretched in one direction while softened, which has the effect of aligning the long
polymeric molecules in the direction of stretch. When dipped in iodine, the iodine
atoms attach themselves to the aligned chains. The iodine atoms provide electrons
which can move easily along the aligned chains, but not perpendicular to them.
Light waves with electric fields parallel to these chains are strongly absorbed
because of the dissipative effects of the electron motion in the chains. The direction
perpendicular to the polyvinyl alcohol chains is the ‘pass’ direction since the electrons
cannot move freely to absorb energy.
Polaroid Sunglasses
The polaroid material used in sunglasses makes use of dichroism, or selective
absorption, to achieve polarisation.
Self-Instructional
140 Material
Polarization
NOTES
Fig. 6.18 Polaroid Sunglasses
Retardation Plates (Half and Quarter Wave Plates)

A double refracting crystalline plate cut parallel to its optic axis with the refracting
faces of particular phase and path difference between ordinary ray (O-ray) and
extraordinary ray (E-ray) is termed as retardation plate. If ‘d’ be the thickness
of the crystalline plate, µo and µe be the refractive indices of the O-ray and E-ray
respectively, then the path difference by the plate is given by,
(µo – µe) d ...(6.13)
And the corresponding phase difference is given by,
2
= (µo – µe) d ...(6.14)
If the value of thickness ‘d’ of the plate is such that the path difference is or
4
a phase difference is , then the plate is called Quarter Wave Plate. Thus the
2
thickness of a quarter wave plate is given by,
(µo – µe) d =
4
d= ...(6.15)
4( o d)
Self-Instructional
Material 141
Polarization
If the value of thickness ‘d’ of the plate is such that the path difference is or
2
a phase difference is , then the plate is called Half Wave Plate. Thus the thickness
of a half wave plate is given by,
NOTES
(µo – µe) d =
2
d= ...(6.16)
2( o e)
Production of Elliptically and Circularly Polarised Light
For Elliptical Polarisation

An elliptically polarised light can be produced by the superimposing of two
perpendicular coherent linear vibrations of light ray having different amplitudes with
phase difference . Let us consider two mutually perpendicular light rays given
2
by (at z = 0),
Ex = E1 sin t ...(6.17)
And Ey = E2 sin t ...(6.18)

2
Hence, an elliptical vibration is given by,
2 2
Ex Ey
=1 (by Equation 6.9) ...(6.19)
E1 E2
Such two linear vibrations [given in Equations (6.17) and (6.18)] can be
produced by allowing a light ray of plane polarised beam to be incident
perpendicularly on a quarter-wave plate with the direction of vibration making an
angle except radian (about radian) with the optic axis of the plate. The
4 6
incident ray of amplitude ‘E’ can be resolved into two components having amplitude
E1 = E cos along the optic axis formed E-ray and another having amplitude E2
= E sin normal to the optic axis formed O-ray. Thus, these two vibrations (at z
= 0) can be represented by,
Ex = E cos sin t + ...
And Ey = E sin cos t + ...
On passing through the quarter wave plate having path difference , relative
4
phase difference will be maintained between the two vibrations. Thus, as a result
2
an elliptically polarised emergent light will be produced as we discussed above.
Self-Instructional
142 Material
Circular Polarisation Polarization
A circularly polarised light can be produced by the superimposing of two

perpendicular coherent linear vibrations of light ray having same amplitudes with
phase difference . Let us consider two mutually perpendicular light rays given NOTES
2
by (at z = 0),
Ex = E sin t ...(6.20)
And Ey = E sin t ...(6.21)

2
Hence, a circular vibration is given by
Ex2 + Ey2 = E2 (Equation 6.10) ...(6.22)
Such two linear vibrations [given in Equations (6.20) and (6.21)] can be
produced by allowing a light ray of plane polarised beam to be incident
perpendicularly on a quarter wave plate with the direction of vibration making an
angle radian with the optic axis of the plate. The incident ray of amplitude ‘E’
4
E
can be resolved into two components having amplitude E cos = along the
4 2
E
optic axis formed E-ray and another having amplitude E sin = normal to
4 2
the optic axis formed O-ray. Thus, these two light vibrations (at z = 0) can be
represented by,
E
Ex = sin t
2
E
And Ey = cos t
2
On passing through the quarter wave plate having path difference , relative
4
phase difference will be maintained between the two vibrations. Thus, as a result
2
a circularly polarised emergent light will be produced as we discussed above.
Principally, the Degree Of Polarization (DOP) is a quantity used to describe the
portion of an electromagnetic wave which is polarized. A perfectly polarized wave
has a DOP of 100%, whereas an unpolarized wave has a DOP of 0%. A wave
which is partially polarized, and therefore can be represented by a superposition
of a polarized and unpolarized component, will have a DOP somewhere in between
0 and 100%. DOP is calculated as the fraction of the total power that is carried by
the polarized component of the wave.
Self-Instructional
Material 143
Polarization DOP can be used to map the strain field in materials when considering the
DOP of the photoluminescence. The polarization of the photoluminescence is related
to the strain in a material by way of the given material’s photo-elasticity tensor.
DOP is also visualized using the Poincaré sphere representation of a polarized
NOTES
beam. In this representation, DOP is equal to the length of the vector measured
from the center of the sphere.
Check Your Progress

6. Why electric field is known as light vector?
7. What is polarised light?
8. What does Brewster's law state?
9. Explain double refraction.
10. What is Nicol prism? What happens when unpolarised light is incident on
a Nicol prism?
11. How polaroids are produced?
12. What is degree of polarization? How it is calculated?

QUESTIONS
1. Polarization or Polarisation is a property applied to transverse waves that

specifies the geometrical orientation of the oscillations. In a transverse wave,
the direction of the oscillation is perpendicular to the direction of motion of
the wave. Transverse waves that exhibit polarization include electromagnetic
waves, such as light and radio waves, gravitational waves, and transverse
sound waves (shear waves) in solids.
2. Polarization, also called wave polarization, is an expression of the orientation
of the lines of electric flux in an ElectroMagnetic field (EM field). Polarisation
may be defined as the orientation of the field in a particular direction.
3. Polarisation of waves are of following types:
Linear polarisation
Circular polarisation
Elliptical polarisation
4. When the field components Ex and Ey are out of phase by 90° with each
other. The variation of these field components makes the resultant vector
rotate in a circular path. Such polarisation is called circular polarisation.
5. When the field components Ex and Ey have different magnitude but have
90° phase difference, then the resultant field envelopes results in elliptical
polarisation.
Self-Instructional
144 Material
6. According to electromagnetic theory of light, electric field, magnetic field Polarization
and the propagation vector of light travel along three mutually perpendicular
directions. It is the electric field of light that creates optical sensation in our
eyes, in photographic cameras and in all other optical instruments. That is
why electric field is known as light vector. NOTES
7. If, by some means, all the oscillating directions except a single one of the
electric field are cut off, the resultant light will be said to be polarised light.
8. Brewster’s law states that the relationship for light waves as the maximum
polarization (vibration in one plane only) of a ray of light may be achieved
by letting the ray fall on a surface of a transparent medium in such a way that
the refracted ray makes an angle of 90° with the reflected ray. The law is
named after a Scottish physicist, Sir David Brewster, who first proposed it
in 1811.
9. If a beam of unpolarised light is allowed to pass through an anisotropic
crystal (Calcite or Quartz), it splits up into two refracted beams instead of
one. This phenomenon is called double refraction or Birefringence.
10. Nicol prism is an optical device made from a calcite crystal and is used to
produce and analyse the plane polarised light of extra-ordinary nature. When
unpolarised light is incident on a Nicol prism, two plane polarised lights are
produced by double refraction, the O-ray, thus produced, is eliminated by
total internal reflection and the E-ray is transmitted through the crystal.
11. The materials used to produce polaroids is basically Iodoquinine Sulphate
which is also known as Herapathite. These look like tiny needles. This is
mixed in Nitrocellulose solution. The solution is placed between two glass
plates to produce polaroids.
12. Principally, the Degree Of Polarization (DOP) is a quantity used to describe
the portion of an electromagnetic wave which is polarized. A perfectly
polarized wave has a DOP of 100%, whereas an unpolarized wave has a
DOP of 0%. A wave which is partially polarized, and therefore can be
represented by a superposition of a polarized and unpolarized component,
will have a DOP somewhere in between 0 and 100%. DOP is calculated as
the fraction of the total power that is carried by the polarized component of
the wave.
6.5 SUMMARY
Polarization or Polarisation is a property applied to transverse waves that

specifies the geometrical orientation of the oscillations. In a transverse wave,
the direction of the oscillation is perpendicular to the direction of motion of
the wave.
Self-Instructional
Material 145
Polarization Transverse waves that exhibit polarization include electromagnetic waves,
such as light and radio waves, gravitational waves, and transverse sound
waves (shear waves) in solids.
In linear polarization, the fields oscillate in a single direction. In circular or
NOTES
elliptical polarization, the fields rotate at a constant rate in a plane as the
wave travels.
The rotation can have two possible directions; if the fields rotate in a right
hand sense with respect to the direction of wave travel, it is called right
circular polarization, or, if the fields rotate in a left hand sense, it is called left
circular polarization.
Electromagnetic waves travel through any medium. These wave are produced
by the vibration of the electron charges. These wave are traverse waves
that has both the electric and magnetic components.
Polarization, also called wave polarization, is an expression of the orientation
of the lines of electric flux in an ElectroMagnetic field (EM field).
Polarisation may be defined as the orientation of the field in a particular
direction.
Polarisation of waves may be defined as (1) Linear polarization, (2) Circular
polarization and (3) Elliptical polarization.
When the field components Ex and Ey are out of phase by 90° with each
other. The variation of these field components makes the resultant vector
rotate in a circular path. Such polarisation is called circular polarisation.
When the field components Ex and Ey have different magnitude but have
90° phase difference, then the resultant field envelopes results in elliptical
polarisation.
According to electromagnetic theory of light, electric field, magnetic field
and the propagation vector of light travel along three mutually perpendicular
directions. It is the electric field of light that creates optical sensation in our
eyes, in photographic cameras and in all other optical instruments. That is
why electric field is known as light vector.
If, by some means, all the oscillating directions except a single one of the
electric field are cut off, the resultant light will be said to be polarised light
and this phenomenon of eliminating all directions of electric field and retaining
a single preferred direction of light vector perpendicular to the propagation
vector is known as polarisation.
The imaginary plane which contains the vibrations of electric field of a
polarised light is called plane of vibration. An imaginary plane perpendicular
to the plane of vibration is called plane of polarisation.
In the plane polarised light, the direction of electric field remains fixed, but
its magnitude changes during vibration.
Self-Instructional
146 Material
In the circularly polarised light, the magnitude of electric field remains fixed, Polarization
but its direction changes during vibration.

In the elliptically polarised light, both the magnitude and direction change
continuously during vibration.
NOTES
polarization (vibration in one plane only) of a ray of light may be achieved
by letting the ray fall on a surface of a transparent medium in such a way
that the refracted ray makes an angle of 90° with the reflected ray. The law
is named after a Scottish physicist, Sir David Brewster, who first proposed
it in 1811.
Brewster’s angle, also known as the polarization angle, is an angle of
incidence at which light with a particular polarization is perfectly transmitted
through a transparent dielectric surface, with no reflection. When unpolarized
light is incident at this angle, the light that is reflected from the surface is
therefore perfectly polarized.
Malus’s law states that the intensity of the polarised light transmitted through
the analyser varies as the square of cosine of the angle between the plane of
transmission of the analyser and the plane of polariser.
If a beam of unpolarised light is allowed to pass through an anisotropic
crystal (Calcite or Quartz), it splits up into two refracted beams instead of
one. This phenomenon is called double refraction or Birefringence.
Nicol Prism is an optical device made from a calcite crystal and is used to
produce and analyse the plane polarised light of extra-ordinary nature.
When unpolarised light is incident on a Nicol prism, two plane polarised
lights are produced by double refraction, the O-ray, thus produced, is
eliminated by total internal reflection and the E-ray is transmitted through
the crystal.
Nicol prism can be used as a polariser to produced plane polarised (E-ray)
light from unpolarised light. The unpolarised light after entering at principal
section of a Nicol prism is split up into E-ray and O-ray by the technique of
double refraction.
Nicol prism can be used to analyse a polarised light. If two Nicol prisms are
placed one-by-one such that their principal sections are parallel to one
another, then the first prism is used as polariser and second one as analyser.
The materials used to produce polaroids is basically Iodoquinine Sulphate
which is also known as Herapathite. These look like tiny needles. This is
mixed in Nitrocellulose solution. The solution is placed between two glass
plates to produce polaroids. If a polaroid is placed in the path of unpolarised
light, plane polarised light is produced.
Self-Instructional
Material 147
Polarization Polaroids are two types: (i) H-polaroid and (ii) K-polaroid.
H-polaroid is prepared by using Polyvinyl Alcohol (PVA) with Iodine dopant.
K-polaroid is prepared by using the same material PVA heated in the
NOTES presence of dehydrating agent, such as HCl.
A number of crystalline materials absorb more light in one incident plane
than another, so that light progressing through the material become more
and more polarised as they proceed. This anisotropy in absorption is called
dichroism.
A double refracting crystalline plate cut parallel to its optic axis with the
refracting faces of particular phase and path difference between Ordinary
ray (O-ray) and Extraordinary ray (E-ray) is termed as retardation plate.
A circularly polarised light can be produced by the superimposing of two
perpendicular coherent linear vibrations of light ray having same amplitudes
with phase difference p/2.
Principally, the Degree Of Polarization (DOP) is a quantity used to describe
the portion of an electromagnetic wave which is polarized.
A perfectly polarized wave has a DOP of 100%, whereas an unpolarized
wave has a DOP of 0%.
A wave which is partially polarized, and therefore can be represented by a
superposition of a polarized and unpolarized component, will have a DOP
somewhere in between 0 and 100%. DOP is calculated as the fraction of
the total power that is carried by the polarized component of the wave.
6.6 KEY WORDS
Polarization: Also called wave polarization, is an expression of the

orientation of the lines of electric flux in an ElectroMagnetic field (EM field),
i.e., polarisation may be defined as the orientation of the field in a particular
direction.
Circular polarization: When the field components Ex and Ey are out of
phase by 90° with each other, then the variation of these field components
makes the resultant vector rotate in a circular path and such polarisation is
called circular polarisation.
Elliptical polarization: When the field components Ex and Ey have different
magnitude but have 90° phase difference, then the resultant field envelopes
results in elliptical polarisation.
Plane polarised light: The direction of electric field remains fixed, but its
magnitude changes during vibration.
Self-Instructional
148 Material
Circularly polarised light: The magnitude of electric field remains fixed, Polarization
but its direction changes during vibration.

Elliptically polarised light: Both the magnitude and direction change
continuously during vibration.
NOTES
Double refraction: If a beam of unpolarised light is allowed to pass through
an anisotropic crystal (Calcite or Quartz), it splits up into two refracted
beams instead of one. This phenomenon is called double refraction or
Birefringence.
Degree Of Polarization (DOP): It is a quantity used to describe the portion
of an electromagnetic wave which is polarized.

EXERCISES

1. What is wave polarization?
2. State the various forms for polarization of waves.
3. Define perpendicular polarization.
4. How is the polarized light produced?
5. Give standard equations for plane and elliptical polarization.
6. State Brewster’s law.
7. What is double refraction?
8. What are polaroids?
9. What does degree of polarization states?
1. Discuss the significance of different forms of wave polarization with the help
of appropriate examples.
2. Briefly explain about the linear, circular and elliptical polarization.
3. Explain in detail the characteristic features of Brewster’s law and total internal
reflection.
4. Derive the equations for elliptically polarized light.
5. Explain double refraction with the help of appropriate examples.
6. Discuss the characteristic features and applications of polaroids.
7. Why and when the degree of polarization used?
Self-Instructional
Material 149
Polarization

Sons.
Inc.
House Pvt. Ltd.
Self-Instructional
150 Material
Dispersion of
BLOCK - III Electromagnetic
Waves
DISPERSION AND SCATTERING OF EM WAVES
NOTES
UNIT 7 DISPERSION OF
ELECTROMAGNETIC
WAVES
Structure
7.0 Introduction
7.1 Objectives
7.2 Dispersion of Electromagnetic Waves
7.2.4 Experimental Demonstration of Anomalous Dispersion in Gases, Solids
and Liquids
7.4 Summary
7.5 Key Words
7.0 INTRODUCTION
The variation of the refractive index with frequency is termed as dispersion. It is

this property of a prism that effects the colour separation, or dispersion, of white
light. An equation that connects the refractive index with frequency is called a
dispersion relation. In physics, the dispersion relations describe the effect of
dispersion in a medium on the properties of a wave traveling within that medium. A
dispersion relation relates the wavelength or wavenumber of a wave to its frequency.
From this relation the refractive index of the medium can be determined. Dispersion
may be caused either by geometric boundary conditions (waveguides, shallow
water) or by interaction of the waves with the transmitting medium. Elementary
particles, considered as matter waves, have a nontrivial dispersion relation even in
the absence of geometric constraints and other media.
All materials contain ions and electrons. These charged particles experience
Lorentz force when exposed to electromagnetic fields. Except in plasmas (ionized
gases), currents are predominantly caused by electron motion because ions are
practically immobile. In conductors, conduction electron response to externally
applied electric field is particularly strong, and the current induced by electron
motion tends to prevent the external field from penetrating into conductors. This
Self-Instructional
Material 151
Dispersion of phenomena is known as skin effect. In dielectrics, electrons are bound to molecules
Electromagnetic
Waves and are thus not free as in conductors. However, those bound electrons can still
react to external fields, and induce microscopic current. In an oscillating field, the
effective permittivity becomes frequency dependent, and electromagnetic waves
NOTES in dielectrics are strongly dispersive in contrast to waves in free space.
In this unit, you will study about the dispersion, normal and anomalous
dispersion, dispersion in gases and the anomalous dispersion in a given material.
7.1 OBJECTIVES

Understand what dispersion is
Differentiate between the normal and anomalous dispersion
Discuss about dispersion in gases
Explain the anomalous dispersion in a given material
7.2 DISPERSION OF ELECTROMAGNETIC WAVES
The variation of the refractive index with frequency is termed as dispersion. It is

this property of a prism that effects the colour separation, or dispersion, of white
light. An equation that connects the refractive index with frequency is called a
dispersion relation. The dispersion relations describe the effect of dispersion in a
medium on the properties of a wave traveling within that medium. Principally, a
dispersion relation relates the wavelength or wavenumber of a wave to its frequency.
From this relation the phase velocity and group velocity of the wave have convenient
expressions which then determine the refractive index of the medium. Dispersion
may be caused either by geometric boundary conditions (waveguides, shallow
water) or by interaction of the waves with the transmitting medium. Elementary
particles, considered as matter waves, have a nontrivial dispersion relation even in
the absence of geometric constraints and other media.
For visible light the index of refraction increases slightly with frequency, a
phenomenon termed normal dispersion. The degree of refraction depends on the
refractive index. The increased bending of violet light over red by a glass prism is
therefore the result of normal dispersion. If experiments are done, however, with
light having a frequency close to the natural electron frequency, some strange
effects appear. When the radiation frequency is slightly greater, for example, the
index of refraction becomes less than unity (<1) and decreases with increasing
frequency; the latter phenomenon is called anomalous dispersion. A refractive
index less than unity refers correctly to the fact that the speed of light in the medium
at that frequency is greater than the speed of light in vacuum. The velocity referred
to, however, is the phase velocity or the velocity with which the sine-wave peaks
Self-Instructional
152 Material
are propagated. The propagation velocity of an actual signal or the group velocity Dispersion of
Electromagnetic
is always less than the speed of light in vacuum. Waves
All materials contain ions and electrons. These charged particles experience
Lorentz force when exposed to electromagnetic fields. Except in plasmas (ionized
NOTES
gases), currents are predominantly caused by electron motion because ions are
practically immobile. In conductors, conduction electron response to externally
applied electric field is particularly strong, and the current induced by electron
motion tends to prevent the external field from penetrating into conductors. This
phenomena is known as skin effect. In dielectrics, electrons are bound to molecules
and are thus not free as in conductors. However, those bound electrons can still
react to external fields, and induce microscopic current. In an oscillating field, the
effective permittivity becomes frequency dependent, and electromagnetic waves
in dielectrics are strongly dispersive in contrast to waves in free space.
Dispersion occurs when pure plane waves of different wavelengths have
different propagation velocities, such that a wave packet of mixed wavelengths
tends to spread out in space. The speed of a plane wave, v, is a function of the
wave’s wavelength ‘l’ and is expressed as:
v = v ( )
The wave’s speed, wavelength, and frequency, f, are related by the identity,
The function f ( ) expresses the dispersion relation of the given medium.

Dispersion relations are more commonly expressed in terms of the angular
frequency and wavenumber . Rewriting the relation
above in these variables gives,
Where ‘f’ is defined as a function of k. The use of ω(k) to describe the

dispersion relation has become standard because both the phase velocity ω/
k and the group velocity dω/dk have convenient representations through this
function.
The plane waves being considered can be described by,
Where,
A = Amplitude of the Wave
A0 = A (0, 0)
Self-Instructional
Material 153
Dispersion of x = Position along the Wave’s Direction of Travel
Electromagnetic
Waves t = Time at which the Wave is described
For electromagnetic waves in vacuum, the angular frequency is proportional
NOTES to the wavenumber and is expressed as,
ω = ck
When a white light, for example, sunlight, or light from an incandescent lamp is
passed through a prism then the colour separation is observed. Since the ‘Light’
observes electromagnetic oscillations, therefore the different colours have different
wavelengths and different frequencies in vacuum for all of them move with the
same speed ‘c’. Our eyes can sense different wavelengths of visible spectrum
only with different colours. The separation happens because the different
wavelengths have different refractive indices. Whenever light enters a dielectric
medium this separation happens and the phenomenon is known as ‘Dispersion’.
Basically, it is the variation of refractive index with the wavelength. Alternatively,
the variation of the frequency with the wavelength in a medium is ‘Normal
Dispersion’. Cauchy explained dispersion and gave a formula which typically
described the dispersion in the visible range. The following formula is known as
Cauchy’s dispersion formula,
Here A, B and C are constants which depend on the medium. Experimentally,

the constants can be determined by measuring the refractive index for three
wavelengths. In normal condition the first two terms would suffice to give an
accurate value of ‘n’. The derivative of the refractive index is given by,
Since A and B both are positive, therefore the refractive index decreases
increasing the wavelength.
Anomalous dispersion refers to the dispersion of light in some refraction spectra in
which the normal order of the separation of components is reversed in the vicinity
of certain wavelengths, i.e., a sudden change in the refractive index of a material
for wavelengths in the vicinity of absorption bands in the spectrum of the material.
For material which are transparent to visible region the Cauchy’s formula works
perfectly, but if there is further increase in the wavelength say to the Infra-Red
(IR), then the refractive index suddenly decreases very fast and does not obey the
Self-Instructional
154 Material
Cauchy’s law. Thus it approaches the absorption region. Further increasing the Dispersion of
Electromagnetic
wavelength once again the refractive index becomes big/large. Additionally, this Waves
behaviour is quite similar to the visible region for the increase in wavelength. If the
range is increased further then again is observes another absorption band as shown
in the Figure (7.1) below. The pattern may repeat further as shown, giving many NOTES
absorption bands. This dispersion is known as ‘Anomalous Dispersion’.
Fig. 7.1 Normal and Anomalous Dispersion
The first theory of it was proposed by Sellmeier who assumed that all elastically
bound particles in the medium oscillate with a natural frequency ω0 which
correspond to a wavelength 0 in the vacuum. Sellmeir formula gave,
Where is a constant. If one is away from 0

it can be expanded in powers
of / and one would get a formula of the Cauchy type.
0

A dispersion is a system in which distributed particles of one material are dispersed
in a continuous phase of another material. The two phases may be in the same or
different states of matter.
Dispersions are classified in a number of different ways, including how large
the particles are in relation to the particles of the continuous phase, whether or not
precipitation occurs, and the presence of Brownian motion. In general, dispersions
of particles sufficiently large for sedimentation are called suspensions, while those
of smaller particles are called colloids and solutions.
IUPAC Definition: Material comprising more than one phase where at least one
of the phases consists of finely divided phase domains, often in the colloidal size
range, dispersed throughout a continuous phase.
Dispersions do not display any structure; i.e., the particles (or in case of
emulsions: droplets) dispersed in the liquid or solid matrix (the ‘dispersion medium’)
Self-Instructional
Material 155
Dispersion of are assumed to be statistically distributed. Therefore, for dispersions, usually
Electromagnetic
Waves percolation theory is assumed to appropriately describe their properties.
Dispersion in gases can be explained using the propagation of electromagnetic
waves in a dielectric or dilute gas in which the mutual interactions between the
NOTES
constituent particles are abandoned. When the wave passes through the gas, the
electrons in the molecules are displaced from their equilibrium position such that
the molecules are polarized. Because the gas has low density, hence the difference
between the applied electric force and the local field can be neglected. Assuming
that the electrons are bounded by a linear restoring force and also the damping is
proportional to the velocity.
In physics, dielectric dispersion is the dependence of the permittivity of a
dielectric material on the frequency of an applied electric field. Because there is a
pause/delay between changes in polarization and changes in the electric field, the
permittivity of the dielectric is a complicated function of frequency of the electric
field. Dielectric dispersion is very important for the applications of dielectric
materials and for the analysis of polarization systems.
This is one instance of a general phenomenon known as material dispersion:
a frequency-dependent response of a medium for wave propagation.
When the frequency becomes higher, then:
Dipolar polarization can no longer follow the oscillations of the electric
field in the microwave region around 1010 Hz.
Ionic polarization and molecular distortion polarization can no longer
track the electric field past the infrared or far-infrared region around
1013 Hz.
Electronic polarization loses its response in the ultraviolet region around
1015 Hz.
In the frequency region above ultraviolet, permittivity approaches the constant
0
in every substance, where 0 is the permittivity of the free space. Because
permittivity indicates the strength of the relation between an electric field and
polarization, if a polarization process loses its response, permittivity decreases.
7.2.4 Experimental Demonstration of Anomalous Dispersion in
Gases, Solids and Liquids
Anomalous dispersion is the dispersion of light in some refraction spectra in which
the normal order of the separation of components is reversed in the vicinity of
certain wavelengths.
Demonstration of Anomalous Dispersion in Liquid
When a beam of white light is refracted by an ordinary prism then it is not only
redirected but it is also dispersed. This dispersion happens since the index of
refraction depends (slightly) on the wavelength of light being refracted. In maximum
Self-Instructional
156 Material
materials, the blue light is refracted more strongly as compared to the red light. Dispersion of
Electromagnetic
Blue light is bent at a larger angle than red when a normal prism is used. Normal Waves
dispersion yields the accustomed rainbow of colours from white light.
Normal dispersion is assumed to occur because the atoms in the prism are
NOTES
capable of oscillating at natural resonant frequencies which are much higher than
the frequency of visible light. Light with higher frequency (shorter wavelength)
interacts more strongly with these atoms since it is nearby to the resonant frequency.
As a result it has a larger index of refraction.
In a couple of materials, there is an atomic resonance whose frequency falls
within the frequency range of visible light. A solution of potassium permanganate
(KMn04) in water can be considered as the dispersing medium.
For his experiment, a hollow prism filled with (KMn04) solution was used
and the apparatus was set as shown in Figure (7.2). White light is generated by the
filament of a 500 watt incandescent lamp. A condensing lens collects much of this
light and forms a small image of the filament. A collimating lens, with its focus on
the image, produces a beam of parallel rays, roughly the same diameter as the
lens.
This cylinder of light is converted to a sheet of light by a collimating slit. The
sheet of light enters the prism and is refracted as shown in Figure (7.2). When
water alone is in the prism, the light exits the prism in the usual (vertical) rainbow
pattern.
In this experiment, the refracted light is passed through a spectral filter. This
thin film filter allows blue wavelengths to pass on one end. The thickness of the film
increases along the length of the filter, so that increasingly long wavelengths are
allowed to pass. Red light passes through the end farthest from the blue-pass
region. For normal dispersion in water, blue wavelengths are refracted through a
greater angle, and thus strike the filter at a higher point.
Fig. 7.2 Experimental Setup

Self-Instructional
Material 157
Dispersion of This takes place for the entire length of the filter, but the blue light is only
Electromagnetic
Waves permitted at the right end of the apparatus. Using this method, the refraction for
each wavelength can be displayed in graphical form for the expected curve for
anomalous dispersion as shown in Figure (7.3). The angle at which the light is
NOTES refracted is related to the index of refraction and the ‘ ’ is considered as the light
wavelength.
Fig. 7.3 Index of Refraction
For water, the index of refraction fluctuates/deviates by less than 1%

throughout the visible range of wavelengths, such that the angles are approximately
constant. Hence, as shown in Figure (7.4), it is a good approximation to state that
‘the change of exit angle, ‘ ’ is proportional to the change in index of refraction,
for a given change in wavelength’.
Consequently, the change in ‘ ’ is also proportional to the change in position
at which the exiting ray of light hits the spectral filter. Accordingly the location of
the light upon the filter is a reasonable representation of the index of refraction.
Fig. 7.4 Index of Refraction and Angle ‘ ’

Self-Instructional
158 Material
Dispersion of
Electromagnetic
Check Your Progress Waves
1. What is dispersion?
2. Explain the term dispersion relation. NOTES
3. Give the equations for speed of a plane wave.
4. What is the angular frequency of electromagnetic waves in vacuum?
5. How colour separation occurs?
6. Why our eyes can sense different wavelengths of visible spectrum only?
7. What is normal dispersion?
8. Define anomalous dispersion.
9. How dispersion in gases takes place?
10. What happens when the frequency becomes higher in polarisation?

QUESTIONS
1. The variation of the refractive index with frequency is termed as dispersion.

It is this property of a prism that effects the colour separation, or dispersion,
of white light.
2. An equation that connects the refractive index with frequency is called a
dispersion relation. The dispersion relations describe the effect of dispersion
in a medium on the properties of a wave traveling within that medium.
Principally, a dispersion relation relates the wavelength or wavenumber of a
wave to its frequency. From this relation the phase velocity and group
velocity of the wave have convenient expressions which then determine the
refractive index of the medium.
3. The speed of a plane wave, v, is a function of the wave’s wavelength ‘ ’
and is expressed as:
v=v( )
The function f( )expresses the dispersion relation of the given medium.

4. For electromagnetic waves in vacuum, the angular frequency is proportional
to the wavenumber and is expressed as,
= ck
Self-Instructional
Material 159
Dispersion of 5. When a white light, for example, sunlight, or light from an incandescent
Electromagnetic
Waves lamp is passed through a prism then the colour separation is observed.
Since the ‘Light’ observes electromagnetic oscillations, therefore the different
colours have different wavelengths and different frequencies in vacuum for
NOTES all of them move with the same speed ‘c’.
6. Our eyes can sense different wavelengths of visible spectrum only with
different colours. The separation happens because the different wavelengths
have different refractive indices.
7. Whenever light enters a dielectric medium the colour separation happens
and the phenomenon is known as ‘Dispersion’. Basically, it is the variation
of refractive index with the wavelength. Alternatively, the variation of the
frequency with the wavelength in a medium is ‘Normal Dispersion’.
8. Anomalous dispersion refers to the dispersion of light in some refraction
spectra in which the normal order of the separation of components is reversed
in the vicinity of certain wavelengths, i.e., a sudden change in the refractive
index of a material for wavelengths in the vicinity of absorption bands in the
spectrum of the material.
9. Dispersion in gases can be explained using the propagation of electromagnetic
waves in a dielectric or dilute gas in which the mutual interactions between
the constituent particles are abandoned. When the wave passes through the
gas, the electrons in the molecules are displaced from their equilibrium position
such that the molecules are polarized.
10. When the frequency becomes higher, then:
Dipolar polarization can no longer follow the oscillations of the electric
Ionic polarization and molecular distortion polarization can no longer
1013 Hz.
Electronic polarization loses its response in the ultraviolet region around
1015 Hz.
7.4 SUMMARY
The variation of the refractive index with frequency is termed as dispersion.

It is this property of a prism that effects the colour separation, or dispersion,
of white light.
An equation that connects the refractive index with frequency is called a
dispersion relation. The dispersion relations describe the effect of dispersion
in a medium on the properties of a wave traveling within that medium.
Principally, a dispersion relation relates the wavelength or wavenumber of a
Self-Instructional
wave to its frequency. From this relation the phase velocity and group
160 Material
velocity of the wave have convenient expressions which then determine the Dispersion of
Electromagnetic
refractive index of the medium. Waves
Dispersion may be caused either by geometric boundary conditions
(waveguides, shallow water) or by interaction of the waves with the
NOTES
transmitting medium.
For visible light the index of refraction increases slightly with frequency, a
phenomenon termed normal dispersion. The degree of refraction depends
on the refractive index.
When the radiation frequency is slightly greater, for example, the index of
refraction becomes less than unity (<1) and decreases with increasing
frequency; the latter phenomenon is called anomalous dispersion.
A refractive index less than unity refers correctly to the fact that the speed
of light in the medium at that frequency is greater than the speed of light in
vacuum.
Dispersion occurs when pure plane waves of different wavelengths have
different propagation velocities, such that a wave packet of mixed
wavelengths tends to spread out in space. The speed of a plane wave, v, is
a function of the wave’s wavelength ‘l’ and is expressed as: v = v ( )
The function f ( ) expresses the dispersion relation of the given medium.

Dispersion relations are more commonly expressed in terms of the angular
frequency and wavenumber .
For electromagnetic waves in vacuum, the angular frequency is proportional
to the wavenumber and is expressed as, = ck.
When a white light, for example, sunlight, or light from an incandescent
lamp is passed through a prism then the colour separation is observed.
Since the ‘Light’ observes electromagnetic oscillations, therefore the different
colours have different wavelengths and different frequencies in vacuum for
all of them move with the same speed ‘c’.
Our eyes can sense different wavelengths of visible spectrum only with
different colours. The separation happens because the different wavelengths
have different refractive indices.
Whenever light enters a dielectric medium this separation happens and the
phenomenon is known as ‘Dispersion’. Basically, it is the variation of
refractive index with the wavelength. Alternatively, the variation of the
frequency with the wavelength in a medium is ‘Normal Dispersion’.
Cauchy explained dispersion and gave a formula which typically described
the dispersion in the visible range. The following formula is known as
Self-Instructional
Material 161
Dispersion of Cauchy’s dispersion formula,
Electromagnetic
Waves
NOTES Here A, B and C are constants which depend on the medium. In normal
condition the first two terms would suffice to give an accurate value of ‘n’.
Anomalous dispersion refers to the dispersion of light in some refraction
For material which are transparent to visible region the Cauchy’s formula
works perfectly, but if there is further increase in the wavelength say to the
Infra-Red (IR), then the refractive index suddenly decreases very fast and
does not obey the Cauchy’s law. Thus it approaches the absorption region.
The first theory of it was proposed by Sellmeier who assumed that all
elastically bound particles in the medium oscillate with a natural frequency
0
which correspond to a wavelength 0 in the vacuum.
A dispersion is a system in which distributed particles of one material are
dispersed in a continuous phase of another material. The two phases may
be in the same or different states of matter.
Dispersions are classified in a number of different ways, including how large
the particles are in relation to the particles of the continuous phase, whether
or not precipitation occurs, and the presence of Brownian motion.
In general, dispersions of particles sufficiently large for sedimentation are
called suspensions, while those of smaller particles are called colloids and
solutions.
IUPAC Definition: Material comprising more than one phase where at least
one of the phases consists of finely divided phase domains, often in the
colloidal size range, dispersed throughout a continuous phase.
Dispersions do not display any structure; i.e., the particles (or in case of
emulsions: droplets) dispersed in the liquid or solid matrix (the ‘dispersion
medium’) are assumed to be statistically distributed.
Dispersion in gases can be explained using the propagation of electromagnetic
waves in a dielectric or dilute gas in which the mutual interactions between
the constituent particles are abandoned.
When the wave passes through the gas, the electrons in the molecules are
displaced from their equilibrium position such that the molecules are
polarized.
Because the gas has low density, hence the difference between the applied
electric force and the local field can be neglected.
Self-Instructional
162 Material
When the frequency becomes higher, then: Dispersion of
Electromagnetic
(1) Dipolar polarization can no longer follow the oscillations of the electric Waves
(2) Ionic polarization and molecular distortion polarization can no longer NOTES
1013 Hz.
(3) Electronic polarization loses its response in the ultraviolet region around
1015 Hz.
In the frequency region above ultraviolet, permittivity approaches the constant
0
in every substance, where 0 is the permittivity of the free space. Because
permittivity indicates the strength of the relation between an electric field
and polarization, if a polarization process loses its response, permittivity
decreases.
7.5 KEY WORDS
Dispersion: The variation of the refractive index with frequency is termed

as dispersion. It is this property of a prism that effects the colour separation,
or dispersion, of white light.
Dispersion relation: An equation that connects the refractive index with
frequency is called a dispersion relation. The dispersion relations describe
the effect of dispersion in a medium on the properties of a wave traveling
within that medium.
Normal dispersion: Whenever light enters a dielectric medium the colour
separation happens because of the variation of refractive index with the
wavelength and the phenomenon is known as normal dispersion.
Anomalous dispersion: It refers to the dispersion of light in some refraction

EXERCISES

1. Explain the term dispersion giving appropriate examples.
2. How will you identify that the dispersion is taking place?
3. Differentiate between normal and anomalous dispersions.
Self-Instructional
Material 163
Dispersion of 4. What is the Cauchy’s dispersion formula?
Electromagnetic
Waves 5. Explain about the dispersion in gases?
6. Give the IUPAC definition for dispersion.
NOTES 7. What are the factors that affect anomalous dispersion?
1. Briefly discuss the significance, types and characteristic features of dispersion
of electromagnetic waves giving appropriate examples.
2. What are normal and anomalous dispersions? Explain each type.
3. Discuss about the dispersion phenomenon in gases giving appropriate
examples.
4. Give an experiment to demonstrate the anomalous dispersion in water or
sodium vapour.

Sons.
Inc.
House Pvt. Ltd.
Self-Instructional
164 Material
Clausius-Mossotti
UNIT 8 CLAUSIUS-MOSSOTTI Equation
EQUATION
NOTES
Structure
8.0 Introduction
8.1 Objectives
8.2 Clausius–Mossotti Relation
8.3 Lorentz Formula
8.5 Summary
8.6 Key Words
8.0 INTRODUCTION
In physics, the Clausius–Mossotti relation expresses the dielectric constant,
specifically the relative permittivity ( r), of a material in terms of the atomic
polarizibility ‘ ’ of the material’s constituent atoms and/or molecules, or a
homogeneous mixture thereof. It is named after Ottaviano-Fabrizio Mossotti and
Rudolf Clausius, and is equivalent to the Lorentz–Lorenz equation.
The Lorentz–Lorenz equation is similar to the Clausius–Mossotti relation,
except that it relates the refractive index (rather than the dielectric constant) of a
substance to its polarizability. The Lorentz–Lorenz equation is named after the
Danish mathematician and scientist Ludvig Lorenz, who published it in 1869, and
the Dutch physicist Hendrik Lorentz, who discovered it independently in 1878.
In this unit, you will study about the Clausius-Mossotti relation and Lorentz
formula in detail.
8.1 OBJECTIVES
Understand Clausius-Mossotti relation
Derive the Clausius–Mossotti equation
Prove and derive Lorentz formula
8.2 CLAUSIUS–MOSSOTTI RELATION
In physics, the Clausius–Mossotti s relation connects the relative permittivity of a

dielectric to the polarizability ‘ ’ of the atoms or molecules constituting the dielectric.
Self-Instructional
Material 165
Clausius-Mossotti Principally, the Clausius–Mossotti relation expresses the dielectric constant,
Equation
relative permittivity ( r), of a material in terms of the atomic polarizibility, , of the
material’s constituent atoms and/or molecules, or a homogeneous mixture thereof.
It is named after the Italian Physicist Ottaviano–Fabrizio Mossotti and German
NOTES Physicist Rudolf Clausius. It is equivalent to the Lorentz–Lorenz equation, and is
expressed as,
Where,
r
= / 0 = Dielectric constant of the material.
0
= Permittivity of free space.
N = Number density of the molecules (number per cubic meter).
= Molecular polarizability in SI units (C·m2/V).
In the case that the material consists of a mixture of two or more species,
the right hand side of the above equation would consist of the sum of the molecular
polarizability contribution from each species, indexed by i in the following form:
In the CGS system of units the Clausius–Mossotti relation is typically

rewritten to show the molecular polarizability volume, = / (4 0) which has
units of volume (m3).
The equation is not based on the dielectric constants but on the indices of
refraction. The same formula also defines conductivity and is referred as the
Maxwell’s formula. When defined for refractivity, then it is termed as the Lorentz–
Lorenz equation. It is specifically used when there is no impact from permanent
electric dipole moments to the polarization, either because the molecules are
nonpolar or because the frequency of the applied field is high.
The Clausius–Mossotti relation can be explained using the polarization
density. The polarization density is determined by following three factors:
(1) The electronic polarization e produced by opposite displacements
of negative electrons and positive nuclei inside the same atoms.
(2) The ionic polarizability i produced by opposite displacements of
positive and negative ions in the material.
(3) Contributions from the permanent dipole moments of complex ions or
molecules at any time when such permanent dipoles are present in the
material.
Self-Instructional
166 Material
It is expressed in the form, Clausius-Mossotti
Equation
NOTES
The number of atoms or molecules per unit volume is N.

Alternatively, we can state that the Clausius–Mossotti equation for dielectric
matter consisting of atoms or non-polar molecules is expressed as,
Where 0 is the electric constant (permittivity of the vacuum) and N is the

number density (number of atoms or molecules per volume).
The index of refraction n of a dielectric is given by,
Fundamentally for most dielectric matter the relative magnetic

permeability r is very close to unity. Substitution of this value of n gives the Lorentz-
Lorenz relation as,
Derivation
Consider a dielectric with number density N (number of particles per unit volume)
in an external electric field E. The sum of E and an internal field Eint induces a
dipole pind on each particle. The polarization vector P is the sum of the induced
dipoles,
From the relation between P, the electric displacement D, and the electric
field E follows,
To acquire an expression for pind, consider a single particle (molecule or

atom) in a little spherical cavity inside the dielectric. The total field inside this cavity
can be approximated by,
Here the absolute magnitudes of the vectors is introduced, which follows

because they all lie along the z-axis, the direction of E. The field Etot is often referred
Self-Instructional
Material 167
Clausius-Mossotti to as the Lorentz Local Field, and in that context designated as Eloc. The Lorentz
Equation
local field approximation is based on the assumption that the long-range interactions
are isotropic and so it is only realistic for liquids and isotropic solids.
Subsequently,
NOTES
Further,
From which the Clausius–Mossotti relation follows directly.

We neglected here the contributions to the total field in the cavity from the
other molecules in the cavity. It can be shown that these contributions average out
in most dielectrics.
Local Field in Dielectric
Consider that a macroscopic slab of dielectric is placed in an outer electric field E
in the z-direction which polarizes the dielectric, such that a charge density is created
on the outer surfaces perpendicular to E. Since E ‘PUSHES’ positive charge and
‘PULLS’ negative charge, hence the sign of the charge density on the outer surfaces
appears as shown in the Figure (8.1). The polarization vector P points by definition
from negative to positive charge. The surface charge densities are in absolute
value equal to |P| P.
Fig. 8.1 Slab of Dielectric in External Electric Field E

Self-Instructional
168 Material
An infinitesimally small spherical cavity of radius r is made in the dielectric Clausius-Mossotti
Equation
and inside this cavity there is vacuum with permittivity electric constant, 0. The
cavity is so small that the polarization vector P is not affected by it. If the cavity
had been rectangular with walls parallel to the charged macroscopic surfaces of
the slab, the charge density on the walls of the cavity would have been the same NOTES
(in absolute value) as on the outer surfaces of the slab (P), because of electric
neutrality. Since the surface of the cavity is spherical, it has the charge density,
Where n is a unit length vector perpendicular to the surface of the cavity

at the point θ, as shown in the Figure 8.1. By definition, the positive direction
of the normal n is outward.
An infinitesimal surface element at θ + π,
On the wall of the cavity gives a contribution to the internal electric field
dEint parallel to n,
The z-component of n is cos θ and hence the contribution to the field in

the z direction is,
Contributions in other than the z direction cancel mutually. Integration over

the whole surface gives,
The total electric field in the cavity, the ‘Lorentz Local Field’ is in
the z direction with the magnitude as,
8.3 LORENTZ FORMULA
In this equation, the general form of wave equations despite medium properties
will be covered. During the process of deriving we will observe the conditions for
relations between the scalar electric potential, ‘V’ and vector magnetic potential
‘ ’. This condition is called Lorentz condition. The procedure to obtain the wave
equations include, starting from Maxwell’s equation and applying the vector
identities and simple manipulations of the obtained equations will result in the wave
equations.
Self-Instructional
Material 169
Clausius-Mossotti From Maxwell’s second equation,
Equation
NOTES We know that,
Therefore,
𝜕𝐴⃗
∇⃗ × 𝐸⃗ + =0 (8.1)
𝜕𝑡
We know the vector identity that curl of a gradient is zero. Therefore,
∇⃗ × −∇⃗𝑉 = 0 (8.2)
Comparing Equations (8.1) and (8.2), we get,
𝜕𝐴⃗
𝐸⃗ = − ∇⃗𝑉 + (8.3)
𝜕𝑡
Taking divergence of Equation (8.3), we get,
𝜕
∇⃗. 𝐸⃗ = − ∇2 𝑉 + ∇⃗. 𝐴⃗ (8.4)
𝜕𝑡
But from Maxwell’s first equation,
Self-Instructional
170 Material
Therefore, equating the above equation with Equation (8.4), Clausius-Mossotti
Equation
Or NOTES
𝜕 𝜌𝑉
∇2 𝑉 + ∇⃗. 𝐴⃗ = − (8.5)
𝜕𝑡 𝜖
So far, we have used Maxwell’s equation for electric field and now let us
use Maxwell’s equation for magnetic field to couple the two fields to arrive at the
electromagnetic waves. Considering, Maxwell’s fourth equation,
But, . Therefore,
Also,
𝜕𝐸⃗
∇⃗ × 𝐵⃗ = 𝜇𝐽⃗ + 𝜇𝜖 (8.6)
𝑑𝑡
Substituting for , from Equation (8.3) , we get,
But , Hence,
𝜕𝑉 𝜕 2 𝐴⃗
∇⃗ × ∇⃗ × 𝐴⃗ = 𝜇𝐽⃗ − 𝜇𝜖∇⃗ − 𝜇𝜖 2 (8.7)
𝑑𝑡 𝜕𝑡
Applying vector identity to the LHS of Equation (8.7), we get,
∇⃗ × ∇⃗ × 𝐴⃗ = ∇⃗ ∇⃗. 𝐴⃗ − ∇2 𝐴⃗
𝜕𝑉 𝜕 2 𝐴⃗
∇⃗ ∇⃗. 𝐴⃗ − ∇2 𝐴⃗ = 𝜇𝐽⃗ − 𝜇𝜖∇⃗ − 𝜇𝜖 2 (8.8)
𝑑𝑡 𝜕𝑡
Observing Equation (8.8), we find that scalar potential and vector potential
Self-Instructional
Material 171
Clausius-Mossotti
Equation can be separated and decoupled. Therefore for vector potential, , Equation
(8.8) becomes,
𝜕 2 𝐴⃗
NOTES −∇2 𝐴⃗ = 𝜇𝐽⃗ − 𝜇𝜖
𝜕𝑡 2
Or
𝜕 2 𝐴⃗
∇2 𝐴⃗ − 𝜇𝜖 = 𝜇𝐽⃗ (8.9)
𝜕𝑡 2
Similarly, it is good to separate for scalar potential in terms of because

we obtain a relation relating and V known as Lorentz condition for potentials.
𝜕𝑉
∇⃗ ∇⃗. 𝐴⃗ = −𝜇𝜖∇⃗
𝑑𝑡
𝜕𝑉
= ∇⃗ −𝜇𝜖
𝑑𝑡
𝜕𝑉
∇⃗. 𝐴⃗ = −𝜇𝜖 (8.10)
𝑑𝑡
The above relation is known as Lorentz condition for potentials.
Recalling Equation (8.5),
𝜕 𝜌𝑉
∇2 𝑉 + ∇⃗. 𝐴⃗ = −
𝜕𝑡 𝜖
Substituting for from Equation (8.10) in Equation (8.5) above,
𝜕 𝜕𝑉 𝜌𝑉
∇2 𝑉 + −𝜇𝜖 = −
𝜕𝑡 𝑑𝑡 𝜖
2
𝜕2𝑉 𝜌𝑉
∇ 𝑉 − 𝜇𝜖 2 = − (8.11)
𝑑𝑡 𝜖
Recalling Equation (8.9) as below,
𝜕 2 𝐴⃗
∇2 𝐴⃗ − 𝜇𝜖 = 𝜇𝐽⃗
𝜕𝑡 2
The above two equations are called as wave equations. Equations (8.9)
and (8.11) are decoupled equations of and , whereas Equation (8.5) and
(8.8) are coupled equations, in which and are interlinked.
Self-Instructional
172 Material
Free Space Wave Equations Clausius-Mossotti
Equation
In free space, and and hence, the wave equations simplify to,
(8.12(a)) NOTES
And
𝜕 2 𝐴⃗
∇2 𝐴⃗ − 𝜇𝜖 = 𝜇𝐽⃗ (8.12(b))
𝜕𝑡 2
From electrostatics and magnetostatics,
And
Eqnation (8.12) can be rewritten as,
(8.13(b))
And
𝜕 2 𝐴⃗
∇2 𝐴⃗ − 𝜇𝜖 = 𝜇𝐽⃗ (8.13(b))
𝜕𝑡 2
Uniform Plane Waves
Plane waves are waves with same phase at all points of existence. Uniform plane
waves are plane waves with constant amplitude.
Consider an electric field wave equation from Equation (8.12(a))
𝜕 2 𝐸⃗
∇ 𝐸⃗ − 𝜇𝜖
2
= 0
𝑑𝑡 2
𝜕 2 𝐸⃗
∇2 𝐸⃗ = 𝜇𝜖
𝑑𝑡 2
𝜕2 𝜕2 𝜕2
We know that, ∇ = 2 + 2 + 2 and
2
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑧
𝐸⃗ = 𝐸𝑥 𝑎𝑥⃗ + 𝐸𝑦 𝑎𝑦⃗ + 𝐸𝑧 𝑎𝑧⃗ . Therefore,
𝜕 2 𝐸𝑥 𝜕 2 𝐸𝑦 𝜕 2 𝐸𝑧 𝜕 2 𝐸𝑥 𝜕 2 𝐸𝑦 𝜕 2 𝐸𝑧
𝑎 ⃗ + 𝑎 ⃗ + 𝑎 ⃗ = 𝜇𝜖 𝑎 ⃗ + 𝑎 ⃗ + 𝑎⃗
𝜕𝑥 2 𝑥 𝜕𝑦 2 𝑦 𝜕𝑧 2 𝑧 𝜕𝑡 2 𝑥 𝜕𝑡 2 𝑦 𝜕𝑡 2 𝑧
Self-Instructional
Material 173
Clausius-Mossotti
Equation 𝜕 2 𝐸𝑦
In the above equation, it should be noted that = 0 and likewise for
𝜕𝑦 2
unequal variables. Splitting the above three dimensional vector equation to a one-
NOTES dimensional scalar equation,
𝜕 2 𝐸𝑥 𝜕 2 𝐸𝑥
= 𝜇𝜖 (8.14(a))
𝜕𝑥 2 𝜕𝑡 2
𝜕 2 𝐸𝑦 𝜕 2 𝐸𝑦
= 𝜇𝜖 (8.14(b))
𝜕𝑦 2 𝜕𝑡 2
𝜕 2 𝐸𝑧 𝜕 2 𝐸𝑧
= 𝜇𝜖 (8.14(c))
𝜕𝑧 2 𝜕𝑡 2
Also, in free space, where the electromagnetic waves travel, (they can also
travel through different medium), and . Therefore, from Maxwell’ss
first equation,
∇⃗. 𝐷⃗ = 0
𝜕 𝜕 𝜕
𝐸𝑥 + 𝐸𝑦 + 𝐸𝑧 = 0
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑧
Since, is travelling in the direction, . Then,
represents that no variation of Ex in x-direction and also 𝐸⃗ is independent of y and

z. Differentiating with respect to x,
𝜕 2 𝐸𝑥
=0
𝜕𝑥 2
The solution of the above second order differential equation exists only if,
𝐸𝑥 = 0 𝑜𝑟 𝐸𝑥 = 𝐾(𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡)
If , then is not a wave, but a constantline. Hence, a uniform
plane wave travelling in direction do not have an component of 𝐸⃗ . Similarly
for the other two directions y and z.
For the magnetic field vector, following the similar approach, from Maxwell's
third equation,
Self-Instructional
174 Material
Clausius-Mossotti
∇⃗. 𝐵⃗ = 0 Equation
∇⃗. 𝜇𝐻⃗ = 0
∇⃗. 𝐻⃗ = 0 NOTES
𝜕 𝜕 𝜕
⇒ 𝑎𝑥⃗ + 𝑎𝑦⃗ + 𝑎𝑧⃗ . 𝐻𝑥 𝑎𝑥⃗ + 𝐻𝑦 𝑎𝑦⃗ + 𝐻𝑧 𝑎𝑧⃗ = 0
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑧
𝜕 𝜕 𝜕
𝐻𝑥 + 𝐻𝑦 + 𝐻𝑧 = 0
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑧
Since, is travelling in the direction, . is independent
of and . Therefore,
𝜕𝐻𝑥 𝜕 2 𝐻𝑥
=0⇒ =0
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑥 2
Since cannot be constant, to satisfy the above second order differential
equation, for uniform plane wave.
Properties of Electromagnetic Waves
Electromagnetic waves transport energy or information from one point to the other.
Few examples of electromagnetic waves include the waves in the electromagnetic
spectrum as shown in Figure (8.2). Few electromagnetic waves include X-rays,
Gamma rays, microwave, TV signals, radar signals, light rays, etc. The
electromagnetic waves are also called as Hertzian waves.
Fig. 8.2 Electromagnetic Spectrum
Characteristics of EM Waves
Following are the characteristics of EM waves.
1. They travel at a speed of light in vacuum.
2. They travel similar to the waves with the same their same property.
Self-Instructional
Material 175
Clausius-Mossotti 3. They radiate away from the source
Equation
4. They can travel across any medium
5. EM waves are generated by vibration of electrons resulting in energy emission
NOTES called as electromagnetic radiation.
6. Electromagnetic waves have both electric and magnetic components.
7. Electric and magnetic components are orthogonal (perpendicular) to each
other.
8. The direction of wave propagation will be orthogonal to the electric and
magnetic waves. Such waves are called Transverse ElectroMagnetic waves
(TEM waves).
Parameters of Wave
A simple wave is a sinusoidal signal as represented as in Figure (8.3).
Fig. 8.3 EM Wave

Let
𝜆
𝑢= = 𝑓𝜆 [𝑓 = 1/𝑇]
𝑇
Let
𝜔 = 2𝜋𝑓 (𝑟𝑎𝑑/𝑠)
𝜔 2𝜋𝑓
𝛽= =
𝑢 𝑢
2𝜋𝑓
𝛽=
𝑓𝜆
2𝜋
𝛽=
𝜆
Self-Instructional
176 Material
Clausius-Mossotti
Equation
Check Your Progress
1. What does the Clausius-Mossotti relation connects?
2. What is expressed by the Clausius-Mossotti relation? NOTES
3. How will you explain the Clausius-Mossotti relation using the polarization
density?
4. State the Clausius-Mossotti equation for dielectric matter.
5. What is Lorentz condition?
6. Differentiate between the plane waves and uniform plane waves.
7. How are EM waves generated?

QUESTIONS
1. In physics, the Clausius–Mossotti relation connects the relative permittivity

of a dielectric to the polarizability ‘ ’ of the atoms or molecules constituting
the dielectric.
2. Principally, the Clausius–Mossotti relation expresses the dielectric constant,
relative permittivity ( r), of a material in terms of the atomic polarizibility, ,
of the material’s constituent atoms and/or molecules, or a homogeneous
mixture thereof. It is named after the Italian Physicist Ottaviano–Fabrizio
Mossotti and German Physicist Rudolf Clausius and is equivalent to the
Lorentz–Lorenz equation.
3. The Clausius–Mossotti relation can be explained using the polarization
density. The polarization density is determined by following three factors:
The electronic polarization e produced by opposite displacements of
negative electrons and positive nuclei inside the same atoms.
The ionic polarizability i produced by opposite displacements of positive
and negative ions in the material.
Contributions from the permanent dipole moments of complex ions or
molecules at any time when such permanent dipoles are present in the
material.
4. The Clausius–Mossotti equation for dielectric matter consisting of atoms or
non-polar molecules is expressed as,
Where e0 is the electric constant (permittivity of the vacuum) and N is the

number density (number of atoms or molecules per volume). Self-Instructional
Material 177
Clausius-Mossotti 5. The conditions for relations between the scalar electric potential, ‘V’ and
Equation
vector magnetic potential is called Lorentz condition.
6. Plane waves are waves with same phase at all points of existence. Uniform
NOTES plane waves are plane waves with constant amplitude.
7. EM waves are generated by vibration of electrons resulting in energy emission
called as electromagnetic radiation. Electromagnetic waves have both electric
and magnetic components. Electric and magnetic components are orthogonal
(perpendicular) to each other.
8.5 SUMMARY
In physics, the Clausius–Mossotti relation connects the relative permittivity
of a dielectric to the polarizability ‘ ’ of the atoms or molecules constituting
the dielectric.
Principally, the Clausius–Mossotti relation expresses the dielectric constant,
relative permittivity ( r), of a material in terms of the atomic polarizibility,
, of the material’s constituent atoms and/or molecules, or a homogeneous
mixture thereof. It is named after the Italian Physicist Ottaviano–Fabrizio
Mossotti and German Physicist Rudolf Clausius. It is equivalent to the
Lorentz–Lorenz equation.
In the CGS system of units the Clausius–Mossotti relation is typically
rewritten to show the molecular polarizability volume, = / (4 0)
which has units of volume (m3).
The Clausius–Mossotti relation can be explained using the polarization
density.
The polarization density is determined by following three factors:
(1) The electronic polarization e produced by opposite displacements
of negative electrons and positive nuclei inside the same atoms.
(2) The ionic polarizability i produced by opposite displacements of
positive and negative ions in the material.
(3) Contributions from the permanent dipole moments of complex ions
or molecules at any time when such permanent dipoles are present
in the material.
The Clausius–Mossotti equation for dielectric matter consisting of atoms
or non-polar molecules is expressed as,
Where 0 is the electric constant (permittivity of the vacuum) and N is the

number density (number of atoms or molecules per volume).
The Lorentz local field approximation is based on the assumption that the
long-range interactions are isotropic and so it is only realistic for liquids
Self-Instructional and isotropic solids.
178 Material
The conditions for relations between the scalar electric potential, ‘V’ and Clausius-Mossotti
Equation
vector magnetic potential is called Lorentz condition.
Plane waves are waves with same phase at all points of existence. Uniform
plane waves are plane waves with constant amplitude. NOTES
Electromagnetic waves transport energy or information from one point to
the other. Few electromagnetic waves include X-rays, Gamma rays,
microwave, TV signals, radar signals, light rays, etc. The electromagnetic
waves are also called as Hertzian waves.
EM waves are generated by vibration of electrons resulting in energy
emission called as electromagnetic radiation.
Electromagnetic waves have both electric and magnetic components.
Electric and magnetic components are orthogonal (perpendicular) to each
other.
The direction of wave propagation will be orthogonal to the electric and
magnetic waves. Such waves are called Transverse ElectroMagnetic waves
(TEM waves).
8.6 KEY WORDS
Clausius–Mossotti relation: It connects the relative permittivity of a

dielectric to the polarizability ‘ ’ of the atoms or molecules constituting the
dielectric.
Lorentz local field approximation: It is based on the assumption that the
long-range interactions are isotropic and so it is only realistic for liquids and
isotropic solids.
Plane waves: These are waves with same phase at all points of existence.
Uniform plane: These waves are plane waves with constant amplitude.

EXERCISES

1. Explain the significance of Clausius-Mossotti relation.
2. What are the CGS system of units for the Clausius–Mossotti relation?
3. How is polarization density determined?
4. State the Clausius–Mossotti equation for dielectric matter.
5. Why and when is Lorentz formula used?
6. What are the parameters of wave?
Self-Instructional
Material 179
Clausius-Mossotti Long Answer Questions
Equation
1. Discuss and prove the Clausius-Mossotti relation giving appropriate
examples.
NOTES 2. How the Clausius–Mossotti relation is explained using the polarization
density? Explain.
3. Explain and derive the equations for Lorentz local field in dielectric.
4. Discuss and prove the Lorentz formula.
5. Discuss the properties and characteristics of Electromagnetic waves.

Sons.
Inc.
House Pvt. Ltd.
Self-Instructional
180 Material
Scattering of
UNIT 9 SCATTERING OF Electromagnetic

Waves
ELECTROMAGNETIC
NOTES
WAVES
Structure
9.0 Introduction
9.1 Objectives
9.2 Theory of Scattering of Electromagnetic or EM Waves
9.2.2 Polarization of Scattered Light
9.4 Summary
9.5 Key Words
9.0 INTRODUCTION
Electromagnetic waves are one of the best known and most commonly encountered
forms of radiation that undergo scattering. Major forms of elastic light scattering
including the negligible energy transfer are Rayleigh scattering and Mie scattering.
Light scattering is one of the two major physical processes that contribute to the
visible appearance of most objects, the other being absorption. Surfaces described
as white owe their appearance to multiple scattering of light by internal or surface
inhomogeneities in the object, for example by the boundaries of transparent
microscopic crystals that make up a stone or by the microscopic fibers in a sheet
of paper. More generally, the gloss of the surface is determined by scattering.
Spectral absorption, the selective absorption of certain colors, determines the
colour of most objects with some modification by elastic scattering. The apparent
blue colour of veins in skin is a common example where both spectral absorption
and scattering play important and complex roles in the colouration. Light scattering
can also create colour without absorption, often shades of blue, as with the sky
(Rayleigh scattering), the human blue iris, etc.
Polarization also occurs when light is scattered while traveling through a
medium. When light strikes the atoms of a material, it will often set the electrons of
those atoms into vibration. The vibrating electrons then produce their own
electromagnetic wave that is radiated outward in all directions. This newly generated
wave strikes neighboring atoms, forcing their electrons into vibrations at the same
original frequency. This absorption and reemission of light waves causes the light
to be scattered about the medium. This scattered light is partially polarized.
Self-Instructional
Material 181
Scattering of In this unit, you will study about the scattering and scattering parameters,
Electromagnetic
Waves theory of scattering of electromagnetic waves and the polarization of scattered
light.
NOTES
9.1 OBJECTIVES

Understand what scattering is
Explain the scattering parameters
Discuss the theory of scattering of electromagnetic waves
Explain the how the scattered lights are polarized
9.2 THEORY OF SCATTERING OF

ELECTROMAGNETIC OR EM WAVES
Electromagnetic waves are one of the best known and most commonly
encountered forms of radiation that undergo scattering. Scattering of light and
radio waves (especially in radar) is particularly important. Major forms of elastic
light scattering including the negligible energy transfer are Rayleigh scattering
and Mie scattering. Light scattering is one of the two major physical processes
that contribute to the visible appearance of most objects, the other being
absorption. Surfaces described as white owe their appearance to multiple
scattering of light by internal or surface inhomogeneities in the object, for example
by the boundaries of transparent microscopic crystals that make up a stone or
by the microscopic fibers in a sheet of paper. More generally, the gloss of the
surface is determined by scattering. Highly scattering surfaces are described as
being dull or having a matte finish, while the absence of surface scattering leads
to a glossy appearance, as with polished metal or stone.
Spectral absorption, the selective absorption of certain colours, determines
the colour of most objects with some modification by elastic scattering. The
apparent blue colour of veins in skin is a common example where both spectral
absorption and scattering play important and complex roles in the colouration.
Light scattering can also create colour without absorption, often shades of blue,
as with the sky (Rayleigh scattering), the human blue iris, etc.
Models of light scattering can be divided into three domains based on a
dimensionless size parameter, α which is defined as:
Where πDP is the circumference of a particle and λ is the wavelength of

incident radiation. Based on the value of α, these domains are defined as:
Self-Instructional
182 Material
α << 1: Rayleigh scattering, small particle compared to wavelength of Scattering of
Electromagnetic
light. Waves
α 1: Mie scattering, particle about the same size as wavelength of light,
valid only for spheres.
NOTES
α >> 1: Geometric scattering, particle much larger than wavelength of
light.
Rayleigh scattering is a process in which electromagnetic radiation (including
light) is scattered by a small spherical volume of variant refractive indexes, such
as a particle, bubble, droplet, or even a density fluctuation. This effect was first
modeled successfully by Lord Rayleigh, from whom it gets its name. In order
for Rayleigh’s model to apply, the sphere must be much smaller in diameter than
the wavelength (λ) of the scattered wave; typically the upper limit is taken to
be about 1/10 the wavelength. In this size regime, the exact shape of the
scattering center is usually not very significant and can often be treated as a
sphere of equivalent volume. The inherent scattering that radiation undergoes
passing through a pure gas is due to microscopic density fluctuations as the gas
molecules move around, which are normally small enough in scale for Rayleigh’s
model to apply. This scattering mechanism is the primary cause of the blue
colour of the Earth’s sky on a clear day, as the shorter blue wavelengths of
sunlight passing overhead are more strongly scattered than the longer red
wavelengths according to Rayleigh’s famous 1/λ4 relation. Along with absorption,
such scattering is a major cause of the attenuation of radiation by the atmosphere.
The degree of scattering varies as a function of the ratio of the particle diameter
to the wavelength of the radiation, along with many other factors including
polarization, angle, and coherence.
For larger diameters, the problem of electromagnetic scattering by spheres
was first solved by Gustav Mie, and scattering by spheres larger than the
Rayleigh range is therefore usually known as Mie scattering. In the Mie regime,
the shape of the scattering center becomes much more significant and the theory
only applies well to spheres and, with some modification, spheroids and ellipsoids.
Closed-form solutions for scattering by certain other simple shapes exist, but no
general closed-form solution is known for arbitrary shapes.
Both Mie and Rayleigh scattering are considered elastic scattering
processes, in which the energy (and thus wavelength and frequency) of the light
is not substantially changed. However, electromagnetic radiation scattered by
moving scattering centers does undergo a Doppler shift, which can be detected
and used to measure the velocity of the scattering center/s in forms of techniques,
such as lidar and radar. This shift involves a slight change in energy.
At values of the ratio of particle diameter to wavelength more than about
10, the laws of geometric optics are mostly sufficient to describe the interaction
of light with the particle, and at this point, the interaction is not usually described
as scattering.
Self-Instructional
Material 183
Scattering of For modeling of scattering in cases where the Rayleigh and Mie models
Electromagnetic
Waves do not apply, such as irregularly shaped particles, there are many numerical
methods that can be used. The most common are finite-element methods which
solve Maxwell’s equations to find the distribution of the scattered electromagnetic
NOTES field.
Scattering of Electromagnetic Waves by Particles
Interaction between electromagnetic waves and particles produce unique
scattering patterns that are wavelength and particle size dependent. As
electromagnetic waves propagate through matter they interact with particles and
locally perturb the local electron distribution. This variation produces periodic
charge separation within the particle causing oscillation of the induced local
dipole moment, this periodic acceleration acts as a source of electromagnetic
radiation thus causing scattering. The majority of the scattered wave oscillates
at the same frequency as the incident wave and is termed elastic scattering.
Interaction with the incident beam may also lead to absorption in the form of
thermal energy. The combination of scattering and absorption attenuate the
incident beam leading to extinction.
Scattering of electromagnetic waves by particles can be explained using
the following two theoretical frameworks:
1. Rayleigh scattering that is applicable to small, dielectric, non-absorbing
spherical particles.
2. Mie scattering that provides a general solution to scattering independent
of particle size. Mie scattering theory provide a generalized approach,
has no particle size limitations and converges to the limit of geometric
optics at large particle sizes.
Consequently Mie scattering theory can be used to describe most scattering
by spherical particles, including Rayleigh scattering, but due to the complexity
of implementation, Rayleigh scattering theory is often preferred.
Rayleigh scattering is strongly dependent upon the size of the particle and
the wavelength of the illuminating radiation. The intensity of the Rayleigh scattered
radiation increases rapidly as the ratio of particle size to wavelength increases
and is identical in the forward and reverse directions. The Rayleigh scattering
model breaks down when the particle size becomes larger than approximately
10% of the wavelength of the incident radiation at which point Mie theory must
be applied. The Mie solution is obtained through an analytical solution of
Maxwell’s equations for the scattering of electromagnetic radiation by spherical
particles in terms of infinite series rather than a simple mathematical expression.
Mie scattering differs from Rayleigh scattering in several respects. It is
roughly independent of wavelength and it is larger in the forward direction than
in the reverse direction, as shown in Figure (9.1). The greater the particle size,
the more of the light is scattered in the forward direction. In addition to explaining
Self-Instructional
184 Material
many atmospheric effects of light scattering, applications of Mie scattering include Scattering of
Electromagnetic
environmental areas, such as dust particles in the atmosphere and oil droplet in Waves
water, etc. Figure (9.1) illustrates the electric field due to Mie scattering of
incident wave in x direction showing enhanced scattering in forward direction.
NOTES
Fig. 9.1 Electric Field due to Mie Scattering
Analysis of Mie Scattering

It is a complex process to explain the Mie scattering by a particle or object and
requires solution of Maxwell’s equations to represent the incident, scattered and
internal fields. These are not simple mathematical expressions and take the form
of infinite series expansion of vector spherical harmonics that permits the cross
sections, efficiency factors and distributions of intensity to be predicted.
Additionally, the influence of particle geometry, incident of the incident wave and
the particle’s material properties can be examined.
In electromagnetic wave scattering problems, the total wave decomposes
into the incident and scattered wave components:

Maxwell’s wave equation can be solved with respect to scattered electric
field as:

The scattered magnetic field is typically calculated from Faraday’s law as:

Self-Instructional
Material 185
Scattering of The time-average Poynting vector for time-harmonic fields gives the energy
Electromagnetic
Waves flux as:
NOTES
For an incident plane wave, the magnetic field is related to the electric
field and is represented by:

Where is direction of the incident wave propagation, η = (μ/ε)1/2 is the

characteristic impedance, ε is permittivity and μ is permeability of ambient
medium. Hence, incident energy flux is calculated as,

Significant physical quantities can be obtained from the scattered fields.

One of these is the cross section, which can be defined as the net rate at which
electromagnetic energy (W) crosses the surface of an imaginary sphere centered
at the particle divided by the incident irradiation . To quantify the rate of
the electromagnetic energy that is absorbed (Wabs) and scattered (Wsca) by the
particle, the absorption (σabs), scattering (σsca) and extinction cross sections are
defined as:

The total absorbed energy is derived by integrating the energy loss over
the volume of the particle:

The scattered energy is derived by integrating the Poynting vector over

an imaginary sphere around the particle:

Where n is unit vector is considered normal to the imaginary surface S.
Self-Instructional
186 Material
Due to the particulate nature of electromagnetic waves they also carry Scattering of
Electromagnetic
Waves
momentum and exert a force on the particle, termed as the radiation
pressure which can be obtained by integrating the Maxwell stress tensor over
the surface of the sphere: NOTES

Where σpr is the pressure cross-section, and <cos θ> is the asymmetry
parameter.
The radiation pressure cross section can be used to calculate force which
the particle experiences in the incident direction:
The total time-averaged force F acting on a particle illuminated with light

can also be calculated using surface integral of the time-averaged Maxwell’s
stress tensor :
Where Sp is surface enclosing particle volume Vp and n is unit normal vector

to surface Sp.
Scattering parameters or S-parameters are the elements of a scattering matrix
or S-matrix which define the electrical behaviour of linear electrical networks
when undergoing various steady state stimuli by electrical signals. The parameters
are used in different branches of electrical engineering, including electronics,
communication systems design, and especially for microwave engineering.
The S-parameters are members of a family of similar parameters, other
examples include Y-parameters, Z-parameters, H-parameters, T-parameters or
ABCD-parameters. They differ from these, in the sense that S-parameters do
not use open or short circuit conditions to characterize a linear electrical network;
instead, matched loads are used. These terminations are easily used at high
signal frequencies as compared to the open-circuit and short-circuit terminations.
Moreover, the quantities are measured in terms of power.
Many electrical properties of networks of components (inductors,
capacitors, resistors) may be expressed using S-parameters, such as gain, return
loss, Voltage Standing Wave Ratio (VSWR), reflection coefficient and amplifier
stability. The term ‘Scattering’ refers to the effect observed when a plane
electromagnetic wave is incident on an obstruction or passes across dissimilar
Self-Instructional
Material 187
Scattering of dielectric media. In the context of S-parameters, scattering refers to the way in
Electromagnetic
Waves which the traveling currents and voltages in a transmission line are affected when
they meet a discontinuity caused by the insertion of a network into the
transmission line. This is equivalent to the wave meeting an impedance differing
NOTES from the line’s characteristic impedance.
Although applicable at any frequency, S-parameters are mostly used for
networks operating at Radio Frequency (RF) and microwave frequencies where
signal power and energy considerations are more easily quantified than currents
and voltages. S-parameters change with the measurement frequency, so frequency
must be specified for any S-parameter measurements stated, in addition to the
characteristic impedance or system impedance. S-parameters are readily
represented in matrix form and obey the rules of matrix algebra.
Types of S-Parameters
The S-parameters are of following types.
Small Signal S-Parameters: By small signal, we mean that the signals have
only linear effects on the network, small enough so that gain compression or
other non-linear effects do not take place. For passive networks, the small
signal act linearly at any power level.
Large Signal S-Parameters: In this case, the S-matrix may vary depending
upon the input signal strength.
Mixed-Mode S-Parameters: It refers to a special case of analysing balanced
circuits.
Pulsed S-Parameters: These are measured on power devices so that an
accurate representation is captured before the device heats up.
Cold S-Parameters: By cold, we refer to active devices that are not powered
up. This can be an individual device, or an amplifier, or module, or anything
active that is operated passively.
How S-Parameters Function
The scattering matrix is a mathematical construct that quantifies how Radio
Frequency (RF) energy propagates through a multi-port network. The S-matrix
is what allows us to accurately describe the properties of incredibly complicated
networks as simple ‘Black Boxes’. For an RF signal incident on one port, some
fraction of that signal gets reflected back out of the incident port, some of it
enters into the incident port and then exits at or scatters to some or all of the
other ports, perhaps being amplified or attenuated. What is left of that incident
power disappears as heat or even electromagnetic radiation. The S-matrix for
an N-port contains N2 coefficients (S-parameters), each one representing a
possible input-output path.
S-parameters are complex numbers, having real and imaginary parts or
Self-Instructional
magnitude and phase parts, because both the magnitude and phase of the
188 Material
incident signal are changed by the network. S-parameters are defined for a Scattering of
Electromagnetic
given frequency and system impedance, and vary as a function of frequency for Waves
any non-ideal network.
Additionally, the S-parameters are usually displayed in a matrix format
NOTES
with the number of rows and columns equal to the number of ports. For the S-
parameter, Sij the ‘j’ subscript stands for the port that is the input port and the
‘i’ subscript is for the output port. Thus S11 refers to the ratio of the amplitude
of the signal that reflects from port one to the amplitude of the signal incident
on port one. Parameters along the diagonal of the S-matrix are referred to as
reflection coefficients because they only refer to what happens at a single port,
while off-diagonal S-parameters are referred to as transmission coefficients,
because they refer to what happens at one port when it is excited by a signal
incident at another port. Following are the examples of S-matrices for one, two
and three-port networks:
Remember that each S-parameter is a complex number, so if actual data

has to be presented in matrix format, then a magnitude and phase angle has to
be presented for each Sij. The input and output reflection coefficients of networks,
such as S11 and S22 can be plotted on the Smith chart while the transmission
coefficients (S21 and S12) are generally not plotted on the Smith chart.
S-Parameters for Network Ports
S-parameters describe the response of an N-port network to signal(s) incident
to any or all of the ports. The first number in the subscript refers to the responding
port, while the second number refers to the incident port. Thus S21 means the
response at port 2 due to a signal at port 1. The most common ‘N-port’
networks in microwaves are one-port and two-port networks.
Consider a two-port network. The signal at a port, say port 1, can be
thought of as the superposition to two waves traveling in opposite directions.
By convention each port is represented as two nodes so as to give a name and
value to these opposite direction waves. The variable ai represents a wave
incident to port i and the variable bj represent a wave reflected from port j. The
magnitude of the ai and bj variables can be thought of as voltage-like variables,
Self-Instructional
Material 189
Scattering of normalized using a specified reference impedance. This is very convenient since
Electromagnetic
Waves the square of these magnitudes are then equal to the power level of the waves.
Remember, S-parameters can be used if the value of the reference impedance
(frequently called Z0) is known (Refer Figure (9.2)).
NOTES
Fig. 9.2 S-Parameters for Two-Port Network
If we assume that each port is terminated in the reference impedance Z0,

we can define the four S-parameters of the 2-port as follows:
The above equations for S11 and S21 are derived from network analysis
or measurements by setting the value of the incident signal a2 = 0 and solving
for the above S-parameter ratios as a function of a1. Similarly, S12 and S22 are
derived by setting the value of a1 = 0 and solving for the other ratios.
The subscript precisely follows the parameters in the ratio, S11=b1/a1, etc.
The matrix algebraic representation of 2-port S-parameters is:
In order to measure S11, a signal at port one is inserted to measure its

reflected signal. In this case, no signal is injected into port 2, so a2 = 0; for
almost all laboratory S-parameter measurements, only one signal is inserted at
a time. To measure S21, a signal at port 1 is inserted to measure the resulting
signal power exiting port 2. For S12 a signal is inserted into port 2 to measure
the signal power leaving port 1, and for S22 a signal is inserted at port 2 to
measure its reflected signal.
Self-Instructional
190 Material
All the ‘a’ and ‘b’ measurements can be complex numbers, hence for Scattering of
Electromagnetic
complex S-parameters these complex numbers are sometimes called vectors, Waves
therefore termed as the Vector Network Analyzers (VNA).
9.2.2 Polarization of Scattered Light NOTES
Polarization also occurs when light is scattered while traveling through a medium.
When light strikes the atoms of a material, it will often set the electrons of those
atoms into vibration. The vibrating electrons then produce their own
electromagnetic wave that is radiated outward in all directions. This newly
generated wave strikes neighboring atoms, forcing their electrons into vibrations
at the same original frequency. These vibrating electrons produce another
electromagnetic wave that is once more radiated outward in all directions. This
absorption and reemission of light waves causes the light to be scattered about
the medium. This scattered light is partially polarized. Polarization by scattering
is observed as light passes through our atmosphere. The scattered light often
produces a glare in the skies. Photographers know that this partial polarization
of scattered light leads to photographs characterized by a washed-out sky. The
problem can easily be corrected by the use of a Polaroid filter. As the filter is
rotated, the partially polarized light is blocked and the glare is reduced.
How it Works
For example, when the unpolarized white light from a slide projector enters a
fish tank of very slightly milky water. Some of the electromagnetic waves impinge
on the colloidal particles and molecules in the water, are absorbed and re-
radiated. The horizontal component of the polarization decreases as cos2θ,
where θ is the scattering angle (Refer Figure (9.3)) The maximum scattered
intensity is perpendicular to the plane of oscillation of the molecule, where it is
also totally plane polarized, θ = 90°. At other angles the light is partially plane
polarized.
Fig. 9.3 Polarization by Scattering

Self-Instructional
Material 191
Scattering of This can be observed on the tank at right angles to the initial direction of
Electromagnetic
Waves propagation of the light. A mirror angled over the tank allows to view the
phenomenon of scattered light emerging from two surfaces perpendicular to
each other (Refer Figure (9.4)). By placing a Polaroid sheet between the
NOTES projector and the tank with its polarizing axis horizontally, the scattered light
from the side of the fish tank is blocked, whereas that from the top of the tank
remains unaffected. Rotating the Polaroid 90° blocks the light from the top of
the tank, but now the scattered light from the side of the tank reappears.
Alternatively, let the scattering process polarize an unpolarized beam from the
slide projector and let the Polaroid sheet be the analyzer, as shown in Figure (9.4).
Rayleigh scattering has a wavelength dependence of 1/(λ4), so it affects
blue light much more strongly as compared to red. By adding milk to the tank,
the scattering can be increased because the milky water begins to develop a
bluish tint and the un-scattered beam reddish.
Fig. 9.4 Fish Tank and Mirror Arrangement
Check Your Progress

1. What are the major forms of elastic light scattering?
2. Explain the domains of light scattering.
3. Define Rayleigh scattering.
4. What is Mie scattering?
5. In scattering of electromagnetic wave how the total wave decomposes?
6. Explain Scattering parameters including its types.
7. How polarization occurs when light is scattered?
Self-Instructional
192 Material
Scattering of
9.3 ANSWERS TO CHECK YOUR PROGRESS Electromagnetic
Waves
QUESTIONS
1. The major forms of elastic light scattering including the negligible energy NOTES
transfer are Rayleigh scattering and Mie scattering.
2. Models of light scattering can be divided into three domains based on a
dimensionless size parameter, á which is defined as:
Where ðDP is the circumference of a particle and is the wavelength of

incident radiation. Based on the value of , these domains are defined as:
<< 1: Rayleigh scattering, small particle compared to wavelength of light.
1: Mie scattering, particle about the same size as wavelength of light,
valid only for spheres.
>> 1: Geometric scattering, particle much larger than wavelength of light.
3. Rayleigh scattering is a process in which electromagnetic radiation (including
light) is scattered by a small spherical volume of variant refractive indexes,
such as a particle, bubble, droplet, or even a density fluctuation. This effect
was first modeled successfully by Lord Rayleigh, from whom it gets its
name. In order for Rayleigh’s model to apply, the sphere must be much
smaller in diameter than the wavelength ( ) of the scattered wave; typically
the upper limit is taken to be about 1/10 the wavelength.
4. For larger diameters, the problem of electromagnetic scattering by spheres
Rayleigh range is therefore usually known as Mie scattering. In the Mie
regime, the shape of the scattering center becomes much more significant
and the theory only applies well to spheres and, with some modification,
spheroids and ellipsoids. Both Mie and Rayleigh scattering are considered
elastic scattering processes, in which the energy (and thus wavelength and
frequency) of the light is not substantially changed.
5. In electromagnetic wave scattering, the total wave decomposes into the
incident and scattered wave components as follows:
Self-Instructional
Material 193
Scattering of 6. Scattering parameters or S-parameters are the elements of a scattering
Electromagnetic
Waves matrix or S-matrix which define the electrical behaviour of linear electrical
networks when undergoing various steady state stimuli by electrical signals.
Following are the types of scattering parameters:
NOTES
Small Signal S-Parameters: By small signal, we mean that the signals
have only linear effects on the network, small enough so that gain
compression or other non-linear effects do not take place. For passive
networks, the small signal act linearly at any power level.
Large Signal S-Parameters: In this case, the S-matrix may vary
depending upon the input signal strength.
Mixed-Mode S-Parameters: It refers to a special case of analysing
balanced circuits.
Pulsed S-Parameters: These are measured on power devices so that
an accurate representation is captured before the device heats up.
Cold S-Parameters: By cold, we refer to active devices that are not
powered up. This can be an individual device, or an amplifier, or module,
or anything active that is operated passively.
7. Polarization occurs when light is scattered while traveling through a medium.
When light strikes the atoms of a material, it will often set the electrons of
generated wave strikes neighboring atoms, forcing their electrons into
vibrations at the same original frequency. These vibrating electrons produce
another electromagnetic wave that is once more radiated outward in all
directions.
9.4 SUMMARY
Electromagnetic waves are one of the best known and most commonly
encountered forms of radiation that undergo scattering. Scattering of light
and radio waves (especially in radar) is particularly important.
Major forms of elastic light scattering including the negligible energy transfer
are Rayleigh scattering and Mie scattering.
Light scattering is one of the two major physical processes that contribute
to the visible appearance of most objects, the other being absorption.
Surfaces described as white owe their appearance to multiple scattering of
light by internal or surface inhomogeneities in the object, for example by the
boundaries of transparent microscopic crystals that make up a stone or by
the microscopic fibers in a sheet of paper.
Spectral absorption, the selective absorption of certain colors, determines
Self-Instructional
the color of most objects with some modification by elastic scattering.
194 Material
The apparent blue color of veins in skin is a common example where both Scattering of
Electromagnetic
spectral absorption and scattering play important and complex roles in the Waves
coloration.
Light scattering can also create colour without absorption, often shades of
NOTES
blue, as with the sky (Rayleigh scattering), the human blue iris, etc.
Models of light scattering can be divided into three domains based on a
dimensionless size parameter, which is defined as:
Where DP is the circumference of a particle and is the wavelength of

incident radiation.
Rayleigh scattering is a process in which electromagnetic radiation (including
light) is scattered by a small spherical volume of variant refractive indexes,
such as a particle, bubble, droplet, or even a density fluctuation.
Rayleigh scattering effect was first modeled successfully by Lord Rayleigh,
from whom it gets its name.
In order for Rayleigh’s model to apply, the sphere must be much smaller in
diameter than the wavelength ( ) of the scattered wave; typically the upper
limit is taken to be about 1/10 the wavelength.
The degree of scattering varies as a function of the ratio of the particle
diameter to the wavelength of the radiation, along with many other factors
including polarization, angle, and coherence.
For larger diameters, the problem of electromagnetic scattering by spheres
Rayleigh range is therefore usually known as Mie scattering.
Both Mie and Rayleigh scattering are considered elastic scattering processes,
in which the energy (and thus wavelength and frequency) of the light is not
substantially changed.
Rayleigh scattering is strongly dependent upon the size of the particle and
the wavelength of the illuminating radiation.
The intensity of the Rayleigh scattered radiation increases rapidly as the
ratio of particle size to wavelength increases and is identical in the forward
and reverse directions.
The Rayleigh scattering model breaks down when the particle size becomes
larger than approximately 10% of the wavelength of the incident radiation
at which point Mie theory must be applied.
Scattering parameters or S-parameters are the elements of a scattering
matrix or S-matrix which define the electrical behaviour of linear electrical
networks when undergoing various steady state stimuli by electrical signals.
Self-Instructional
Material 195
Scattering of The S-parameters are members of a family of similar parameters, other
Electromagnetic
Waves examples include Y-parameters, Z-parameters, H-parameters, T-parameters
or ABCD-parameters.
Small Signal S-Parameters, by small signal, we mean that the signals have
NOTES
only linear effects on the network, small enough so that gain compression
or other non-linear effects do not take place. For passive networks, the
small signal act linearly at any power level.
Large Signal S-Parameters in this case, the S-matrix may vary depending
upon the input signal strength.
Mixed-Mode S-Parameters refers to a special case of analysing balanced
circuits.
Pulsed S-Parameters are measured on power devices so that an accurate
representation is captured before the device heats up.
Cold S-Parameters: By cold, we refer to active devices that are not powered
up. This can be an individual device, or an amplifier, or module, or anything
The scattering matrix is a mathematical construct that quantifies how Radio
Frequency (RF) energy propagates through a multi-port network. The S-
matrix is what allows us to accurately describe the properties of incredibly
complicated networks as simple ‘Black Boxes’.
For an RF signal incident on one port, some fraction of that signal gets
reflected back out of the incident port, some of it enters into the incident
port and then exits at or scatters to some or all of the other ports, perhaps
being amplified or attenuated.
The S-matrix for an N-port contains N2 coefficients (S-parameters), each
one representing a possible input-output path.
Polarization also occurs when light is scattered while traveling through a
medium.
When light strikes the atoms of a material, it will often set the electrons of
generated wave strikes neighboring atoms, forcing their electrons into
vibrations at the same original frequency.
Polarization by scattering is observed as light passes through our atmosphere.
The scattered light often produces a glare in the skies. The problem can
easily be corrected by the use of a Polaroid filter. As the filter is rotated, the
partially polarized light is blocked and the glare is reduced.
Self-Instructional
196 Material
Scattering of
9.5 KEY WORDS Electromagnetic
Waves
Rayleigh scattering: It is a process in which electromagnetic radiation

(including light) is scattered by a small spherical volume of variant refractive NOTES
indexes, such as a particle, bubble, droplet, or even a density fluctuation,
and is named after Lord Rayleigh.
Scattering parameters or S-parameters: These are the elements of a
scattering matrix or S-matrix which define the electrical behaviour of linear
electrical networks when undergoing various steady state stimuli by electrical
signals.
Small signal S-parameters: The signals have only linear effects on the
network, small enough so that gain compression or other non-linear effects
do not take place.
Mixed-mode S-parameters: It refers to a special case of analysing
balanced circuits.
Pulsed S-parameters: These are measured on power devices so that an
accurate representation is captured before the device heats up.
Cold S-parameters: It refers to active devices that are not powered up.
This can be an individual device, or an amplifier, or module, or anything
Polarization: It occurs when light is scattered while traveling through a
medium.

EXERCISES

1. Explain the term scattering with the help of examples.
2. What effect the scattering of electromagnetic waves gives?
3. What are the two frameworks of scattering of electromagnetic waves?
4. Explain the scattering phenomenon of the electromagnetic waves.
5. What are scattering parameters?
6. Explain about the polarization of scattered light.
1. Briefly discuss the significance, types and characteristic features of scattering
theory of electromagnetic waves giving appropriate examples.
Self-Instructional
Material 197
Scattering of 2. How the light scattering can create colour without absorption? Explain with
Electromagnetic
Waves the help of examples.
3. Explain and prove that the Rayleigh scattering is a process in which
electromagnetic radiation is scattered by a small spherical volume of variant
NOTES
refractive indexes.
4. Discuss the scattering of electromagnetic waves by particles.
5. Explain the equations used for Mie scattering by a particle or object.
6. Discuss about the scattering parameters giving appropriate examples.
7. Explain the process of polarization of scattered light with the help of an
example.

Sons.
Inc.
House Pvt. Ltd.
Self-Instructional
198 Material
Wave Guides
BLOCK - IV
MICROWAVES, DYNAMICS OF CHARGED
NOTES
UNIT 10 WAVE GUIDES

Structure
10.0 Introduction
10.1 Objectives
10.2 Wave Guides
10.2.1 Rectangular Waveguides
10.4 Summary
10.5 Key Words
10.0 INTRODUCTION
In electromagnetics and communications engineering, the term waveguide

refers to any linear structure that conveys electromagnetic waves between
its endpoints. However, the original and most common meaning is a hollow
metal pipe used to carry radio waves. This type of waveguide is typically
used as a transmission line generally at microwave frequencies for connecting
microwave transmitters and receivers to their antennas, and in equipment, such
as microwave ovens, radar sets, satellite communications, and microwave
radio links. The electromagnetic waves in a (metal-pipe) waveguide may be
imagined as travelling down the guide in a zig-zag path, being repeatedly
reflected between opposite walls of the guide. For the particular case of
rectangular waveguide, it is possible to base an exact analysis on this view.
Propagation in a dielectric waveguide may be viewed in the same way, with
the waves confined to the dielectric by total internal reflection at its surface.
Some structures, such as non-radiative dielectric waveguides and the Goubau
line, use both metal walls and dielectric surfaces to confine the wave.
The means of propagation of waves is known as waveguide or guided
waves. A waveguide is a guided structure used to transmit ElectroMagnetic
(EM) waves in a confined manner. The wave through a waveguide propagates
through a directed path which is meant to transfer energy from one point to
another, that is, from source to load for a single user. Waveguides are used
at microwave frequencies that provide low signal attenuation and larger
bandwidth. It acts as a high pass filter as it operates above a certain frequency
Self-Instructional
Material 199
Wave Guides known as cutoff frequency. It cannot transmit direct current. Depending upon
the shapes they are designated as rectangular or circular.
In this unit, you will study about the waveguides, and in detail about
the rectangular and cylindrical waveguides.
NOTES
10.1 OBJECTIVES

• Discuss what waveguides are
• Explain the types of waveguides
• Understand about the rectangular and cylindrical waveguides
• Determine the field components in the rectangular and cylindrical
waveguides
10.2 WAVE GUIDES
Depending upon the purpose for which waveguide is to be used and the
frequency of the wave to be transmitted, there are many different structures
of waveguide that include parallel plate waveguide, rectangular waveguide,
circular waveguide, optical fiber waveguide, and dielectric slab waveguide.
These waveguide structures are shown in Figure (10.1) and discussed in
next sections. The wave propagates through these guided structures whose
propagating medium is not a free space and they are no more uniform plane
waves.
Self-Instructional Fig. 10.1 Different Forms of Waveguide

200 Material
10.2.1 Rectangular Waveguides Wave Guides
For the parallel plate waveguides the fields vary only in one transverse or
orthogonal direction. Thus, the concept of parallel plate waveguide is simple,
however, it is not of practical use due to infinite dimensions. NOTES
Here, we will discuss about a rectangular waveguide which is the most
commonly used among various waveguide structures. Consider a rectangular
waveguide that is a hollow metallic device with its inner dimensions as a
and b meters as shown in Figure (10.2). The walls of the waveguide are
perfectly conducting having conductivity s • and it is filled with a charge
free lossless dielectric material having conductivity s 0. The direction of
wave propagation is assumed to be along z-direction.
Fig. 10.2 A Rectangular Waveguide
The Maxwell’s equation can be expressed in phasor form as:

__› _›
— × H
 s  = jweE 
s  
Expanding the above equation, we get:
_ _›
— × H
 s  =
aˆ x aˆ y aˆ z
∂ ∂ ∂ Ê ∂H ∂H ys ˆ Ê ∂H ∂H zs ˆ Ê ∂H ys ∂H xs ˆ
= Á zs - ˜ aˆ x + Á xs - ˜ aˆ y + Á - aˆ z
∂x ∂y ∂z Ë ∂y ∂z ¯ Ë ∂z ∂x ¯ Ë ∂x ∂y ˜¯
H xs H ys H zs
= jweE xs aˆ x + jweE ys aˆ y + jweEzs aˆ z
Equating the coefficients, we obtain:

∂H zs ∂H ys
- = jweE xs
∂y ∂z
∂H xs ∂H zs
- = jweE ys
∂z ∂x
∂H ys ∂H xs
- = jweEzs ...(10.1)
∂x ∂y
Self-Instructional
Material 201
Wave Guides Similarly, using Maxwell’s equation given as:
_
› _ _›
— × E 
s   = – jwmH
 s 
And expanding and equating the coefficients, we get:
NOTES
∂Ezs ∂E ys
- = - jwmH xs
∂y ∂z
∂E xs ∂Ezs
- = - jwmH ys
∂z ∂x
∂E ys ∂E xs
- = - jwmH zs ...(10.2)
∂x ∂y
Now, at z = 0, the field components may be written as:
H ys = H yo e - g r z
H xs = H xo e - g r z
E ys = E yo e - g r z

E xs = E xo e - g r z ...(10.3)
Here, subscript r is used to denote the propagation inside rectangular
waveguide.
Substituting Equation (10.3) into Equations (10.1) and (10.2), we get:
∂H zs
+ g r H ys = jweE xs
∂y
∂H zs
- g r H xs - = jweE ys
∂x
∂H ys ∂H xs
- = jweEzs ...(10.4)
∂x ∂y
And,
∂Ezs
+ g r E ys = - jwmH xs
∂y
∂Ezs
- g r E xs - = - jwmH ys
∂x
ys ∂E ∂E xs
- = - jwmH zs ...(10.5)
∂x ∂y
Rearranging and solving Equations (10.4) and (10.5) to get the field
components as:
Self-Instructional
202 Material
Wave Guides
g r ∂H zs jwe ∂Ezs
Hys = - - 2
hr2 ∂y hr ∂x
g r ∂H zs jwe ∂Ezs
Hxs = - + 2 ...(10.5) NOTES
hr2 ∂x hr ∂y
...(39)
g r ∂Ezs jwm ∂H zs
Exs = - - 2
hr2 ∂x hr ∂y
g r ∂Ezs ∂H
Eys = - 2
+ jwm zs
hr ∂y ∂x
Where hr2 = g r2 + w 2 me ...(10.6)
From Equation (10.5), we can say that the - and y-components of

electric and magnetic fields depend upon their respective z component. Thus,
if Ezs and Hzs become zero, all the field components get vanished which implies
that in a rectangular waveguide Transverse ElectroMagnetic (TEM) wave
does not exist, it only supports transverse electric and transverse magnetic
waves. To obtain the solutions for these two fields, let us consider the wave
equations and substituting conductivity s 0, we get:
 
—2 Es = jwm (s + jwe) Es
 
fi —2 Es + w2me Es = 0
And,
 
—2 H s = jwm (s + jwe) H s
 
fi —2 H s + w2me H s = 0
Expanding these equations in Cartesian coordinates we get:

  
∂2 Es ∂2 Es ∂2 Es 
2
+ 2
+ 2
= - w 2 meEs
∂x ∂y ∂z
  
∂2 H s ∂2 H s ∂2 H s 
2
+ 2
+ 2
= - w 2 meH s
∂x ∂y ∂z
Here, the electric and magnetic

_
› _ _›fields can be split in their respective
components. Thus, to obtain theE 
s  andH
s   fields, we have to solve six equations.
For example, for z-coordinate the above equations can be written as:
Self-Instructional
Material 203
Wave Guides
∂2 Ezs ∂2 Ezs ∂2 Ezs
+ + = - w 2 meEzs
∂x 2 ∂y 2 ∂z 2
NOTES ∂2 H zs ∂2 H zs ∂2 H zs
2
+ 2
+ 2
= - w 2 meH zs ...(10.7)
∂x ∂y ∂z
These equations are partial differential equations solved by using the
method of product solution (or separation of variables). Let Ezs be written as:
Ezs (x, y, z) = X(x) Y(y) Z(z)
Where X(x), Y(y), and Z(z) are the functions of x, y, and z, respectively.
Substituting this in Equation (10.7), we get:
d2 X d 2Y d2Z
YZ + XZ + XY = - w 2 meXYZ
dx 2 dy 2 dz 2
Dividing the above equation by XYZ, we get:
1 d 2 X 1 d 2Y 1 d 2 Z
+ + = - w 2 me ...(10.8)
X dx 2 Y dy 2 Z dz 2
Here, each term on the left hand side is independent of each other,
also their sum is a constant which implies that each of these terms must be a
constant. Let k x2 , k y2 , and kz2 be the separation constants, then Equation (10.8)
can be written as:
- k x2 - k y2 - k z2 = w 2 me
Thus, using these separation constants, Equation (10.8) can be written

as:
d2 X
= - Xk x2
dx 2
d 2Y
2
= - Yk y2
dy
d2Z
2
= - Zk z2
dz
The respective solutions of the above equations can be given by the
relations:
X(x) = A sin (kxx) + B cos (kxx)
Y(y) = C sin (kyy) + D cos (kyy)
Z(z) = E sin (kzz) + F cos (kzz)
Self-Instructional
Where A, B, C, D, E, and F are constants.
204 Material
_
›
Now, using the above solution to find E 
zs   field component in general Wave Guides
can be computed as:
Ezs (x, y, z) = [A sin (kxx) + B cos (kxx)] [C sin (kyy) + D cos (kyy)]
[E sin (kzz) + F cos (kzz)] NOTES
Here, it is to be noted that hr can be represented in terms of kx and ky

as:
hr2 = k x2 + k y2 ...(10.9)
In the similar way, the general solution for magnetic field component
Hzs can be written as:
H zs ( x, y, z ) = ÎÈ A¢ sin(k x x ) + B ¢ cos(k x x )˚˘ ÈÎC ¢ sin(k y y) + D ¢ cos(k y y)˘˚
ÎÈ E ¢ sin(k z z ) + F ¢ cos(k z z )˚˘

Now, since the wave is propagating in positive z-direction, the solution
of wave equation for z-axis can be written in terms of propagation constant
as:

Ezs ( x, y, z ) = [ A sin(k x x ) + B cos(k x x )][C sin(k y y) + D cos(k y y)]e - g r z ...(10.10)

H zs ( x, y, z ) = [ A¢ sin(k x x ) + B ¢ cos(k x x )][C ¢ sin(k y y) + D ¢ cos(k y y)]e - g r z ...(10.11)
Since we have derived these general solutions, let us derive the field
expressions for two different waves, that is, Transverse Magnetic (TM)
wave and Transverse Electric (TE) wave. It should be noted that rectangular
waveguides does not support TEM waves as we have studied earlier.
Transverse Magnetic Waves
To determine the field expressions, let us apply the boundary conditions on
the walls of the waveguide which are perfectly conducting. Since we know_
›
that for TM waves, Hzs = 0 and the tangential components of electric field E 
  
must be continuous, which implies:
Ezs = 0 at x = 0 and y = 0 [Refer to Figure (10.2)] ...(10.12)
Also,
Ezs = 0 at x = a and y = b ...(10.13)
Substituting the boundary condition described in Equation (10.12) in
Equation (10.10), we get:
Self-Instructional
Material 205
Wave Guides B = 0 and D = 0
Thus, Equation (10.10) becomes:
Ezs = AC sin(k x x )sin(k y y)e- g r z
NOTES
Or, it can be written as:
Ezs = Eo sin(k x x )sin(k y y)e- g r z ...(10.14)
Where, Eo = AC is constant.
Now, applying boundary condition given in Equation (10.13),
Equation (10.14) becomes:
sin kxa = 0
And,
sin kyb = 0
This implies that;
Kxa = mp, where m = 1, 2, 3, ...
And,
Kyb = np, where, n = 1, 2, 3, ...
Here m and n denotes the number of half cycle variations in x- and
y-directions, respectively. Hence, Equation (10.14) becomes:
Ê m p ˆ Ê np ˆ - g r z
Ezs = Eo sin Á x sin y e
Ë a ˜¯ ÁË b ˜¯
Now, substituting the value of Ezs, from Equation (10.5) the other
field components can easily be obtained. Here, Hzs = 0, as it is a transverse
magnetic wave. Thus, we get:
g r Ê mp ˆ Ê m p ˆ Ê np ˆ - g r z
Exs = - 2 Á ˜ Eo cos Á x sin y e
hr Ë a ¯ Ë a ˜¯ ÁË b ˜¯
g r Ê np ˆ Ê mp ˆ Ê np ˆ - g r z
Eys = - 2 Á ˜ Eo sin Á x˜ cos Á y e
hr Ë b ¯ Ë a ¯ Ë b ˜¯
jwe Ê np ˆ Ê mp ˆ Ê np ˆ - g r z
Hxs = 2 Á ˜ Eo sin Á x˜ cos Á y e
hr Ë b ¯ Ë a ¯ Ë b ˜¯
jwe Ê mp ˆ Ê m p ˆ Ê np ˆ - g r z
Eys = - 2 Á ˜ Eo cos Á x sin y e
hr Ë a ¯ Ë a ˜¯ ÁË b ˜¯
2 2
Ê mp ˆ Ê np ˆ
Where hr2 =Á +Á ˜ [Refer to Equation (10.9)]
Ë a ˜¯ Ë b¯
Self-Instructional
206 Material
Here, it is to be noted that the lowest mode that can be transmitted Wave Guides
using a rectangular waveguide is TM11 mode as neither m nor n can be zero
for TM wave. Since on substituting m or n zero, all the field components
vanish. The field patterns of TM11 are shown in Figure 10.3.
NOTES
Fig. 10.3 TM11 Wave inside a Rectangular Waveguide
Transverse Electric Waves

_
›
Since in TE waves, Ezs = 0, and the tangential components of electric field E 
  
at the walls of the waveguide must be continuous, we have:
Exs = 0 at y = 0 and y = b
Also,
Eys = 0 at x = 0 and x = a
Substituting these conditions in Equation (10.5), we get:
∂H zs
= 0 at y = 0 and y = b ...(10.15)
∂y
Also,
∂H zs
= 0 at x = 0 and x = a ...(10.16)
∂x
Now, using Equations (10.11), (10.15), and (10.16) and proceeding
in similar way as we did for transverse magnetic waves, we get:
Ê mp ˆ Ê np ˆ - g r z
Hzs = Ho cos Á x˜ cos Á y e
Ë a ¯ Ë b ˜¯
Where Ho = B ¢ D ¢ and m = 0,1,2,3,... and n = 0,1,2,3,...

Substituting the value of Hzs, from Equation (10.5), the other field
components becomes:
Self-Instructional
Material 207
Wave Guides
jwm Ê np ˆ Ê m p ˆ Ê np ˆ - g r z
Exs = Á ˜ H o cos ÁË a x˜¯ sin ÁË b y˜¯ e
hr2 Ë b ¯
jwm Ê mp ˆ Ê mp ˆ Ê np ˆ - g r z
NOTES Eys = - 2 Á ˜ H o sin Á x˜ cos Á y e
hr Ë a ¯ Ë a ¯ Ë b ˜¯
g r Ê mp ˆ Ê mp ˆ Ê np ˆ - g r z
Hxs = 2 Á ˜ H o sin Á x˜ cos Á y e
hr Ë a ¯ Ë a ¯ Ë b ˜¯
g r Ê np ˆ Ê m p ˆ Ê np ˆ - g r z
Hys = 2 Á ˜ H o cos Á x sin y e
hr Ë b ¯ Ë a ˜¯ ÁË b ˜¯
Notice that unlike TM waves, the TE waves can exist for zero value of
m and n. However, if both are simultaneously zero it will result in zero field
components. Thus, the lowest mode that can be transmitted by rectangular
waveguide is TE01 mode or TE10 mode depending upon the dimensions of
waveguide. The field variations for TE10 mode are shown in Figure (10.4).
Fig. 10.4 TE10 Wave inside a Rectangular Waveguide
Propagation Characteristics of TE and TM Waves in Rectangular

Waveguides
Here we will discuss about various propagation characteristics of the

rectangular waveguides. As we studied in the previous section that:
2 2
Ê mp ˆ Ê np ˆ
hr2 = Á ˜ +Á ˜
Ë a ¯ Ë b¯
Also, it can be expressed as:
hr2 = g r2 + w 2 me
g r2 = hr2 - w 2 me
Self-Instructional
208 Material
Wave Guides
fi gr = hr2 - w 2 me
Thus, we get:
2 2
gr = Ê mp ˆ Ê np ˆ 2 NOTES
ÁË a ˜¯ + ÁË b ˜¯ - w me
Now, depending upon the value of hr and w2me, there are three cases.
ÈÊ mp ˆ 2 Ê np ˆ ˘
2
Case 1: If ÍÁ ˜ + Á ˜ ˙ > w 2 me , then the value of propagation

Ë ¯ Ë b¯ ˙
ÎÍ a ˚
constant gr becomes purely real. Thus, we obtain only the attenuation constant
ar as:
2 2
gr = ar = Ê mp ˆ Ê np ˆ 2
ÁË a ˜¯ + ÁË b ˜¯ - w me
2
Case 2: If ÍÁ ˜ + Á ˜ ˙ < w 2 me, then the propagation constant gr

ÍÎË a ¯ Ë b¯ ˙
˚
will be purely imaginary, that is, the real part ar is equal to zero.
Thus, the imaginary part of propagation constant, that is, the phase
constant br is obtained as:
gr = jbr
It is expressed as:
2 2
br = Ê mp ˆ Ê np ˆ
2
w me - Á - Á ˜ ...(10.17)
Ë a ˜¯ Ë b¯
Case 3: There exists one more case for rectangular waveguides where
ÈÊ mp ˆ 2 Ê np ˆ 2 ˘
˜¯ + ÁË b ˜¯ ˙ = w me , then the value of propagation constant gr
2
ÍÁ
Ë a
ÎÍ ˚˙
comes out to be zero which implies, both attenuation constant ar and phase
constant br are equal to zero. In addition, there will be no propagation of
wave and this is considered as the critical condition for cut-off propagation.
The value of w in this case is known as angular cut-off frequency, denoted
by wc, expressed as:
2 2
1 Ê mp ˆ Ê np ˆ
wc = ÁË a ˜¯ + ÁË b ˜¯ ...(10.18)
me
Thus, the cut-off frequency fc is expressed as:
Self-Instructional
Material 209
Wave Guides 2 2 2 2
fc = 1 Ê mp ˆ Ê np ˆ 1 Ê mˆ Ê nˆ
ÁË a ˜¯ + ÁË b ˜¯ = ÁË a ˜¯ + ÁË b ˜¯ ...(10.19)
2 p me 2 me
NOTES From Equations (10.17) and (10.19), the phase constant br can be
written as:
2
br = b 1 - Ê fc ˆ ...(10.20)
ÁË f ˜¯
Where b is the free space phase constant.

Now, the cut-off wavelength lc can be obtained as:
u
lc =
fc
Where u is the velocity of the wave in lossless dielectric medium
given as:
1
u=
me
Thus, the cut-off wavelength lc is obtained as:

2
2 2
lc = Ê mˆ Ê nˆ ...(10.21)
ÁË a ˜¯ + ÁË b ˜¯
Now, the guide wavelength lr is obtained as:

2p
lr =
br
Substituting the value of br from Equation (10.17), we get:

2p
lr = Ê mp ˆ Ê np ˆ
2 2
w 2 me - Á ˜ -Á ˜
Ë a ¯ Ë b¯

2p
lr = [Refer to Equation (10.18)]
w me - w c2 me
2
2p
=
Ê w2 ˆ
w me Á 1 - c2 ˜
Ë w ¯
The guide wavelength lr in terms of cut-off wavelength lc is expressed

as:
Self-Instructional
210 Material
Wave Guides
l
lr = 12
È Ê l ˆ2˘
Í1 - Á ˜ ˙
ÍÎ Ë l c ¯ ˙˚
NOTES
The phase velocity u ph and group velocity u g for rectangular
waveguides can be obtained by substituting the value of br in the respectively
following equations:
We get
w
uph =
b
∂ω
ug =
∂β
u
uph =
2
Êf ˆ
1- Á c ˜
Ë f¯
2
Êf ˆ
ug = u 1 - Á c ˜
Ë f¯
From above two expressions it is obtained that:

u ph ug = u
Now the dominant mode for a rectangular waveguide is TE10 mode as

it has the lowest cut-off frequency among all the modes. All the propagation
characteristics expressed above are same for both transverse electric and
transverse magnetic waves. However, as the field expressions for magnetic
and electric fields are different for TE and TM waves the expressions for
intrinsic impedance also differ. Let us now derive the expression of intrinsic
impedance for both TE and TM waves in rectangular waveguides. The
intrinsic impedance hr is expressed as:
Ex Ey
hr = =-
Hy Hx
For TM wave, intrinsic impedance hrTM is obtained by substituting
the values of Ex and Hy, we get:
gr
hrTM =
jwe
Now, for a propagating wave, we have:
gr = jbr
Self-Instructional
Material 211
Wave Guides Thus, we obtain:
br
hr TM =
we
Substituting the value of br from Equation (10.17), we get:
NOTES
2
m Êf ˆ
hr TM = 1- Á c˜
e Ë f¯
2
hr TM = h 1 - Ê fc ˆ ...(10.22)
ÁË f ˜¯
Where h = m is the intrinsic impedance of lossless dielectric material.

e
In the similar way, the intrinsic impedance for TE wave hr TE is obtained
by substituting the values of Ex and Hy we get:
wm
hr TE =
br
Or,
m 1
hr TE =
e Êf ˆ
2
1- Á c ˜
Ë f¯
h
fi hr TE = Ê f ˆ ...(10.23)
2
1- Á c ˜
Ë f¯
From Equations (10.22) and (10.23), it can be observed that hr TM and
hrTE vary with frequency and are purely resistive in nature. Also, we have:
m
hrTM hrTE = h =
e
Power Transmission and Losses in Rectangular Waveguides

The power transmitted in a waveguide can be calculated using Poynting
theorem. We know that the average Poynting vector is given as:
 1  
Sav = Re( Es ¥ H s* )
2
Here, the wave is propagating along z-direction and hence, the
Poynting vector is also along z-direction. Thus, we have:
 1 * *
Sav = Re( E xs H ys - E ys H xs )aˆ z
Self-Instructional 2
212 Material
Or, it can be written as: Wave Guides
 1
Sav = | Es |2 aˆ z
2 hr
where | Es |2 = | E xs |2 + | E ys |2 and hr = hr TM for TM wave and hr = hr TE NOTES

for TE wave. Thus, the above equation becomes:
 1
Sav = [| E xs |2 + | E ys |2 ] aˆ z ...(10.24)
2 hr
Now, the total time-average power transmitted is given by the relation:
 
Sav = ÚS
s
av . ds
1 a b
Sav =
2 hr Ú Ú
x=0 y=0
| Es |2 dxdy
1 a b
Or, Sav =
2 hr ÚÚ 0 0
| E xs |2 + | E ys |2 dxdy ...(10.25)
Thus, the power transmitted for TM mode is given as:
1 a b
Sav =
Êf ˆ
2 ÚÚ
0 0
| Es |2 dxdy [Refer to Equation (10.22)]
2h 1 - Á c ˜
Ë f¯
For TE mode is given as:
2
Êf ˆ
1- Á c ˜
Ë f¯ a b
Sav =
2h ÚÚ
0 0
| Es |2 dxdy [Refer to Equation (10.23)]
Power Losses
So far for a waveguide, we have assumed that its walls to be perfectly
conducting and the dielectric between them to be lossless. However
practically, if the waveguide walls are not perfectly conducting and the
dielectric medium is lossy, consequently, there incurs some power loss along
the wave propagation. These losses can be classified into two types as:
•
Losses in the dielectric
• Losses in the walls of the guide
The power flow in the waveguide is expressed as:
Sav = So e - 2az
Where a = aw + ad. Here, aw denotes the losses occurring in the walls of
the waveguide and ad represents the losses due to dielectric. Let us determine Self-Instructional
Material 213
Wave Guides the losses due to dielectric and then we will determine the losses due to guide
walls. For lossy dielectrics, we know that g π jb ( thus, only the value of
propagation constant needs to be modified to obtain the results for propagation
in lossy dielectrics and it is done by replacing e with ec in Equation (10.6),
NOTES where ec denotes the complex permittivity. Thus, Equation (10.6) becomes:
hr2 = g r2 + w 2 me c
2 2
Ê mp ˆ Ê np ˆ
gr = ÁË a ˜¯ + ÁË b ˜¯ - w me c = a d + jb d ...(10.26)
2
Ê js ˆ
where ec = e Á 1 - ˜ = e ¢ - j e ¢¢
Ë we ¯
Substituting this relation in Equation (10.26), it becomes:

2 2
Ê mp ˆ Ê np ˆ
gr = 2
ÁË a ˜¯ + ÁË b ˜¯ - w me + jwms = a d + jb d
Squaring both sides, we get:

2 2
Ê mp ˆ Ê np ˆ
g r2 = Á ˜ + Á ˜ - w 2 me + jwms = a 2d - b2d + j 2a d b d
Ë a ¯ Ë b¯
Equating real and imaginary parts on both sides, we get:

2 2
Ê mp ˆ Ê np ˆ
a 2d - b2d =Á ˜ + Á ˜ - w 2 me ...(10.27)
Ë a ¯ Ë b¯
And, 2adbd = wms ...(10.28)

Assuming b2d  a 2d , thus Equation (10.27) becomes:
2 2
Ê mp ˆ Ê np ˆ
a 2d - b2d  -b2d = Á + Á ˜ - w 2 me
Ë a ˜¯ Ë b¯
Or,
2 2
bd = 2 Ê mp ˆ Ê np ˆ
w me - Á -Á ˜
Ë a ˜¯ Ë b¯
2
Êf ˆ
fi bd = w me 1 - Á c ˜
Ë f¯
Now, from Equation (10.28), ad can be written as:
Self-Instructional
214 Material
Wave Guides
wms
ad =
2b d
Substituting the value of bd as obtained above, we get:
NOTES
wms sh
ad = = ...(10.29)
2 2
Êf ˆ Êf ˆ
2w me 1 - Á c ˜ 2 1- Á c ˜
Ë f¯ Ë f¯
m
Where h = .
e
Now let us determine the losses due to waveguide walls, that is, aw.
We will determine the value of aw for TE10 mode, as it is comparatively easy
and less time consuming. Substituting the expressions of Exs and Eys for TE10
mode in Equation (10.25) where Exs = 0 for m =1 and n = 0 mode, we get:
1 a b 1 a b w 2 m 2 a 2 H o2 Ê px ˆ
Sav=
2 hr ÚÚ
0 0
| E xs |2 + | E ys |2 dxdy =
2 hr ÚÚ 0 0
0+
p 2
sin 2 Á ˜ dxdy
Ë a¯

w 2 m 2 a 2 H o2 a b Ê px ˆ
Sav = 2
2 p hr ÚÚ
0 0
sin 2 Á ˜ dxdy
Ë a¯
Integrating the above equation, we get:

w 2 m 2 a 3 H o2 b
Sav = ...(10.30)
4 p 2 hr
Now, the total power loss per unit length of the walls is given by the
relation:
Sl = [ Sl ]x = 0 + [ Sl ]x = a + [ Sl ]y = 0 + [ Sl ]y = b
= 2 {[ Sl ]x = 0 + [ Sl ]y = 0 } ...(10.31)
As the same power is dissipated in the walls x = 0 and x = a then [Sl]

x = 0
= [Sl]x = a or y = 0 and y = b then [Sl]y = 0 = [Sl]y = b. For y = 0, we have:
[Sl]y = 0 = 1 Re ÈÍ hrw Ú (| H xs |2 + | H zs |2 )dx ˘˙

2 Î ˚y=0
Here, subscript w denotes the intrinsic impedance for conducting

walls. Let Rs be the real part of intrinsic impedance, given as:
Self-Instructional
Material 215
Wave Guides
1 pf m
Rs = =
s wd sw
Thus, we obtain:
NOTES
1 È a b2 a 2 2 2 Ê px ˆ a Ê px ˆ ˘
[Sl]y = 0 = Rs Í
2 Î Ú x = 0 p2
H o sin Á ˜ dx +
Ë a¯ Ú x =0
H o2 cos2 Á ˜ dx ˙
Ë a¯ ˚
Rs aH o2 Ê b2 a 2 ˆ
= Á 1 + 2 ˜ ...(10.32)
4 Ë p ¯
Now for x = 0, we have:

1 È
Re hrw | H zs |2 dy ˘˙
[Sl]x = 0 = Ú
2 ÎÍ ˚x=0
= 1 R s
b
2 y=0
H o2 dy Ú
2
= Rs bHo ...(10.33)
2
Thus, using Equations (10.32) and (10.33), Equation (10.31) becomes:
È aÊ b2 a 2 ˆ ˘
Sl = Rs Ho2 Íb + Á 1 + 2 ˜ ˙ ...(10.34)
ÍÎ 2Ë p ¯ ˙˚
As per the law of conservation of energy, it must be conserved which

implies that the power loss per unit length is equal to the rate of decrease of
average power, that is,
dSav
Sl = - = 2aSav
dz
Sl
fi a=
2 Sav
Substituting the values from Equations (10.30) and (10.34), we get:
È aÊ b2 a 2 ˆ ˘
2 Rs H o2 p 2 hr Íb + Á 1 + 2 ˜ ˙
ÍÎ 2Ë p ¯ ˙˚
aw = 2 2 3 2
w m a Ho b
In terms of frequency, it can be written as:

2 Rs È1 b Ê f ˆ 2 ˘
aw = Í + Á c˜ ˙
Ê
2 Í2
fc ˆ Î aË f ¯ ˙
˚
bh 1 - Á ˜
Ë f¯
Self-Instructional
216 Material
This is the required expression of attenuation constant of walls of Wave Guides
waveguide for TE10 mode. For TEmn modes, it can be derived using the same
procedure, and is given as:
NOTES
È bÊb 2 2ˆ ˘
2 Rs Í b Ê fc ˆ
2
a ÁË a m + n ˜¯ Ê Ê f ˆ 2 ˆ ˙
Ê
Í 1+ ˜ˆ
Á 1 - Á ˜ ˜ ˙ ...(10.35)
c
a w,TE = +
2 ÍÁ
Ë a ¯ ÁË f ˜¯ b 2 Á Ë f ¯ ¯˜ ˙
Êf ˆ
bh 1 - Á c ˜ ÍÎ 2
m 2 + n2 Ë ˙
Ë f ¯ a ˚
And, for TMmn modes, it is given as:

2 Rs È (b a )3 m 2 + n2 ˘
a w,TM = Í 2 2 2 ˙ ...(10.36)
fc ˆ Î (b a ) m + n ˚
2
Ê
bh 1 - Á
Ë f ˜¯
Thus, the total loss in the rectangular waveguide can be obtained

using Equations (10.29), (10.35), and (10.36) as:
For TM wave:
a = aw + ad
2 Rs È (b / a )3 m 2 + n2 ˘ sh
a= Í ˙+
2 ( b / a )2 m 2 + n 2 2
Ê fc ˆ Î ˚ Ê fc ˆ
bh 1 - Á 2 1 -
Ë f ˜¯ ÁË f ˜¯
For TE wave:
a = aw + ad
a=
È bÊb 2 ˆ ˘
ÍÊ 2 Á m + n2 ˜ Ê 2ˆ˙
2 Rs b Êf ˆ aËa ¯ Ê fc ˆ sh
ÍÁ 1 + ˆ˜ Á c ˜ + Á1 - Á ˜ ˜ ˙ +
2 ÍË a¯ Ë f ¯ 2
b 2 Á Ë f ¯ ¯˜ ˙ 2
Ê fc ˆ 2 Ë Ê fc ˆ
bh 1 - Á Í m + n ˙
Ë f ˜¯ Î a2 ˚ 2 1 - ÁË f ˜¯

A circular tubular conductor is considered as a circular waveguide, used to
transmit EM waves from source to destination. However, they are different
from that of rectangular waveguides as they do not have unique orientation
due to its symmetricity around the axis as shown in Figure (10.5). Also,
circular waveguides are easy to manufacture. Both TE and TM modes can
propagate through a circular waveguide. The field expressions for circular
waveguides are obtained using Bessel functions and are derived below. Self-Instructional
Material 217
Wave Guides
NOTES
Fig. 10.5 A Circular Waveguide
Consider a circular waveguide with dimension of radius r as shown

in Figure (10.5). Proceeding in similar way as we did for rectangular
waveguides, the general solution of electric and magnetic field can be written
in terms of Bessel functions as:
Ezs (r, f, z ) = ÈÎ An J n (kc r) + Bn N n (kc r)˘˚(Cn cos nf + Dn sin nf)e ± jbcir z ...(10.37)
H zs (r, f, z ) = ÈÎ An¢ J n (kc r) + Bn¢ N n (kc r)˘˚(Cn¢ cos nf + Dn¢ sin nf)e ± jbcir z ...(10.38)
Where Jn(kcr) is the Bessel function of first kind and Nn(kcr) is the
Bessel function of second kind. Also,
bcir = ± w 2 me - kc2
Here, subscript cir is used to denote the propagation inside circular
waveguide. Now, at r = 0 the field must be finite which implies Bn = 0, thus
Equations (10.37) and (10.36) becomes:
Ezs (r, f, z ) = An J n (kc r)(Cn cos nf + Dn sin nf)e ± jbcir z ...(10.39)
H zs (r, f, z ) = An¢ J n (kc r)(Cn¢ cos nf + Dn¢ sin nf)e ± jbcir z ...(10.40)
Also, using trigonometric manipulations, we have:

È Ê D ˆ˘
Cn cos nf + Dn sin nf = Cn2 + Dn2 cos Ínf + tan -1 Á n ˜ ˙
ÍÎ Ë Cn ¯ ˙˚
= Kn cos (nf)
Where Kn is another constant.
Thus, Equations (10.39) and (10.40) becomes:
Ezs (r, f, z ) = Eo J n (kc r)cos(nf)e - jbcir z ...(10.41)
H zs (r, f, z ) = H o J n (kc r)cos(nf)e - jbcir z ...(10.42)
Where Eo = AnKn and Ho = Ho = An¢ K n

Self-Instructional
218 Material
Now, the solution of TE and TM waves can be obtained using Wave Guides
Maxwell’s equation given as:
 
— ¥ H s = jweEs
Expanding above equation, we get: NOTES
aˆr raˆ f aˆ z
— ¥ H s = 1 ∂ ∂ ∂ È 1 ∂H zs ∂H fs ˘ È ∂Hrs ∂H zs ˘
=Í - ˙ aˆr + Í - ˙ aˆ f
r ∂r ∂f ∂z Î r ∂f ∂z ˚ Î ∂z ∂r ˚
Hrs rH fs H zs

+ Í
(
1 È ∂ rH fs
-
)
∂Hrs ˘
˙ aˆ z
r Í ∂r ∂f ˙
Î ˚
= jweErs aˆr + jweEfs aˆ f + jweEzs aˆ z
Equating the coefficients, we obtain:

1 ∂H zs ∂H fs
- = jweErs
r ∂f ∂z
∂H zs
- jbcir Hrs - = jweEfs
∂r
1 ∂(rH fs ) 1 ∂Hrs
- = jweEzs ...(10.43)
r ∂r r ∂f
Similarly using Maxwell’s equation given as:

 
— ¥ Es = - jwmH s
And expanding and equating the coefficients, we get:
1 ∂Ezs ∂Efs
- = - jwmHrs
r ∂f ∂z
∂Ers ∂Ezs
- = - jwmH fs
∂z ∂r
1 ∂(rEfs ) 1 ∂Ers
- = - jwmH zs ...(10.44)
r ∂r r ∂f
To determine the field expressions, let us apply the boundary
_
›
conditions. We
know that the tangential components of electric field E 
  must be continuous,
which implies:
Ezs = 0 at r = r
Self-Instructional
Material 219
Wave Guides Using this boundary condition, we get:
Jn (kc r) = 0 ...(10.45)
∂
Also, the field equations by substituting Hzs = 0 and = - jbcir ,
NOTES ∂z
Equations (10.43) and (10.44) becomes:
- jbcir ∂Ezs
Ers =
kc2 ∂r
- jbcir 1 ∂H zs
Efs =
kc2 r ∂f
Ezs = Eo J n (kc r)cos(nf)e- jbcir z ...(10.46)
jwe 1 ∂Ezs
Hrs =
kc2 r ∂f
jwe ∂Ezs
Efs =
kc2 ∂r
Hzs = 0 ...(10.47)
where kc2 = w 2 me - b2cir
Now, from Equations (10.45), (10.46), and (10.47) we get the field
components of TM wave as:
Ê X npr ˆ
Ers = Eo J n¢ Á cos(nf)e - jbcir z
Ë r ˜¯
Ê X npr ˆ
Efs = Eo J n Á ˜ sin(nf)e - jbcir z
Ë r ¯
Ê X npr ˆ
Ezs = Eo J n Á ˜ cos(nf)e - jbcir z
Ë r ¯
Ê X npr ˆ
Hrs = Ho J n Á sin(nf)e - jbcir z
Ë r ˜¯
Ê X npr ˆ
Hfs = Ho J n¢ Á cos(nf)e - jbcir z
Ë r ˜¯
X np
where = kc . Here, Xnp are the roots of the Bessel function in
r
which subscript n denotes the number of full cycles of field variation in one
revolution and subscript p denotes the number of zeroes of Ef, however, zero
on the axis is excluded. The values of n and p are given as:
n = 0, 1, 2, 3, 4, ......
Self-Instructional p = 1, 2, 3, 4, ......
220 Material
Wave Guides
Ê X npr ˆ Ê X npr ˆ
Also, J n¢ Á ˜ indicates the derivative of J n Á
Ë r ¯ Ë r ˜¯
Propagation Characteristics of Transverse Magnetic Wave NOTES

The phase constantis bcir given as:
bcir = w 2 me - kc2 = k 2 - kc2
Or, the phase constant can be written as:

12
È Ê X np ˆ ˘
2
bcir = Ík -
2 ˙
Í ËÁ r ¯˜ ˙
Î ˚
Also, the cut-off frequency is given by the relation:
uX np
fc =
2 pr
where u is the velocity of the wave given as:
1
u=
me
Now, the cut-off wavelength for circular waveguide can be given as:
2 pr
lc =
X np
And the guide wavelength lcir is given as:

l
lcir =
2
Êf ˆ
1- Á c ˜
Ë f¯
The intrinsic impedance of the circular waveguide is similar to that

of rectangular waveguide and thus, given by the relation:
2
Êf ˆ
hcir TM = h 1- Á c ˜
Ë f¯

_
›
As the tangential components of electric field E 
  must be continuous, we have:
Efs = 0 at r = r
Substituting this condition in Equation (10.43), we get:
∂H zs
=0
∂r
Self-Instructional
Material 221
Wave Guides Using the above equation, we get:
J n¢ (kc r ) = 0 ...(10.48)
NOTES Also, the field components on substituting Ezs = 0 and ∂ = - jbcir in

∂z
Equations (10.43) and (10.44), we get:
- jwm 1 ∂H zs
Ers =
kc2 r ∂f
jwm ∂H zs ...(10.49)
Efs =
kc2 ∂r
Ezs = 0
- jbcir ∂H zs
Hrs =
kc2 ∂r
- jbcir 1 ∂H zs ...(10.50)
H fs =
kc2 r ∂f
H zs = H o J n (kc r)cos(nf)e - jbcir z
Now, from Equations (10.48), (10.49), and (10.50), we get the field
components of TE wave as:
Ê X np
¢ rˆ - jbcir z
Ers = Eo J n Á ˜ sin(nf)e
Ë r ¯
Ê X np
¢ rˆ - jbcir z
Efs = Eo J n¢ Á ˜ cos(nf)e
Ë r ¯
Ê X np
¢ rˆ - jbcir z
Hrs = - H o J n Á ˜ cos(nf)e
Ë r ¯
Ê X np
¢ rˆ
H fs = H o J n Á ˜ sin(nf)e - jbcir z
Ë r ¯
Ê X np
¢ rˆ
H zs = H o J n Á ˜ cos(nf)e - jbcir z
Ë r ¯

X np
¢
Where = kc
r
Propagation Characteristics of Transverse Electric Wave

Let us now discuss the propagation parameters of transverse electric wave.
Some of the characteristics are same to those of TM wave while some are
different. However, we will represent them all here in summarized way.
Self-Instructional
222 Material
12 Wave Guides
È ¢ ˆ ˘
Ê X np
2
bcir = Í k 2
-Á ˜ ˙
Í Ë r ¯ ˙
Î ˚
uX np
¢
, NOTES
fc =
2 pr
1
fi u = ,
me
2 pr
lc = ,
X np
¢
l
l cir =
2
Êf ˆ
1- Á c ˜
Ë f ¯

And,
h
hcir TE =
2
Êf ˆ
1- Á c ˜
Ë f ¯

Now, the dominant mode of a circular waveguide is TE11.
Note: The major drawback of circular waveguide is that they occupy
more space as compared to rectangular waveguide. Hence, to carry the same
signal, their cross section is much larger.
Check Your Progress

1. Explain the term structure of waveguide. How the wave propagates
through these guided structures?
2. For parallel plate waveguides what is the direction of the fields?
3. What will happen if Ezs and Hzs become zero?
4. Give the general solution for magnetic field component Hzs.
5. Define Case 1 and Case 2 of propagation characteristics of rectangular
waveguides.
6. Give the equation for the power transmitted for TM mode.
7. Give the relation for total power loss per unit length of the walls.
8. Explain about cylindrical or circular waveguides.
Self-Instructional
Material 223
Wave Guides
QUESTIONS
NOTES 1. Depending upon the purpose for which waveguide is to be used and
the frequency of the wave to be transmitted, there are many different
structures of waveguide that include parallel plate waveguide,
rectangular waveguide, circular waveguide, optical fiber waveguide,
and dielectric slab waveguide. The wave propagates through these
guided structures whose propagating medium is not a free space and
they are no more uniform plane waves.
2. For parallel plate waveguides, the fields vary only in one transverse
or orthogonal direction.
3. If Ezs and Hzs become zero, all the field components get vanished which
implies that in a rectangular waveguide Transverse ElectroMagnetic
(TEM) wave does not exist, it only supports transverse electric and
transverse magnetic waves.
4. the general solution for magnetic field component Hzs can be written
as:
H zs ( x, y, z ) = ÈÎ A¢ sin(k x x ) + B ¢ cos(k x x )˘˚ ÈÎC ¢ sin(k y y) + D ¢ cos(k y y)˘˚

ÎÈ E ¢ sin(k z z ) + F ¢ cos(k z z )˚˘
2
Case 1: If ÍÁ ˜ + Á ˜ ˙ > w 2 me , then the value of propagation

5.
Ë ¯ Ë b¯ ˙
ÎÍ a ˚
constant gr becomes purely real. Thus, we obtain only the attenuation
constant ar as:
2 2
gr = ar = Ê mp ˆ Ê np ˆ 2
ÁË a ˜¯ + ÁË b ˜¯ - w me
ÈÊ mp ˆ 2 Ê np ˆ 2 ˘
Case 2: If ÍÁ ˜ + Á ˜ ˙ < w 2 me, then the propagation constant gr
ÍÎË a ¯ Ë b¯ ˙
˚
will be purely imaginary, that is, the real part ar is equal to zero.
Thus, the imaginary part of propagation constant, that is, the phase
constant br is obtained as:
gr = jbr
It is expressed as:
2 2
br = 2 Ê mp ˆ Ê np ˆ
w me - Á -Á ˜
Ë a ˜¯ Ë b¯
Self-Instructional
224 Material
6. The power transmitted for TM mode is given as: Wave Guides
1 a b
Sav =
Êf ˆ
2 ÚÚ
0 0
| Es |2 dxdy
2h 1 - Á c ˜ NOTES
Ë f¯
7. The total power loss per unit length of the walls is given by the relation:
= 2 {[ Sl ]x = 0 + [ Sl ]y = 0 }
8. A circular tubular conductor is considered as a circular waveguide,
used to transmit EM waves from source to destination. However, they
are different from that of rectangular waveguides as they do not have
unique orientation due to its symmetricity around the axis.
10.4 SUMMARY
• Depending upon the purpose for which waveguide is to be used and

the frequency of the wave to be transmitted, there are many different
structures of waveguide that include parallel plate waveguide,
rectangular waveguide, circular waveguide, optical fiber waveguide,
and dielectric slab waveguide.
• The wave propagates through these guided structures whose propagating
medium is not a free space and they are no more uniform plane waves.
• For the parallel plate waveguides the fields vary only in one transverse
or orthogonal direction. Thus, the concept of parallel plate waveguide
is simple, however, it is not of practical use due to infinite dimensions.
• The rectangular waveguide is the most commonly used among various
waveguide structures.
• Thus, if E zs and Hzs become zero, all the field components get
vanished which implies that in a rectangular waveguide Transverse
ElectroMagnetic (TEM) wave does not exist, it only supports transverse
electric and transverse magnetic waves.
• Since the wave is propagating in positive z-direction, the solution of
wave equation for z-axis can be written in terms of propagation constant
as:
Ezs ( x, y, z ) = [ A sin(k x x ) + B cos(k x x )][C sin(k y y) + D cos(k y y)]e - g r z

H zs ( x, y, z ) = [ A¢ sin(k x x ) + B ¢ cos(k x x )][C ¢ sin(k y y) + D ¢ cos(k y y)]e - g r z

• The lowest mode that can be transmitted using a rectangular waveguide
is TM11 mode as neither m nor n can be zero for TM wave. Since on
substituting m or n zero, all the field components vanish.
Self-Instructional
Material 225
Wave Guides • The lowest mode that can be transmitted by rectangular waveguide is
TE01 mode or TE10 mode depending upon the dimensions of waveguide.
• There will be no propagation of wave and this is considered as the
critical condition for cut-off propagation. The value of w in this case
NOTES
is known as angular cut-off frequency, denoted by wc,
• The power transmitted in a waveguide can be calculated using Poynting
theorem.
• However practically, if the waveguide walls are not perfectly conducting
and the dielectric medium is lossy, consequently, there incurs some
power loss along the wave propagation.
• The total power loss per unit length of the walls is given by the relation:
= 2 {[ Sl ]x = 0 + [ Sl ]y = 0 }
• As per the law of conservation of energy, it must be conserved which
implies that the power loss per unit length is equal to the rate of decrease
of average power, that is,
dS
Sl = - av = 2aSav
dz
• The solution of TE and TM waves can be obtained using Maxwell’s
equation given as:
 

— ¥ H s = jweEs
• The intrinsic impedance of the circular waveguide is similar to that of
rectangular waveguide and thus, given by the relation:
2
Êf ˆ
hcir TM = h 1 - Á c ˜
Ë f¯
10.5 KEY WORDS
Parallel plate waveguides: In this the fields vary only in one transverse
•
or orthogonal direction.
Critical condition for cut-off propagation: When there will be no
•
propagation of wave then this is considered as the critical condition
for cut-off propagation.
Circular tubular conductor: This is considered as a circular waveguide
•
and is used to transmit EM waves from source to destination.
Self-Instructional
226 Material
Wave Guides
EXERCISES
1. What is the significance of waveguide?

2. What does waveguide specify?
3. State the significance of rectangular waveguide.
4. What is power loss?
5. What are cylindrical waveguides?
6. What are the field components in the rectangular and cylindrical
waveguides?
1. Briefly explain the characteristic features and uses of waveguides with
the help of appropriate examples.
2. Explain the various types of waveguides.
3. Discuss the features and working methodology of rectangular
waveguides with the help of illustrations.
4. Briefly explain the propagation characteristics of TE and EM waves
in rectangular waveguides.
5. Explain the significance of power transmission and losses in rectangular
waveguides.
6. Discuss the significance and working principle of cylindrical or circular
waveguides with the help of illustrations.
7. Briefly explain the propagation characteristics of transverse magnetic
wave and transverse electric waves in cylindrical or circular waveguides.
Prakash, Satya. 2007. Electromagnetic Theory and Electrodynamics:

Including Electrostatics and Magnetostatics. Meerut: Kedar Nath
Ram Nath.
Self-Instructional
Material 227
Wave Guides Kraus, John D. and Keith R. Carver. 1973. Electromagnetics. New York:
Stratton, Adams Julius. 2007. Electromagnetic Theory. London: John Wiley
NOTES & Sons.
Inc.
House Pvt. Ltd.
Self-Instructional
228 Material
Microwaves
UNIT 11 MICROWAVES

Structure NOTES
11.0 Introduction
11.1 Objectives
11.2 Generation of Microwaves - Klystron, Magnetron, Gunn Diodes
11.3 Resonant Cavities
11.5 Summary
11.6 Key Words
11.0 INTRODUCTION
In this unit, you will study about microwaves. Microwaves are a form of
electromagnetic radiation with wavelengths ranging from about one meter
to one millimeter; with frequencies between 300 MHz (1 m) and 300 GHz
(1 mm). Different sources define different frequency ranges as microwaves;
the above broad definition includes both UHF (Ultra High Frequency)
and EHF (Extremely High Frequency) millimeter wave bands. A more
common definition in radio engineering is the range between 1 and 100 GHz
(wavelengths between 0.3 m and 3 mm). In all cases, microwaves include
the entire Super High Frequency or SHF band (3 to 30 GHz, or 10 to 1 cm)
at minimum. Frequencies in the microwave range are often referred to by
their IEEE (Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers) radar band
designations: S, C, X, Ku, K, or Ka band, or by similar NATO (North Atlantic
Treaty Organization) or EU (European Union) designations. The prefix micro-
in microwave is not meant to suggest a wavelength in the micrometer range.
Rather, it indicates that microwaves are ‘small’ (having shorter wavelengths),
compared to the radio waves used prior to microwave technology.
Microwaves travel by line-of-sight; unlike lower frequency radio waves
they do not diffract around hills, follow the Earth’s surface as ground waves,
or reflect from the ionosphere, so terrestrial microwave communication links
are limited by the visual horizon to about 40 miles (64 km). At the high end
of the band they are absorbed by gases in the atmosphere, limiting practical
communication distances to around a kilometer. Microwaves are widely
used in modern technology, for example in point-to-point communication
links, wireless networks, microwave radio relay networks, radar, satellite and
spacecraft communication, medical diathermy and cancer treatment, remote
sensing, industrial heating, and many more.
Self-Instructional
Material 229
Microwaves In this unit, you will study about the microwaves, the various generation
of microwaves, such as the klystron, magnetron and Gunn diodes, and the
resonant cavities.
NOTES
11.1 OBJECTIVES

• Discuss what microwaves are
• Explain the generation of microwaves – klystron, magnetron and Gunn
diodes
• Understand about the resonant cavities
11.2 MICROWAVE
Microwaves are a form of electromagnetic radiation with wavelengths

ranging from about one meter to one millimeter; with frequencies between
300 MHz (1 m) and 300 GHz (1 mm). Different sources define different
frequency ranges as microwaves; the above broad definition includes both
UHF (Ultra High Frequency) and EHF (Extremely High Frequency) mil-
limeter wave bands. A more common definition in radio engineering is the
range between 1 and 100 GHz (wavelengths between 0.3 m and 3 mm).
In all cases, microwaves include the entire Super High Frequency or SHF
band (3 to 30 GHz, or 10 to 1 cm) at minimum. Frequencies in the micro-
wave range are often referred to by their IEEE (Institute of Electrical and
Electronics Engineers) radar band designations: S, C, X, Ku, K, or Ka band,
or by similar NATO (North Atlantic Treaty Organization) or EU (European
Union) designations.
The prefix ‘micro-’ in microwave is not meant to suggest a wavelength

in the micrometer range. Rather, it indicates that microwaves are ‘small’,
i.e., having shorter wavelengths as compared to the radio waves used prior
to microwave technology. The boundaries between far infrared, terahertz
radiation, microwaves, and Ultra-High-Frequency radio waves are fairly
arbitrary.
Microwaves travel by line-of-sight; unlike lower frequency radio waves
they do not diffract around hills, follow the Earth’s surface as ground waves,
or reflect from the ionosphere, so terrestrial microwave communication links
are limited by the visual horizon to about 40 miles (64 km). At the high end
of the band they are absorbed by gases in the atmosphere, limiting practical
communication distances to around a kilometer. Microwaves are widely
used in modern technology, for example in point-to-point communication
Self-Instructional
230 Material
links, wireless networks, microwave radio relay networks, radar, satellite and Microwaves
spacecraft communication, medical diathermy and cancer treatment, remote
sensing, radio astronomy, particle accelerators, spectroscopy, industrial
heating, collision avoidance systems, garage door openers and keyless entry
systems, and also significantly for cooking food in microwave ovens. NOTES
Figure (11.1) illustrates a telecommunications tower with a variety
of dish antennas for microwave relay links. The apertures of the dishes are
covered by plastic sheets or Radomes to protect from moisture.
Fig. 11.1 Telecommunications Tower
The spectrum of electromagnetic waves spans the range from a few cycles
per second in the radio band to 1020 cycles per second for gamma rays (Refer
Figure 11.2). Microwaves occupy the part of the spectrum from 300 MHz
(3 × 108 cycles/s) to 300 GHz (3 × 1011 cycles/s). Typical frequencies for
materials processing are 915 MHz, 2.45 GHz, 5.8 GHz, and 24.124 GHz.
Figure 11.2 illustrates the electromagnetic spectrum and frequencies used
in microwave processing.
Self-Instructional
Material 231
Microwaves
NOTES
Fig. 11.2 Electromagnetic Spectrum and Frequencies used in Microwave Processing
Microwaves occupy a place in the electromagnetic spectrum with

frequency above ordinary radio waves, and below infrared light, as shown
below in Table 11.1.
Table 11.1: Electromagnetic Spectrum
Name Wavelength Frequency (Hz) Photon energy (eV)
Gamma Ray < 0.02 nm > 15 EHz > 62.1 keV
X-Ray 0.01 nm – 10 nm 30 EHz – 30 PHz 124 keV – 124 eV
Ultraviolet 10 nm – 400 nm 30 PHz – 750 THz 124 eV – 3 eV
Visible Light 390 nm – 750 nm 770 THz – 400 THz 3.2 eV – 1.7 eV
Infrared 750 nm – 1 mm 400 THz – 300 GHz 1.7 eV – 1.24 meV
Microwave 1 mm – 1 m 300 GHz – 300 MHz 1.24 meV – 1.24 µeV
Radio 1 mm – 100 km 300 GHz – 3 kHz 1.24 µeV – 12.4 feV

Following are two types of sources that are used for generating microwave
signal:
Microwave Tube Shape
•
Microwave Diode Semiconductor
•
1. Microwave Tube Shape
The microwave tube is a specific device used for controlling a large sign
with a smaller signal to produce gain, oscillation, switching and other
operations. Tubes differ from solid state devices in that they operate using
thermionic emission and not weird semiconductor physics. They are called
Self-Instructional
232 Material
vacuum tubes for a reason, thermionic emission only works in the absence Microwaves
of air. Microwave tubes have special features, such as resonant cavities.
Principally, the ‘Microwave Tubes’ are used for high power or high frequency
combination. Fundamentally, the microwave tubes generate and amplify NOTES
high levels of microwave power more economically in comparison to the
solid state devices. Conventional tubes can be modified for low capacitance
but specialized microwave tubes are also used. Microwave tube consists of
Klystron, Magnetron and Traveling Wave Tube (TWT).
Klystron
Klystron are the thermionic electron tube that generates or amplifies

microwaves by controlling the speed of a stream of electrons. The electrons
are originally accelerated to high velocity by a potential of several hundred
volts and enter a narrow gap that forms part of a cavity resonator system,
where they are acted upon by a radio frequency field, which causes a
bunching-up effect. Thus the microwave tube klystron is basically a vacuum
tube designed with cavity resonators to produce velocity modulation of
electron beam for amplification purpose. Klystrons are available in wide range
of sizes. Generally, these amplifiers are used where the ranges of outputs will
be 50 MW as well as 50 kW at 2856 MHz. So they are used from hundreds of
MHz to hundreds of GHz. The klystron in the radars gives the output power
in the range of 1 MW at 2380 Mhz.
As shown in the Figure (11.3), cathode in a vacuum tube is heated
by a filament, this cathode at high temperature, emits electrons, which are
attracted by collector. This causes current to be established between cathode
and collector.
Fig. 11.3 Klystron
Self-Instructional
Material 233
Microwaves The simplest klystron tube is the two cavity klystron, as shown in Figure
11.3. In this tube there are two microwave cavity resonators, the ‘Catcher’
and the ‘Buncher’. When used as an amplifier, the weak microwave signal
to be amplified is applied to the buncher cavity through a coaxial cable or
NOTES waveguide, and the amplified signal is extracted from the catcher cavity.
At one end of the tube is the hot cathode which produces electrons
when heated by a filament. The electrons are attracted to and pass through
an anode cylinder at a high positive potential; the cathode and anode act as
an electron gun to produce a high velocity stream of electrons. An external
electromagnet winding creates a longitudinal magnetic field along the beam
axis which prevents the beam from spreading.
The beam first passes through the ‘Buncher’ cavity resonator, through
grids attached to each side. The buncher grids have an oscillating AC
(Alternating Current) potential across them, produced by standing wave
oscillations within the cavity, excited by the input signal at the cavity’s
resonant frequency applied by a coaxial cable or waveguide. The direction
of the field between the grids changes twice per cycle of the input signal.
Electrons entering when the entrance grid is NEGATIVE and the exit grid is
POSITIVE encounter an electric field in the same direction as their motion,
and are accelerated by the field. Electrons entering a half-cycle later, when the
polarity is opposite, encounter an electric field which opposes their motion,
and are decelerated.
Beyond the buncher grids is a space termed as the drift space. This
space is long enough so that the accelerated electrons catch up with electrons
that were accelerated at an earlier time, forming ‘Bunches’ longitudinally
along the beam axis. Its length is chosen to allow maximum bunching at the
resonant frequency, and may be several feet long.
The electrons then pass through a second cavity, called the ‘Catcher’,
through a similar pair of grids on each side of the cavity. The function of
the catcher grids is to absorb energy from the electron beam. Bunches of
the electrons passing through excite standing waves in the cavity, which has
the same resonant frequency as the buncher cavity. Each bunch of electrons
passes between the grids at a point in the cycle when the exit grid is negative
with respect to the entrance grid, so the electric field in the cavity between
the grids opposes the electrons motion. The electrons thus do work on the
electric field, and are decelerated, their kinetic energy is converted to electric
potential energy, increasing the amplitude of the oscillating electric field in
the cavity. Thus the oscillating field in the catcher cavity is an amplified copy
of the signal applied to the buncher cavity. The amplified signal is extracted
from the catcher cavity through a coaxial cable or waveguide.
Self-Instructional
234 Material
After passing through the catcher and giving up its energy, the lower Microwaves
energy electron beam is absorbed by a ‘Collector’ electrode, a second anode
which is kept at a small positive voltage.
Klystrons can produce far higher microwave power outputs than solid
NOTES
state microwave devices, such as Gunn diodes. In modern systems, they are
used from UHF (hundreds of megahertz) up to hundreds of gigahertz as in
the Extended Interaction Klystrons in the CloudSat satellite. Klystrons can
be found at work in radar, satellite and wideband high-power communication
very common in television broadcasting and EHF satellite terminals, medicine
(radiation oncology), and high-energy physics (particle accelerators and
experimental reactors).
Magnetron
The magnetron is the first high power microwave oscillator developed and
invented by Randall and Boot in 1946.
Magnetrons are the cross-field tubes in which the electric and magnetic
fields cross, i.e., run perpendicular to each other. The microwave radiation
of microwave ovens and some radar applications is produced by a device
called a magnetron. Consequently, the magnetron is called a ‘Crossed-Field’
device because both magnetic and electric fields are employed in its operation.
Principally, the magnetron is a high-powered vacuum tube that generates
microwaves using the interaction of a stream of electrons with a magnetic
field. It uses high-power oscillator.
Types of Magnetrons
Following are three main types of Magnetrons.
Negative Resistance Type
The
• negative resistance between two anode segments, is used.
They
• have low efficiency.
They
• are used at low frequencies (< 500 MHz).
Cyclotron Frequency Magnetrons
The
• synchronism between the electric component and oscillating
electrons is considered.
Useful
• for frequencies higher than 100 MHz.
Travelling Wave or Cavity Type Magnetrons
The
• interaction between electrons and rotating EM field is taken into
account.
Self-Instructional
Material 235
Microwaves High
• peak power oscillations are provided.
Useful
• in radar applications.
Cavity Magnetron
NOTES
The ‘Magnetron’ is termed as ‘Cavity Magnetron’ because in this technology
the anode is made into resonant cavities and a permanent magnet is used to
produce a strong magnetic field, where the action of both of these make the
device work.
Construction of Cavity Magnetron
A thick cylindrical cathode is present at the center and a cylindrical block of
copper, is fixed axially, which acts as an anode. This anode block is made of a
number of slots that acts as resonant anode cavities. The space that is present
between the anode and cathode is termed as ‘Interaction Space’. The electric
field is present radially while the magnetic field is present axially in the cavity
magnetron. This magnetic field is produced by a permanent magnet, which is
placed such that the magnetic lines are parallel to cathode and perpendicular
to the electric field present between the anode and the cathode.
The following Figure (11.4) illustrates the constructional methodology
of a cavity magnetron and the magnetic lines of flux that exist axially.
Fig. 11.4 Constructional Methodology of a Cavity Magnetron and the Magnetic

Lines of Flux
This cavity magnetron has 8 cavities tightly coupled to each other. An

N-cavity magnetron has N modes of operations. These operations depend
upon the frequency and the phase of oscillations. The total phase shift around
the ring of this cavity resonators should be 2nπ where n is an integer.
Crossed electron and magnetic fields are used in the magnetron for
producing the high-power output required in radar equipment. These multi-
cavity devices are specifically used in radar transmitters as either pulsed or
Continuous Wave (CW) oscillators at frequencies ranging from approximately
600 to 30,000 megahertz. The relatively simple construction has the
Self-Instructional
236 Material
disadvantage that the magnetron usually can work only on a constructively Microwaves
fixed frequency.
2. Microwave Diode Semiconductor
Many semiconductor diodes are available for microwave application, NOTES
principally designed to take care of signal detection and mixing purpose.
Microwave semiconductor devices include Microwave Diode, Point Contact
Diode, Step Recovery Diode, Gunn Diode, Tunnel Diode, and many more.
Because of the following reasons, the microwave frequencies
conventional transistors and diodes do not function as per the prerequisite:
• Length of the leads introduce significant inductance at microwave
frequency.
• High internal capacitance.
• High transit time of carriers through these device.
Time taken by electron or proton to travel from one node to the other is
called ‘Transit Time’. In the case of diode, for example, from cathode to
anode and in transistor from emitter to base or from emitter to collector or
from source to drain.
Using the special semiconductor material other than silicon and changed
geometry may help to overcome the problems discussed above.
Semiconductor materials used include Silicon (Si) and Silicon-
Germanium (Si-Ge). The widespread use of silicon across the electronics
industry results in the ready availability of silicon fabrications, used for
huge production volumes. This results in relatively low cost of silicon device
fabrication as compared with other semiconductor materials. The SiGe is not
fabricated as a bulk semiconductor material, but is used as the base region
of a transistor in a silicon wafer. The addition of germanium allows higher
dopant concentrations in the base region of the transistor because a band-gap
now exists between the base and the emitter. The higher doping concentration
in the base region means that the base can be made narrower which speeds
up the transit time.
Diodes are two-terminal, non-linear semiconductors used for generating,
mixing, detection, and switching of microwave signals. The first diodes were
point-contact diode used in crystal radios, 100 years ago.
In general, the ‘Microwave Diodes’ conduct when the anode voltage
is higher (more positive) than the cathode voltage. Most diodes used in the
microwave technology are made on Silicon, but in some applications Gallium
Arsenide (GaAs) is also used.
Self-Instructional
Material 237
Microwaves Gunn Diodes
A Gunn diode is also known as a Transferred Electron Device (TED). It is a
form of diode used in high-frequency electronics. In practice, a Gunn diode
NOTES has a region of negative differential resistance. Gallium Arsenide Gunn
Diodes are made for frequencies up to 200 GHz whereas Gallium Nitride
can reach up to 3 THz.
Principally, a Gunn diode or TED is a form of diode which has a
two-terminal passive semiconductor electronic component, with negative
resistance, used in high-frequency electronics. It is based on the ‘Gunn Effect’
and was named by its discoverer, the physicist J. B. Gunn (1962). Its biggest
use is in electronic oscillators to generate microwaves, in applications, such
as radar speed guns, microwave relay data link transmitters, and automatic
door openers.
Its internal construction is unlike other diodes in that it consists only
of N-doped semiconductor material, whereas most diodes consist of both
P and N-doped regions. It therefore does not conduct in only one direction
and cannot rectify Alternating Current (AC) like other diodes, which is why
some sources do not use the term diode but prefer TED.
In the Gunn diode, three regions exist, two of those are heavily N-doped
on each terminal, with a thin layer of lightly n-doped material between. When
a voltage is applied to the device, the electrical gradient will be largest across
the thin middle layer. If the voltage is increased, the current through the
layer will first increase, but eventually, at higher field values, the conductive
properties of the middle layer are altered, increasing its resistivity, and
causing the current to fall. This means a Gunn diode has a region of negative
differential resistance in its current-voltage characteristic curve, in which
an increase of applied voltage, causes a decrease in current. This property
allows it to amplify, functioning as a radio frequency amplifier, or to become
unstable and oscillate when it is biased with a Direct Current (DC) voltage.
Gunn Diode Oscillators: The negative differential resistance, combined
with the timing properties of the intermediate layer, is responsible for the
diode’s maximum use in electronic oscillators at microwave frequencies
and above. A microwave oscillator can be created simply by applying a DC
voltage to bias the device into its negative resistance region. In effect, the
negative differential resistance of the diode cancels the positive resistance
of the load circuit, thus creating a circuit with zero differential resistance,
which will produce spontaneous oscillations. The oscillation frequency is
determined partly by the properties of the middle diode layer, but can be
tuned by external factors. In practical oscillators an electronic resonator is
usually added to control frequency, in the form of a waveguide, microwave
cavity or YIG (Yttrium Iron Garnet) sphere. The diode is usually mounted
inside the cavity. The diode cancels the loss resistance of the resonator, so it
Self-Instructional
238 Material
produces oscillations at its resonant frequency. The frequency can be tuned Microwaves
mechanically, by adjusting the size of the cavity, or in case of YIG spheres
by changing the magnetic field. Gunn diodes are used to build oscillators in
the 10 GHz to high (THz) frequency range. Gallium Arsenide Gunn Diodes
are made for frequencies up to 200 GHz, while the Gallium Nitride materials NOTES
can reach up to 3 terahertz.
Gunn Diode Basics: The Gunn diode is a unique component, even though
it is called a diode but it does not contain a P-N diode junction. The Gunn
diode or transferred electron device can be termed a diode because it has
two electrodes.
The Gunn diode operation depends on the fact that it has a voltage
controlled negative resistance. When a voltage is placed across the device,
then most of the voltage appears across the inner active region. This inner
region is particularly thin and this means that the voltage gradient that exists
in this region is exceedingly high.
The device exhibits a negative resistance region on its V/I curve, i.e.,
Voltage (V) vs. Current (I) curve as shown in Figure (11.5). This negative
resistance area enables the Gunn diode to amplify signals, enabling it to be
used in amplifiers and oscillators. However it is the Gunn diode oscillators
are the most commonly used.
Fig. 11.5 Negative Resistance Region on its V/I Curve
This negative resistance region means that the current flowing in diode
increases in the negative resistance region when the voltage falls. Therefore,
the inverse of the normal effect in any other positive resistance element.
This phase reversal enables the Gunn diode to act as an amplifier and as an
oscillator.
Fundamentally, for a normal diode the current increases with voltage,
although the relationship is not linear. Alternatively, the current for a Gunn
diode starts to increase, and once a certain voltage has been reached, it starts
to fall before rising again. The region where it falls is known as a negative
resistance region, and this is the reason why it oscillates.
Self-Instructional
Material 239
Microwaves
11.3 RESONANT CAVITIES
We have studied that waveguides are used to transmit energy from one point
NOTES to another whereas resonators are used to store energy. At low frequencies,
RLC circuits can be used as resonant circuits, however, at high frequencies
(≥ 100 MHz ), the dimensions of such circuits become of the same order of
the operating wavelength which may result in undesirable radiation. Hence,
at high frequencies, cavity resonators are used instead of RLC circuit. They
find applications in wave meters, klystron tubes, microwave ovens, and band
pass filters.
Consider a rectangular cavity resonator which is basically a metallic
enclosure used to confine electromagnetic energy. It is formed by shorting
both ends of a rectangular waveguide as shown in Figure (11.6). In this type of
resonator, TE, TM, and standing waves exist. The standing waves get formed
due to two waves travelling in opposite directions with equal amplitude.
Let us discuss the case of TM and TE wave and consider the direction of
propagation in positive z-direction.
Fig. 11.6 A Rectangular Cavity Resonator

We know that for transverse magnetic wave Hzs = 0. Let Ezs be written as:
Ezs ( x, y, z ) = X ( x )Y ( y)Z ( z ) ...(11.1)
Where X(x), Y(y), and Z(z) are functions of x, y, and z, respectively.
The general solution for this field equation is given as:
X = A¢ sin(k x x ) + B ¢ cos(k x x )
Y = C ¢ sin(k y y) + D ¢ cos(k y y)
Z = E ¢ sin(k z z ) + F ¢ cos(k z z )

Where A¢, B¢, C ¢, D¢, E ¢, and F ¢ are constants.
And,
k x2 + k y2 + kz2 = w 2 me ...(11.2)
Now, according to boundary conditions at the walls, we have:

Ezs = 0 at x = 0 and x = a, ...(11.3)
Self-Instructional
240 Material
Ezs = 0 at = 0 and y = b, ...(11.4) Microwaves
And,
Exs = 0, Eys = 0 at z = 0 and z = c ...(11.5)
To satisfy Equations (11.3), (11.4), and (11.5) we have: NOTES
Kxa = mp, m = 1, 2, 3,...

Kyb = np, n = 1, 2, 3,...
And,
Kxc = lp, l = 0, 1, 2, 3,...
Thus, on substituting all these values, Equation (11.1) becomes:
Ê mp ˆ Ê np ˆ Ê lp ˆ
Ezs = Eo sin Á x sin Á y cos Á z˜
Ë a ˜¯ Ë b ˜¯ Ë c ¯

All the other field components can be derived in the similar way as
we derived the field expressions for wave propagating inside rectangular
waveguide. The dominant mode that will travel for TM wave is TM110.
For transverse electric wave Ezs = 0. Let Hzs be written as:
H zs ( x, y, z ) = X ( x ) Y ( y) Z ( z ) ...(11.6)
where X(x), Y(y), and Z(z) are functions of x, y, and z, respectively.

The general solution for this field equation is given as:
X = A¢ sin (k x x ) + B ¢ cos (k x x )
Y = C ¢ sin (k y y) + D ¢ cos (k y y)
Z = E ¢ sin ( K z z ) + F ¢ cos (k z z )

Where A¢, B¢, C¢, D¢, E¢, and F ¢ are constants.
And,
k x2 + k y2 + k z2 = w 2 me

Now, according to boundary conditions at the walls, we have:
∂H zs
= 0 at x = 0 and x = a, ...(11.7)
∂x
∂H zs = 0 at y = 0 and y = b, ...(11.8)
∂y
Self-Instructional
Material 241
Microwaves And,
Hzs = 0 at z = 0 and z = c ...(11.9)

NOTES Now, to satisfy Equations (11.7), (11.8), and (11.9), we have:
Kxa = mp, m = 0, 1, 2, 3,...
Kyb = np, n = 0, 1, 2, 3,...

And,
Kxc = lp, l = 1, 2, 3,...
Thus, on substituting all these values, Equation (11.6) becomes:
Ê mp ˆ Ê np ˆ Ê l p ˆ
H zs = H o cos Á x˜ cos Á y sin z
Ë a ¯ Ë b ˜¯ ÁË c ˜¯

Other field components can be derived in the similar way as we derived
the field expressions for wave propagating inside rectangular waveguide.
Besides dominant mode one more type of mode exists in cavity
resonators known as degenerate mode. These are the modes which have
same resonant frequency.
Note: Here, we know that for TM and TE waves, both m and n cannot
be zero at the same time. Hence, the lowest mode that can exist is TM110 and
TE101 depending upon the values of a, b, and c. For a > b < c condition,
TE101 mode is dominant.
Propagation Characteristics of Waves
The propagation characteristics of cavity resonator can be obtained from
Equation (11.2) as:
k x2 + k y2 + k z2
w2 =
me
1 ÈÊ m p ˆ
2 2 2˘
fi Ê np ˆ Ê lp ˆ
w2 = Í +Á ˜ +Á ˜ ˙
me ÍÎÁË a ˜¯ Ë b¯ Ë c¯ ˙˚
Thus, the angular resonant frequency wR is obtained as:

È 2 2 2˘
1 Í Ê mp ˆ Ê np ˆ Ê lp ˆ ˙
wR = Á ˜ + ÁË b ˜¯ + ÁË c ˜¯ ˙
me Í Ë a ¯
Î ˚
È 2 2 2˘
Or, w R = u Í ÊÁ mp ˆ˜ + ÊÁ np ˆ˜ + ÊÁ l p ˆ˜ ˙ ...(11.10)
Í Ë a ¯ Ë b¯ Ë c¯ ˙
Self-Instructional Î ˚
242 Material
Where, u is the velocity of the wave in lossless dielectric medium. Microwaves
Hence, the resonant frequency fR is given as:

w È 2 2 2 ˘
u Ê mˆ Ê nˆ Ê lˆ
fR = R = Í Á ˜ + Á ˜ + Á ˜
˙ ...(11.11)
2p 2 Í Ë a ¯ Ë b¯ Ë c¯ ˙ NOTES
Î ˚
And, the resonant wavelength lR is given by the relation:
u 2

lR = = ...(11.12)
fR Ê mˆ
2
Ê nˆ
2
Ê lˆ
2
ÁË a ˜¯ + ÁË b ˜¯ + ÁË c ˜¯
Here, it is to be noted that the propagation characteristics of TM and

TE waves are similar inside the cavity resonator.
Quality Factor
Here, we have considered the case of a rectangular waveguide resonator
for which the walls are perfectly conducting, however, a practical resonator
does not have infinite conductivity due to which some energy gets lost. The
amount of this energy lost is determined by using a quantity known as quality
factor which is a measure of bandwidth of the resonator and is expressed as:
Average Energy Stored
Q = 2p
Loss of Energy Per Cycle of Oscillation
It can be written as:
Wav
Q = 2 pf
PL
Where Wav is the average energy stored, PL is the average power loss
per cycle, and f denotes one oscillation. In terms of angular frequency, the
above equation becomes:
Wav
Q = w____
     
PL
For dominant mode TE101, it is given by the relation:
(a 2 + c 2 )abc
QTE101 =
d ÈÎ2b (a 3 + c3 ) + ac (a 2 + c 2 )˘˚

Where skin depth d of cavity walls is given by the relation:
1
d=
pm o s w f R101

Example 1: An air filled cubical cavity resonator of size 5.6 cm is made up of
brass with conductivity equals to 1.37 × 107 S/m. Determine for TE101 mode:
(a) Resonant Frequency
Self-Instructional
Material 243
Microwaves (b) Quality Factor
Solution (a) The resonant frequency fR of a cavity resonator is given as:

È 2 2 2˘
NOTES u Í Ê mˆ Ê nˆ Êlˆ ˙
fR = + + ÁË c ˜¯ ˙ [Refer to Equation (11.11)]
2 Í ÁË a ˜¯ ÁË b ˜¯
Î ˚
Given that: a = b = c = 5.6 cm, m = l = 1, n = 0, and u = 3 × 108 m/s
Substituting the given values, the resonant frequency becomes:

3 ¥ 108
fR = -2
12 + 02 + 12
2(5.6) ¥ 10
fi f R = 3.78 ¥ 109 Hz
Or, fR = 3.78 GHz ...(9a)
(b) The quality factor for TE101 mode is given by the relation:
(a 2 + c 2 )abc
QTE101 =
d ÈÎ2b (a 3 + c3 ) + ac (a 2 + c 2 )˘˚

Substituting a = b = c, the quality factor becomes:

a a
QTE = = pm o s w f R101 ...(9b)
101
3d 3
Here, sw is given to be 1.37 × 107 S/m.

Therefore,
5.6 ¥ 10 -2
QTE101 = p (4 p ¥ 10 -7 ) (1.37 ¥ 107 ) (3.78 ¥ 109 )
3
fi QTE = 8434
101
Check Your Progress

1. Explain the term microwave.
2. How microwaves travel?
3. Define the spans of the spectrum of electromagnetic waves.
4. Name the two types of sources that are used for generating microwave
signal.
5. What is a microwave tube?
6. Why are microwave tubes used?
Self-Instructional
244 Material
7. Explain the microwave tube klystron. Microwaves
8. What are magnetrons?

9. Explain the types of magnetrons used.
10. Why magnetron is termed as cavity magnetron? NOTES
11. What is Gunn diode? Why it is used?
12. What does negative resistance region mean?
13. When RLC circuits are used?
14. How is energy lost determined?

QUESTIONS
1. Microwaves are a form of electromagnetic radiation with wavelengths

ranging from about one meter to one millimeter; with frequencies
between 300 MHz (1 m) and 300 GHz (1 mm). Different sources define
different frequency ranges as microwaves; the above broad definition
includes both UHF (Ultra High Frequency) and EHF (Extremely High
Frequency) millimeter wave bands. A more common definition in
radio engineering is the range between 1 and 100 GHz (wavelengths
between 0.3 m and 3 mm). In all cases, microwaves include the entire
Super High Frequency or SHF band (3 to 30 GHz, or 10 to 1 cm) at
minimum.
2. Microwaves travel by line-of-sight; unlike lower frequency radio
waves they do not diffract around hills, follow the Earth’s surface as
ground waves, or reflect from the ionosphere, so terrestrial microwave
communication links are limited by the visual horizon to about 40 miles
(64 km).
3. The spectrum of electromagnetic waves spans the range from a few
cycles per second in the radio band to 1020 cycles per second for gamma
rays. Microwaves occupy the part of the spectrum from 300 MHz (3
× 108 cycles/s) to 300 GHz (3 × 1011 cycles/s). Typical frequencies for
materials processing are 915 MHz, 2.45 GHz, 5.8 GHz, and 24.124
GHz
4. The two types of sources that are used for generating microwave signal
are the microwave tube shape and the microwave diode semiconductor.
5. The microwave tube is a specific device used for controlling a large sign
with a smaller signal to produce gain, oscillation, switching and other
operations. Tubes differ from solid state devices in that they operate
using thermionic emission and not weird semiconductor physics. They
are called vacuum tubes for a reason, thermionic emission only works
Self-Instructional
Material 245
Microwaves in the absence of air. Microwave tubes have special features, such as
resonant cavities.
6. Principally, the ‘Microwave Tubes’ are used for high power or high
frequency combination. Fundamentally, the microwave tubes generate
NOTES
and amplify high levels of microwave power more economically in
comparison to the solid state devices. Conventional tubes can be
modified for low capacitance but specialized microwave tubes are also
used. Microwave tube consists of Klystron, Magnetron and Traveling
Wave Tube (TWT).
7. Klystron are the thermionic electron tube that generates or amplifies
microwaves by controlling the speed of a stream of electrons. The
electrons are originally accelerated to high velocity by a potential of
several hundred volts and enter a narrow gap that forms part of a cavity
resonator system, where they are acted upon by a radio frequency field,
which causes a bunching-up effect. Thus the microwave tube klystron
is basically a vacuum tube designed with cavity resonators to produce
velocity modulation of electron beam for amplification purpose.
8. The magnetron is the first high power microwave oscillator developed
and invented by Randall and Boot in 1946. Magnetrons are the cross-
field tubes in which the electric and magnetic fields cross, i.e., run
perpendicular to each other. The microwave radiation of microwave
ovens and some radar applications is produced by a device called a
magnetron. Consequently, the magnetron is called a ‘Crossed-Field’
device because both magnetic and electric fields are employed in its
operation. Principally, the magnetron is a high-powered vacuum tube
that generates microwaves using the interaction of a stream of electrons
with a magnetic field. It uses high-power oscillator.
9. Following are three main types of Magnetrons.
Negative Resistance Type
• The negative resistance between two anode segments, is used.
• They have low efficiency.
• They are used at low frequencies (< 500 MHz).
Cyclotron Frequency Magnetrons
• The synchronism between the electric component and oscillating
electrons is considered.
• Useful for frequencies higher than 100 MHz.
Travelling Wave or Cavity Type Magnetrons
• The interaction between electrons and rotating EM field is taken
into account.
• High peak power oscillations are provided.
Self-Instructional • Useful in radar applications.
246 Material
10. The ‘Magnetron’ is termed as ‘Cavity Magnetron’ because in this Microwaves
technology the anode is made into resonant cavities and a permanent
magnet is used to produce a strong magnetic field, where the action of
both of these make the device work.
NOTES
11. A Gunn diode is also known as a Transferred Electron Device (TED).
It is a form of diode used in high-frequency electronics. In practice, a
Gunn diode has a region of negative differential resistance. Gallium
Arsenide Gunn Diodes are made for frequencies up to 200 GHz
whereas Gallium Nitride can reach up to 3 THz. Principally, a Gunn
diode or TED is a form of diode which has a two-terminal passive
semiconductor electronic component, with negative resistance, used
in high-frequency electronics. It is based on the ‘Gunn Effect’ and was
named by its discoverer, the physicist J. B. Gunn (1962).
12. The negative resistance region means that the current flowing in
diode increases in the negative resistance region when the voltage
falls. Therefore, the inverse of the normal effect in any other positive
resistance element. This phase reversal enables the Gunn diode to act
as an amplifier and as an oscillator.
13. At low frequencies, RLC circuits can be used as resonant circuits,
however, at high frequencies (≥ 100 MHz ), the dimensions of such
circuits become of the same order of the operating wavelength which
may result in undesirable radiation. Hence, at high frequencies, cavity
resonators are used instead of RLC circuit.
14. energy lost is determined by using a quantity known as quality factor
which is a measure of bandwidth of the resonator and is expressed as:
Average Energy Stored
Q = 2p
Loss of Energy Per Cycle of Oscillation
It can be written as:
Wav
Q = 2 pf
PL
Where Wav is the average energy stored, PL is the average power loss
per cycle, and f denotes one oscillation.
11.5 SUMMARY
• At low frequencies, RLC circuits can be used as resonant circuits,

however, at high frequencies (≥ 100 MHz ), the dimensions of such
circuits become of the same order of the operating wavelength which
may result in undesirable radiation. Hence, at high frequencies, cavity
resonators are used instead of RLC circuit.
Self-Instructional
Material 247
Microwaves • Besides dominant mode one more type of mode exists in cavity
resonators known as degenerate mode. These are the modes which
have same resonant frequency.
• Microwaves are a form of electromagnetic radiation with wavelengths
NOTES
ranging from about one meter to one millimeter; with frequencies
between 300 MHz (1 m) and 300 GHz (1 mm).
• Different sources define different frequency ranges as microwaves;
the above broad definition includes both UHF (Ultra High Frequency)
and EHF (Extremely High Frequency) millimeter wave bands. A more
common definition in radio engineering is the range between 1 and
100 GHz (wavelengths between 0.3 m and 3 mm).
• In all cases, microwaves include the entire Super High Frequency or
SHF band (3 to 30 GHz, or 10 to 1 cm) at minimum. Frequencies in
the microwave range are often referred to by their IEEE (Institute of
Electrical and Electronics Engineers) radar band designations: S, C,
X, Ku, K, or Ka band, or by similar NATO (North Atlantic Treaty
Organization) or EU (European Union) designations.
• The prefix ‘micro-’ in microwave is not meant to suggest a wavelength
in the micrometer range. Rather, it indicates that microwaves are
‘small’, i.e., having shorter wavelengths as compared to the radio
waves used prior to microwave technology.
• The boundaries between far infrared, terahertz radiation, microwaves,
and ultra-high-frequency radio waves are fairly arbitrary.
• Microwaves travel by line-of-sight; unlike lower frequency radio
waves they do not diffract around hills, follow the Earth’s surface as
ground waves, or reflect from the ionosphere, so terrestrial microwave
communication links are limited by the visual horizon to about 40 miles
(64 km).
• At the high end of the band the microwaves are absorbed by gases in
the atmosphere, limiting practical communication distances to around
a kilometer.
• A telecommunications tower includes a variety of dish antennas for
microwave relay links. The apertures of the dishes are covered by
plastic sheets or Radomes to protect from moisture.
• The spectrum of electromagnetic waves spans the range from a few
cycles per second in the radio band to 1020 cycles per second for gamma
rays.
• Microwaves occupy the part of the spectrum from 300 MHz (3 ×
108 cycles/s) to 300 GHz (3 × 1011 cycles/s). Typical frequencies for
materials processing are 915 MHz, 2.45 GHz, 5.8 GHz, and 24.124
GHz.
Self-Instructional
248 Material
• The two types of sources that are used for generating microwave signal Microwaves
are the microwave tube shape and the microwave diode semiconductor.
• The microwave tube is a specific device used for controlling a large
sign with a smaller signal to produce gain, oscillation, switching and
NOTES
other operations.
• Tubes differ from solid state devices in that they operate using
thermionic emission and not weird semiconductor physics. They are
called vacuum tubes for a reason, thermionic emission only works in
the absence of air.
• Microwave tubes have special features, such as resonant cavities.
Principally, the ‘Microwave Tubes’ are used for high power or high
frequency combination.
• Fundamentally, the microwave tubes generate and amplify high levels
of microwave power more economically in comparison to the solid
state devices.
• Conventional tubes can be modified for low capacitance but specialized
microwave tubes are also used. Microwave tube consists of Klystron,
Magnetron and Traveling Wave Tube (TWT).
• Klystron are the thermionic electron tube that generates or amplifies
microwaves by controlling the speed of a stream of electrons. The
electrons are originally accelerated to high velocity by a potential of
several hundred volts and enter a narrow gap that forms part of a cavity
resonator system, where they are acted upon by a radio frequency field,
which causes a bunching-up effect.
• Klystrons are available in wide range of sizes. Generally, these
amplifiers are used where the ranges of outputs will be 50 MW as well
as 50 kW at 2856 MHz. So they are used from hundreds of MHz to
hundreds of GHz.
• The klystron in the radars gives the output power in the range of 1 MW
at 2380 Mhz.
• The simplest klystron tube is the two cavity klystron. In this tube there
are two microwave cavity resonators, the ‘Catcher’ and the ‘Buncher’.
When used as an amplifier, the weak microwave signal to be amplified
is applied to the buncher cavity through a coaxial cable or waveguide,
and the amplified signal is extracted from the catcher cavity.
• The magnetron is the first high power microwave oscillator developed
and invented by Randall and Boot in 1946.
• Magnetrons are the cross-field tubes in which the electric and magnetic
fields cross, i.e., run perpendicular to each other.
• The microwave radiation of microwave ovens and some radar
applications is produced by a device called a magnetron. Self-Instructional
Material 249
Microwaves • The magnetron is called a ‘Crossed-Field’ device because both magnetic
and electric fields are employed in its operation.
• Principally, the magnetron is a high-powered vacuum tube that
generates microwaves using the interaction of a stream of electrons
NOTES
with a magnetic field. It uses high-power oscillator.
• The ‘Magnetron’ is termed as ‘Cavity Magnetron’ because in this
technology the anode is made into resonant cavities and a permanent
magnet is used to produce a strong magnetic field, where the action of
both of these make the device work.
• Crossed electron and magnetic fields are used in the magnetron for
producing the high-power output required in radar equipment. These
multi-cavity devices are specifically used in radar transmitters as either
pulsed or Continuous Wave (CW) oscillators at frequencies ranging
from approximately 600 to 30,000 megahertz.
• Many semiconductor diodes are available for microwave application,
principally designed to take care of signal detection and mixing
purpose. Microwave semiconductor devices include Microwave Diode,
Point Contact Diode, Step Recovery Diode, Gunn Diode, Tunnel Diode,
and many more.
• Time taken by electron or proton to travel from one node to the other
is called ‘Transit Time’.
• A Gunn diode is also known as a Transferred Electron Device (TED).
It is a form of diode used in high-frequency electronics.
• In practice, a Gunn diode has a region of negative differential resistance.
Gallium Arsenide Gunn Diodes are made for frequencies up to 200
GHz whereas Gallium Nitride can reach up to 3 THz.
• Principally, a Gunn diode or TED is a form of diode which has a two-
terminal passive semiconductor electronic component, with negative
resistance, used in high-frequency electronics.
• Gunn diode is based on the ‘Gunn Effect’ and was named by its
discoverer, the physicist J. B. Gunn (1962).
• The negative resistance region means that the current flowing in
diode increases in the negative resistance region when the voltage
falls. Therefore, the inverse of the normal effect in any other positive
resistance element. This phase reversal enables the Gunn diode to act
as an amplifier and as an oscillator.
• Fundamentally, for a normal diode the current increases with voltage,
although the relationship is not linear. Alternatively, the current for
a Gunn diode starts to increase, and once a certain voltage has been
reached, it starts to fall before rising again. The region where it falls
is known as a negative resistance region, and this is the reason why it
Self-Instructional
250 Material oscillates.
Microwaves
11.6 KEY WORDS
• Microwaves: These are a form of electromagnetic radiation with

wavelengths ranging from about one meter to one millimeter; with NOTES
frequencies between 300 MHz (1 m) and 300 GHz (1 mm).
• Microwave tube: It is a specific device used for controlling a large
sign with a smaller signal to produce gain, oscillation, switching and
other operations. These have special features, such as resonant cavities.
• Klystron: These are the thermionic electron tube that generates or
amplifies microwaves by controlling the speed of a stream of electrons.
• Magnetrons: These are the cross-field tubes in which the electric and
magnetic fields cross, i.e., run perpendicular to each other.
• Transit time: Time taken by electron or proton to travel from one node
to the other is called ‘Transit Time’.
• Gunn diode: It is also known as a Transferred Electron Device (TED).
It is a form of diode used in high-frequency electronics.
• Negative resistance region: It means that the current flowing in diode
increases in the negative resistance region when the voltage falls.

EXERCISES

1. What is the significance of microwaves?
2. Define the terms electromagnetic radiation, wavelength, electromagnetic
spectrum and frequencies.
3. What does generating microwave signal specify?
4. State the significance of microwave tube shape.
5. What are microwave diode semiconductors?
6. Explain about klystron.
7. Differentiate between ‘Catcher’ and ‘Buncher’.
8. What is magnetron and cavity magnetron?
9. What is Gunn diode?
10. What is resonant cavity?
1. Briefly explain the characteristic features and uses of microwaves with
the help of appropriate examples. Self-Instructional
Material 251
Microwaves 2. Briefly discuss the various generation of microwaves signals giving
appropriate types of each.
3. Explain the significance and functioning of microwave tube.
NOTES 4. Discuss the features and working methodology of the microwave tube
klystron.
5. Briefly explain the features, types and working of magnetron.
6. Explain the significance of Gunn diode.
7. Discuss the working principle of Gunn diode with the help of
illustrations.
8. What are resonant cavities? Explain and drive equations for transverse
magnetic waves, transverse electric waves and quality factor.
Prakash, Satya. 2007. Electromagnetic Theory and Electrodynamics:

Including Electrostatics and Magnetostatics. Meerut: Kedar Nath
Ram Nath.
Stratton, Adams Julius. 2007. Electromagnetic Theory. London: John Wiley
& Sons.
Inc.
House Pvt. Ltd.
Self-Instructional
252 Material
Dynamics of Charged
UNIT 12 DYNAMICS OF Particles
CHARGED PARTICLES
NOTES
Structure
12.0 Introduction
12.1 Objectives
12.2 Charged Particles Dynamics
12.2.1 Lienard-Wiechert Potential
12.4 Summary
12.5 Key Words
12.0 INTRODUCTION
In physics, a charged particle is a particle with an electric charge. It may be an ion,

such as a molecule or atom with a surplus or deficit of electrons relative to protons.
It can also be an electron or a proton, or another elementary particle, which are all
believed to have the same charge. Another charged particle may be an atomic
nucleus devoid of electrons, such as an alpha ( ) particle. A plasma is a collection
of charged particles, atomic nuclei and separated electrons, but can also be a gas
containing a significant proportion of charged particles. The motion of charged
particles, essentially electrons or protons, in an external electromagnetic field is
studied under classical mechanics. The outcomes or results are typically applied
to the ionosphere, upper atmosphere, interplanetary space, dilute plasmas and
similar environments, along with the motion of electrons and ions in an electronic
apparatus. The motion of charged particles has a wide field of applications, including
particle accelerators, electron microscopes, magnetrons and klystrons, cathode
ray and X-ray tubes, photomultipliers and gas discharges, and in geophysics and
plasma physics.
The Liénard–Wiechert potentials describe the classical electromagnetic effect
of a moving electric point charge in terms of a vector potential and a scalar potential
in the Lorenz gauge. Electromagnetic radiation in the form of waves can be obtained
from these potentials. These expressions were developed in part by Alfred-Marie
Liénard in 1898 and independently by Emil Wiechert in 1900. The particles
interacting with scattering centres, i.e., other particles or fields can be accelerated
to very high energies. When these accelerated particles are charges, they produce
electromagnetic waves. Radiation is an irreversible flow of electromagnetic energy
from the source (charges) to infinity. Self-Instructional
Material 253
Dynamics of Charged In this unit, you will study about the charged particles, Lienard-Wiechert
Particles
potential, electromagnetic fields from retarded potentials of moving point charge,
electromagnetic fields of uniformly moving point charge and radiation from moving
charges.
NOTES
12.1 OBJECTIVES

Understand what charged particles are
Explain Lienard-Wiechert potential equations
Discuss about electromagnetic fields from retarded potentials of moving
point charge
Explain the electromagnetic fields of uniformly moving point charge
Describe the radiation from moving charges
12.2 CHARGED PARTICLES DYNAMICS
In physics, a charged particle is a particle with an electric charge. It may be an

ion, such as a molecule or atom with a surplus or deficit of electrons relative
to protons. It can also be an electron or a proton, or another elementary
particle, which are all believed to have the same charge (except antimatter).
Another charged particle may be an atomic nucleus devoid of electrons, such
as an alpha ( ) particle.
A plasma is a collection of charged particles, atomic nuclei and separated
electrons, but can also be a gas containing a significant proportion of charged
particles. The motion of charged particles, essentially electrons or protons, in an
external electromagnetic field is studied under classical mechanics. The outcomes
or results are typically applied to the ionosphere, upper atmosphere, interplanetary
space, dilute plasmas and similar environments, along with the motion of electrons
and ions in an electronic apparatus. The motion of charged particles has a wide
field of applications, including particle accelerators, electron microscopes,
magnetrons and klystrons, cathode ray and X-ray tubes, photomultipliers and
gas discharges, and in geophysics and plasma physics.
The fundamental equations include the Newton’s Second Law, mdv/dt
= F, and Lorentz’s Force equation, F = q [E + (1/c)(v x B)]. In these equations,
‘m’ is the mass of the particle in grams, and ‘q’ is its charge and is measured
in the electrostatic unit of charge, the ‘esu’ or ‘statCoulomb (statC)’. The vector
velocity ‘v’ is measured in cm/s, and the vector force ‘F’ is measured in dyne.
Vectors are represented in boldface, and their magnitudes by the same letter in
normal weight. ‘E’ is the electric field in stavolt/cm. ‘B’ is the magnetic field in
Gauss, and ‘c’ is the speed of light, 2.998 × 1010 cm/s. Following are some
Self-Instructional standard conversion units:
254 Material
An esu of charge is (10/c) coulomb. Dynamics of Charged
Particles
One statvolt/cm is 300 V/cm or 30,000 V/m.
10,000 Gauss is 1 tesla (Wb/m2).
The dimensions of esu are g1/2cm3/2/s, and the dimensions of the electric NOTES
and magnetic fields are g1/2/cm1/2-s.
Both the electron and proton have charges of equal magnitude as,
e = 4/803 × 10-10 esu, but of opposite sign
The electronic charge is negative. The magnitude ‘e’ is taken as positive.
The mass of the electron is 9.109 × 10-28 g, and the mass of the proton
is 1836.2 times greater, 1.6726 × 10-24 g. Subscripts ‘e’ and ‘p’ will be used
to distinguish quantities referring to the electron and proton, respectively.
The ratio of charge to mass for the electron is e/m = 5.273 × 1017 esu/
g, and for the proton it is 1836.2 times smaller. The quantity ‘e/mc’ is the ratio
of the charge in emu to mass, and is 1.759 x 107 (cm/g)1/2 for the electron.
The proton is the nucleus of the hydrogen atom 1H, the most common
atom in the universe, making up more than 90% of the sun’s mass, and a similar
fraction of primary cosmic rays. Most of the remaining 10% is 4He, which has
four times the mass of the proton and twice its charge. Its nucleus is called the
alpha ( ) particle. There are also rarer isotopes of both atoms, 2H, 3H, and 3He.
In the sun and other places, these atoms are found as nuclei only, positive ions,
while their electrons wander freely. The universe appears to be electrically
neutral on the large scale, like any common substance. The lower atmosphere
is dominated by diatomic, neutral nitrogen and oxygen. Higher up, photochemistry
introduces new species, such as atomic oxygen O, NO and O3, together with
their positive ions formed by knocking off an electron, or negative ions formed
when a wandering electron attaches itself. Still higher up, even nitrogen becomes
atomic, and hydrogen and helium become noticeable. The Earth is bombarded
by protons and electrons from the sun (the ‘solar wind’) and by very energetic
protons from deep space.
The positron is the antiparticle to the electron, with opposite charge but
having the same mass. It is rare and evanescent, only occurs naturally in cosmic
ray showers and in radioactivity. The association of a positron and an electron
is called positronium. Formed in an excited state, it emits radiation until the
particles come close enough that mutual annihilation occurs and energy and
momentum are conserved by the emission of two gamma ( ) ray photons (one
photon could not conserve momentum) of 0.51 MeV energy. Antihydrogen has
been prepared in the laboratory by uniting a positron with an antiproton. It has
the properties of ordinary hydrogen, but is a little hard to store. Antiparticles
exist for every particle (some are their own antiparticle) with the same mass but
charge of opposite sign.
Self-Instructional
Material 255
Dynamics of Charged 12.2.1 Lienard-Wiechert Potential
Particles
The Liénard–Wiechert potentials describe the classical electromagnetic effect of
a moving electric point charge in terms of a vector potential and a scalar
NOTES potential in the Lorenz gauge. Constructed directly from Maxwell’s equations,
these potentials describe the complete, relativistically correct, time-varying
electromagnetic field for a point charge in arbitrary motion, but are not accurate
for quantum-mechanical effects. Electromagnetic radiation in the form of waves
can be obtained from these potentials. The expressions of Liénard–Wiechert
potentials were developed in part by Alfred-Marie Liénard in 1898 and
independently by Emil Wiechert in 1900.
Equations of Liénard–Wiechert Potentials
The Liénard–Wiechert potentials (scalar potential field) and (vector

potential field) are for a source point charge q at position traveling with
velocity :
And,
Where,
is the velocity of the source expressed as a fraction

of the speed of light.
is the distance from the source.
is the unit vector pointing in the direction from the

source.
Corresponding Values of Electric and Magnetic Fields
We can calculate the electric and magnetic fields directly from the potentials
using the Equations:
The calculation is nontrivial and requires a number of steps. The electric

and magnetic fields are (in non-covariant form):
Self-Instructional
256 Material
And, Dynamics of Charged
Particles
Where, NOTES
Note that the part of the first term updates the direction of the
field towards the instantaneous position of the charge, if it continues to move
with constant velocity . This term is connected with the ‘static’ part of the
electromagnetic field of the charge.
The second term, which is connected with electromagnetic radiation by
the moving charge, requires charge acceleration and if this is zero, the value
of this term is zero, and the charge does not radiate, i.e., emit electromagnetic
radiation. This term requires additionally that a component of the charge
acceleration be in a direction transverse to the line which connects the charge q and
the observer of the field . The direction of the field associated with this
radiative term is toward the fully time-retarded position of the charge, i.e.,
where the charge was when it was accelerated.
Retarded electromagnetic potentials are derived from Maxwell’s equations and
the Lorenz condition. The difference found between these potentials and the
conventional Liénard–Wiechert ones is explained by neglect, for the latter, of the
motion dependence of the effective charge density. The corresponding retarded
fields of a point-like charge in arbitary motion are compared with those given
by the formulae of Heaviside, Feynman, Jefimenko and other authors. The fields
of an accelerated charge given by the Feynman are the same as those derived
from the Liénard–Wiechert potentials but not those given by the Jefimenko
formulae. A mathematical error concerning partial space and time derivatives in
the derivation of the Jefimenko equations is pointed out.
Derivation of Retarded Electromagnetic Potentials from
Inhomogeneous d’Alembert Equations
The retarded electromagnetic potentials may be derived from the Maxwell
equations as follows:
(12.1)
(12.2)
Self-Instructional
Material 257
Dynamics of Charged And the Lorenz condition,
Particles
(12.3)
NOTES Where the current density J is a 4-vector:
(12.4)
The system of source charges is assumed to be at rest in the frame S*,
where the charge density is ρ*, and to move with velocity relative
to the frame S in which the potential is defined. The 4-vector velocity of the
charge system in this last frame is:
(12.5)
Where,
The first step of the calculation is to use the Lorenz condition in Equation
(12.3) to eliminate either or J0 from Equations (12.1) and (12.2) to obtain
the following inhomogeneous d’Alembert equations:
(12.6)
(12.7)
The solutions give the retarded 4-vector potential of the form:
(12.8)
In the special case of a single point-like source charge the current density
in Equation (12.8) is given by the expression:
(12.9)
Where is the position of the charge at time t . Inserting Equations

(12.9) in (12.8), and integrating over , gives
(12.10)
Self-Instructional
258 Material
Where, Dynamics of Charged
Particles
(12.11) NOTES
The retarded 4-vector potential is therefore:
12.12)

The electric and magnetic fields corresponding to the 4-vector potential in
Equation (12.12) are obtained by straightforward application of the definitions
of electric and magnetic fields in terms of derivatives of the potential:
(12.13)
(12.14)
Where, without loss of generality, it may be assumed that the electric field
is confined to the x-y plane,
Unit vectors along the x- y- and z-axes are denoted as

To perform the calculation, the retardation condition is,
(12.15)
This must be used to express the derivatives with respect to t in Equation

(12.13) in terms of t2 , since the retarded position of the source charge is a
function of t2 , not of t. Assuming that u is constant, Equation (12.12) gives:
(12.16)
Differentiating the geometrical relation:
(12.17)
Self-Instructional
Material 259
Dynamics of Charged With respect to xq gives,
Particles
NOTES
(12.18)
Differentiating Equation (12.15) with respect to xq,
(12.19)
Combining Equations (12.17) and (12.18), rearranging, and noting that
gives,
(12.20)
Where. Combining Equations (12.16) and (12.20) gives,
(12.21)
An analogous relation is obtained for so that,
(12.22)

The particles interacting with scattering centres, i.e., other particles or fields, can
be accelerated to very high energies. When these accelerated particles are
charges, they produce electromagnetic waves. Radiation is an irreversible flow
of electromagnetic energy from the source (charges) to infinity. This is possible
only because the electromagnetic fields associated with accelerating charges fall
off as 1/r instead of 1/r2 as is the case for charges at rest or moving uniformly.
So the total energy flux obtained from the Poynting flux is finite at infinity.
Like all electromagnetic fields the source of electromagnetic waves is
some arrangement of electric charge. But a charge at rest does not generate
electromagnetic waves: nor does a steady current. It takes accelerating charges
and changing currents to produce electromagnetic waves, i.e., to radiate. Once
established, the electromagnetic waves in vacuum propagate out to infinity,
Self-Instructional
carrying energy with them; the signature of radiation is this irreversible flow of
260 Material
energy away from the source. Imagine a spherical shell at radius r; the total Dynamics of Charged
Particles
power P(r) passing out through this surface is the integral of the Poynting
vector:
NOTES
The power radiated is the limit of this quantity as r goes to infinity:
This is the energy (per unit time) that is transported to infinity, and never
comes back.
Now, the area of the sphere is 4πr2, so for radiation to occur the Poynting
vector must decrease (at large r) no faster than 1/ r2. According to the Coulomb’s
law, electrostatic fields fall off like 1/ r2 or even faster, if the total charge is zero,
and the Biot-Savart law says that the magnetostatic fields have the same r
dependence, which means that , for static configurations. The static
sources do not radiate.
Check Your Progress

1. What is a charged particle?
2. Explain the fields where motion of charged particles are applied.
3. Give the fundamental equations of charged particles.
4. Define the terms positron and positronium.
5. Explain about the Liénard-Wiechert potentials.
6. Who developed Liénard-Wiechert potentials?
7. Give the equations for deriving retarded electromagnetic potentials from
the Maxwell equations and the Lorenz condition.
8. What is radiation?

QUESTIONS
1. In physics, a charged particle is a particle with an electric charge. It may be

an ion, such as a molecule or atom with a surplus or deficit of electrons
relative to protons. It can also be an electron or a proton, or another
elementary particle, which are all believed to have the same charge (except
antimatter). Another charged particle may be an atomic nucleus devoid of
electrons, such as an alpha ( ) particle.
Self-Instructional
Material 261
Dynamics of Charged 2. The motion of charged particles has a wide field of applications, including
Particles
particle accelerators, electron microscopes, magnetrons and klystrons,
cathode ray and X-ray tubes, photomultipliers and gas discharges, and in
geophysics and plasma physics.
NOTES
3. The fundamental equations of charged particles include the Newton’s Second
Law, mdv/dt = F, and Lorentz’s Force equation, F = q [E + (1/c)(v x B)].
In these equations, ‘m’ is the mass of the particle in grams, and ‘q’ is its
charge and is measured in the electrostatic unit of charge, the ‘esu’ or
‘statCoulomb (statC)’. The vector velocity ‘v’ is measured in cm/s, and
the vector force ‘F’ is measured in dyne. Vectors are represented in boldface,
and their magnitudes by the same letter in normal weight. ‘E’ is the electric
field in stavolt/cm. ‘B’ is the magnetic field in Gauss, and ‘c’ is the speed of
light, 2.998 x 1010 cm/s.
4. The positron is the antiparticle to the electron, with opposite charge but
having the same mass. It is rare and evanescent, only occurs naturally in
cosmic ray showers and in radioactivity. The association of a positron and
an electron is called positronium. Formed in an excited state, it emits
radiation until the particles come close enough that mutual annihilation occurs
and energy and momentum are conserved by the emission of two gamma
( ) ray photons (one photon could not conserve momentum) of 0.51 MeV
energy.
5. The Liénard–Wiechert potentials describe the classical electromagnetic effect
of a moving electric point charge in terms of a vector potential and a scalar
potential in the Lorenz gauge. Constructed directly from Maxwell’s
equations, these potentials describe the complete, relativistically correct,
time-varying electromagnetic field for a point charge in arbitrary motion,
but are not accurate for quantum-mechanical effects. Electromagnetic
radiation in the form of waves can be obtained from these potentials.
6. The expressions of Liénard–Wiechert potentials were developed in part by
Alfred-Marie Liénard in 1898 and independently by Emil Wiechert in 1900.
7. The retarded electromagnetic potentials may be derived from the Maxwell
And the Lorenz condition,
Self-Instructional
262 Material
Where the current density J is a 4-vector: Dynamics of Charged
Particles
NOTES
8. Radiation is an irreversible flow of electromagnetic energy from the source
(charges) to infinity. This is possible only because the electromagnetic fields
associated with accelerating charges fall off as 1/r instead of 1/r2 as is the
case for charges at rest or moving uniformly. So the total energy flux obtained
from the Poynting flux is finite at infinity.
12.4 SUMMARY
In physics, a charged particle is a particle with an electric charge. It may be

an ion, such as a molecule or atom with a surplus or deficit of electrons
relative to protons. It can also be an electron or a proton, or another
elementary particle, which are all believed to have the same charge (except
antimatter). Another charged particle may be an atomic nucleus devoid of
electrons, such as an alpha ( ) particle.
A plasma is a collection of charged particles, atomic nuclei and separated
electrons, but can also be a gas containing a significant proportion of charged
particles.
The motion of charged particles has a wide field of applications, including
particle accelerators, electron microscopes, magnetrons and klystrons,
cathode ray and X-ray tubes, photomultipliers and gas discharges, and in
geophysics and plasma physics.
The fundamental equations include the Newton’s Second Law, mdv/dt = F,
and Lorentz’s Force equation, F = q [E + (1/c)(v x B)]. In these equations,
‘m’ is the mass of the particle in grams, and ‘q’ is its charge and is measured
in the electrostatic unit of charge, the ‘esu’ or ‘statCoulomb (statC)’. The
vector velocity ‘v’ is measured in cm/s, and the vector force ‘F’ is measured
in dyne.
Vectors are represented in boldface, and their magnitudes by the same
letter in normal weight. ‘E’ is the electric field in stavolt/cm. ‘B’ is the
magnetic field in Gauss, and ‘c’ is the speed of light, 2.998 x 1010 cm/s.
Following are some standard conversion units:
(1) An esu of charge is (10/c) coulomb.
(2) One statvolt/cm is 300 V/cm or 30,000 V/m.
(3) 10,000 Gauss is 1 tesla (Wb/m2).
The dimensions of esu are g1/2cm3/2/s, and the dimensions of the electric
and magnetic fields are g1/2/cm1/2-s.
Self-Instructional
Material 263
Dynamics of Charged Both the electron and proton have charges of equal magnitude as,
Particles
e = 4/803 x 10-10 esu, but of opposite sign
The ratio of charge to mass for the electron is e/m = 5.273 x 1017 esu/g,
NOTES and for the proton it is 1836.2 times smaller. The quantity ‘e/mc’ is the ratio
of the charge in emu to mass, and is 1.759 x 107 (cm/g)1/2 for the electron.
The proton is the nucleus of the hydrogen atom 1H, the most common atom
in the universe, making up more than 90% of the sun’s mass, and a similar
fraction of primary cosmic rays.
The Earth is bombarded by protons and electrons from the sun (the ‘solar
wind’) and by very energetic protons from deep space.
The positron is the antiparticle to the electron, with opposite charge but
cosmic ray showers and in radioactivity.
The association of a positron and an electron is called positronium. Formed
in an excited state, it emits radiation until the particles come close enough
that mutual annihilation occurs and energy and momentum are conserved
by the emission of two gamma ( ) ray photons (one photon could not
conserve momentum) of 0.51 MeV energy.
The Liénard–Wiechert potentials describe the classical electromagnetic effect
of a moving electric point charge in terms of a vector potential and a scalar
potential in the Lorenz gauge.
Electromagnetic radiation in the form of waves can be obtained from these
potentials. The expressions of Liénard–Wiechert potentials were developed
in part by Alfred-Marie Liénard in 1898 and independently by Emil Wiechert
in 1900.
Retarded electromagnetic potentials are derived from Maxwell’s equations
and the Lorenz condition.
The retarded electromagnetic potentials may be derived from the Maxwell
And the Lorenz condition,
Where the current density J is a 4-vector:
Self-Instructional
264 Material
The particles interacting with scattering centres, i.e., other particles or fields, Dynamics of Charged
Particles
can be accelerated to very high energies. When these accelerated particles
are charges, they produce electromagnetic waves.
Radiation is an irreversible flow of electromagnetic energy from the source
(charges) to infinity. This is possible only because the electromagnetic fields NOTES
associated with accelerating charges fall off as 1/r instead of 1/r2 as is the
case for charges at rest or moving uniformly. So the total energy flux obtained
from the Poynting flux is finite at infinity
Like all electromagnetic fields the source of electromagnetic waves is some
arrangement of electric charge. But a charge at rest does not generate
electromagnetic waves: nor does a steady current. It takes accelerating
charges and changing currents to produce electromagnetic waves, i.e., to
radiate.
Once established, the electromagnetic waves in vacuum propagate out to
infinity, carrying energy with them; the signature of radiation is this irreversible
flow of energy away from the source.
12.5 KEY WORDS

Charged particle: It is a particle with an electric charge. It may be an ion,
such as a molecule or atom with a surplus or deficit of electrons relative to
protons.
Positron: It is the antiparticle to the electron, with opposite charge but
cosmic ray showers and in radioactivity.
Positronium: The association of a positron and an electron is termed as
the positronium.
Liénard–Wiechert potentials: It describes the classical electromagnetic
effect of a moving electric point charge in terms of a vector potential and a
scalar potential in the Lorenz gauge. The expressions of Liénard–Wiechert
potentials were developed in part by Alfred-Marie Liénard in 1898 and
independently by Emil Wiechert in 1900.
Radiation: It is an irreversible flow of electromagnetic energy from the
source (charges) to infinity.

EXERCISES

1. Explain the term charged particle giving appropriate examples.
2. What is plasma?
Self-Instructional
Material 265
Dynamics of Charged 3. Give the mass of the electron and proton.
Particles
4. What is the alpha particle?
5. What does Liénard–Wiechert potentials describe?
6. What are electric and magnetic fields?
NOTES
7. How is retarded electromagnetic potentials calculated?
8. What is retarded potentials of moving point charge?
9. Explain about the radiation of moving charges.
1. Briefly discuss the significance, types and characteristic features of charged
particles giving appropriate examples.
2. Explain the standard conversion units for expressing charged particles.
3. What are electrons and protons? Explain each type giving example.
4. Discuss about the Lienard-Wiechert potential equations giving appropriate
examples.
5. How the corresponding values of electric and magnetic fields are calculated?
Discuss in detail giving equations.
6. Discuss the method of deriving retarded electromagnetic potentials from
Maxwell’s equations and the Lorenz condition.
7. Discuss and prove the equations for electromagnetic fields for retarded
potentials of moving point charge.
8. Briefly discuss about the electromagnetic fields of uniformly moving point
charge.
9. Explain the radiation equations for moving charges.

Sons.
Inc.
House Pvt. Ltd.
Self-Instructional
266 Material
Plasma Physics
UNIT 13 PLASMA PHYSICS

Structure NOTES
13.0 Introduction
13.1 Objectives
13.2 Plasma Physics: Basics
13.4 Summary
13.5 Key Words
13.0 INTRODUCTION
Plasma, in physics, an electrically conducting medium in which there are roughly

equal numbers of positively and negatively charged particles, produced when the
atoms in a gas become ionized. Principally, the plasma is a state of matter. The
three other common states of matter are solids, liquids and gases, so plasma is
sometimes called the fourth state of matter.
The negative charge is usually carried by electrons, each of which has one
unit of negative charge. The positive charge is typically carried by atoms or
molecules that are missing those same electrons. In some rare but interesting cases,
electrons missing from one type of atom or molecule become attached to another
component, resulting in a plasma containing both positive and negative ions. The
most extreme case of this type occurs when small but macroscopic dust particles
become charged in a state referred to as a dusty plasma. The uniqueness of the
plasma state is due to the importance of electric and magnetic forces that act on a
plasma in addition to such forces as gravity that affect all forms of matter. Since
these electromagnetic forces can act at large distances, a plasma will act collectively
much like a fluid even when the particles seldom collide with one another.
Nearly all the visible matter in the universe exists in the plasma state, occurring
predominantly in this form in the Sun and stars and in interplanetary and interstellar
space. Auroras, lightning, and welding arcs are also plasmas; plasmas exist in
neon and fluorescent tubes, in the crystal structure of metallic solids, and in many
other phenomena and objects. The Earth itself is immersed in a tenuous plasma
called the solar wind and is surrounded by a dense plasma called the ionosphere.
In this unit, you will study about the plasma physics, conditions for plasma
existence, occurrence of plasma, charged particles in uniform constant electric
field and magnetic fields.
Self-Instructional
Material 267
Plasma Physics
13.1 OBJECTIVES
After going through this unit, you will be able:

NOTES Understand the significance of plasma physics
Describe the conditions required for plasma existence
Explain the occurrence of plasma
Define the charged particles in uniform constant electric field
Explain magnetic fields in plasma
13.2 PLASMA PHYSICS: BASICS
Plasma, in physics, an electrically conducting medium in which there are roughly

equal numbers of positively and negatively charged particles, produced when the
atoms in a gas become ionized. Principally, the plasma is a state of matter. The
three other common states of matter are solids, liquids and gases, so plasma is
sometimes called the fourth state of matter.
molecules that are missing those same electrons. In some rare but interesting cases,
electrons missing from one type of atom or molecule become attached to another
component, resulting in a plasma containing both positive and negative ions. The
most extreme case of this type occurs when small but macroscopic dust particles
become charged in a state referred to as a dusty plasma. The uniqueness of the
plasma state is due to the importance of electric and magnetic forces that act on a
plasma in addition to such forces as gravity that affect all forms of matter. Since
these electromagnetic forces can act at large distances, a plasma will act collectively
much like a fluid even when the particles seldom collide with one another.
predominantly in this form in the Sun and stars and in interplanetary and interstellar
space. Auroras, lightning, and welding arcs are also plasmas; plasmas exist in
neon and fluorescent tubes, in the crystal structure of metallic solids, and in many
other phenomena and objects. The Earth itself is immersed in a tenuous plasma
called the solar wind and is surrounded by a dense plasma called the ionosphere.
A plasma may be produced in the laboratory by heating a gas to an extremely
high temperature, which causes such vigorous collisions between its atoms and
molecules that electrons are ripped free, yielding the requisite electrons and ions.
A similar process occurs inside stars. In space the dominant plasma formation
process is photoionization, wherein photons from sunlight or starlight are absorbed
by an existing gas, causing electrons to be emitted. Since the Sun and stars shine
continuously, virtually all the matter becomes ionized in such cases, and the plasma
Self-Instructional
268 Material
is said to be fully ionized. A completely ionized hydrogen plasma, consisting solely Plasma Physics
of electrons and protons (hydrogen nuclei), is the most elementary plasma.

Definition
Plasma is a state of matter in which an ionized gaseous substance becomes highly NOTES
electrically conductive to the point that long-range electric and magnetic fields
dominate the behaviour of the matter. The plasma state can be contrasted with the
other states: solid, liquid, and gas.
Plasma is an electrically neutral medium of unbound positive and negative
particles (i.e., the overall charge of a plasma is roughly zero). Although these particles
are unbound, they are not ‘free’ in the sense of not experiencing forces. Moving
charged particles generate an electric current within a magnetic field, and any
movement of a charged plasma particle affects and is affected by the fields created
by the other charges. In turn this governs collective behaviour with many degrees
of variation. Three factors define a plasma:
1. Plasma Approximation: The plasma approximation applies when the
plasma parameter, Λ, representing the number of charge carriers within a
sphere (called the Debye sphere whose radius is the Debye screening length)
surrounding a given charged particle, is sufficiently high as to shield the
electrostatic influence of the particle outside of the sphere.
2. Bulk Interactions: The Debye screening length is compared to the physical
size of the plasma. This criterion means that interactions in the bulk of the
plasma are more important than those at its edges, where boundary effects
may take place. When this criterion is satisfied, the plasma is quasi-neutral.
3. Plasma Frequency: The electron plasma frequency (measuring plasma
oscillations of the electrons) is large compared to the electron-neutral collision
frequency (measuring frequency of collisions between electrons and neutral
particles). When this condition is valid, electrostatic interactions dominate
over the processes of ordinary gas kinetics.
Plasma temperature is commonly measured in Kelvin or electron volts and is,
informally, a measure of the thermal kinetic energy per particle. High temperatures
are usually needed to sustain ionisation, which is a defining feature of a plasma.
The degree of plasma ionisation is determined by the electron temperature relative
to the ionisation energy (and more weakly by the density), in a relationship called
the Saha equation. At low temperatures, ions and electrons tend to recombine into
bound states—atoms—and the plasma will eventually become a gas.
In most cases the electrons are close enough to thermal equilibrium that
their temperature is relatively well-defined; this is true even when there is a significant
deviation from a Maxwellian energy distribution function, for example, due to UV
Self-Instructional
Material 269
Plasma Physics radiation, energetic particles, or strong electric fields. Because of the large difference
in mass, the electrons come to thermodynamic equilibrium amongst themselves
much faster than they come into equilibrium with the ions or neutral atoms. For this
reason, the ion temperature may be very different from (usually lower than) the
NOTES electron temperature. This is especially common in weakly ionized technological
plasmas, where the ions are often near the ambient temperature.
Therefore, for plasma to exist, ionisation is necessary. The term ‘Plasma
Density’ by itself usually refers to the ‘Electron Density’, that is, the number of free
electrons per unit volume. The degree of ionisation of a plasma is the proportion
of atoms that have lost or gained electrons, and is controlled by the electron and
ion temperatures and electron-ion vs. electron-neutral collision frequencies. The
degree of ionisation, , is defined as , where ni is the number

density of ions and nn is the number density of neutral atoms. The electron density is
related to this by the average charge state of the ions through
where ne is the number density of electrons.
In a plasma, the electron-ion collision frequency is much greater than
the electron-neutral collision frequency . Therefore, with a weak degree of
ionization, the electron-ion collision frequency can equal the electron-neutral
collision frequency: is the limit separating a plasma from being partially
or fully ionized.
The term fully ionised gas introduced by Lyman Spitzer does not mean
the degree of ionisation is unity, but only that the plasma is in a Coulomb-
collision dominated regime, i.e., when , which can
correspond to a degree of ionisation as low as 0.01%.
A partially or weakly ionised gas means the plasma is not dominated
by Coulomb collisions, i.e., when .
Most of technological engineered plasmas are weakly ionised gases.
Occurrence of Plasma
Plasma is created by adding energy to a gas so that some of its electrons leave its
atoms. This is called ionization. It results in negatively charged electrons, and
positively charged ions. Unlike the other states of matter, the charged particles in
a plasma will react strongly to electric and magnetic fields (i.e., electromagnetic
fields). If a plasma loses heat, the ions will re-form into a gas, emitting the energy
which had caused them to ionize.
Over 99% of the matter in the visible universe is believed to be plasma.
When the atoms in a gas are broken up, the pieces are called electrons and ions.
Because they have an electric charge, they are pulled together or pushed apart by
Self-Instructional
270 Material
electric fields and magnetic fields. This makes a plasma act differently than a gas. Plasma Physics
For example, magnetic fields can be used to hold a plasma, but not to hold a gas.
Plasma is a better conductor of electricity than copper.
Plasma is usually very hot, because it takes very high temperatures to break
NOTES
the bonds between electrons and the nuclei of the atoms. Sometimes plasmas can
have very high pressure, like in stars. Stars (including the Sun) are mostly made of
plasma. Plasmas can also have very low pressure, like in outer space.
On Earth, lightning makes plasma. Artificial (man-made) uses of plasma
include fluorescent light bulbs, neon signs, and plasma displays used for television
or computer screens, as well as plasma lamps and globes which are a popular
children’s toy and room decoration.
Magnetic Fields
Magnetic fields are used to contain high-density, high-temperature plasmas because
such fields exert pressures and tensile forces on the plasma. An equilibrium
configuration is reached only when at all points in the plasma these pressures and
tensions exactly balance the pressure from the motion of the particles. A well-
known example of this is the pinch effect observed in specially designed equipment.
If an external electric current is imposed on a cylindrically shaped plasma and
flows parallel to the plasma axis, the magnetic forces act inward and cause the
plasma to constrict, or pinch. An equilibrium condition is reached in which the
temperature is proportional to the square of the electric current. This result suggests
that any temperature may be achieved by making the electric current sufficiently
large, the heating resulting from currents and compression.
The plasma can be defined by a magnetic field by measuring containment
time ( c), or the average time for a charged particle to diffuse out of the plasma;
this time is different for each type of configuration. Various types of instabilities
can occur in plasma. These lead to a loss of plasma and a catastrophic decrease
in containment time. The most important of these is called magnetohydrodynamic
instability. Although an equilibrium state may exist, it may not correspond to the
lowest possible energy. The plasma, therefore, seeks a state of lower potential
energy, just as a ball at rest on top of a hill (representing an equilibrium state) rolls
down to the bottom if perturbed; the lower energy state of the plasma corresponds
to a ball at the bottom of a valley. In seeking the lower energy state, turbulence
develops, leading to enhanced diffusion, increased electrical resistivity, and large
heat losses. In toroidal geometry, circular plasma currents must be kept below a
critical value called the Kruskal-Shafranov limit, otherwise a particularly violent
instability consisting of a series of kinks may occur. Although a completely stable
system appears to be virtually impossible, considerable progress has been made
in devising systems that eliminate the major instabilities. Temperatures on the order
of 10,000,000 K at densities of 1019 particles per cubic metre and containment
times as high as 1/50 of a second have been achieved.
Self-Instructional
Material 271
Plasma Physics Motion of Charged Particles in a Uniform Electric Field
When a particle of charge ‘q’ and mass ‘m’ is placed in an electric field ‘E’, then
the electric force exerted on the charge is ‘qE’. If this is the only force exerted on
NOTES the particle, it must be the net force and so must cause the particle to accelerate.
In this case, Newton’s second law applied to the particle gives electric force on
the charged particles in uniform electric field.
The acceleration of the particle is therefore electric force on the charge

particles,
If E is uniform (that is, constant in magnitude and direction), then the

acceleration is constant. If the particle has a positive charge, then its acceleration
is in the direction of the electric field. If the particle has a negative charge, then its
acceleration is in the direction opposite the electric field.
Check Your Progress

1. What is plasma?
2. What is the uniqueness of the plasma state?
3. How plasma occurs in nature?
4. Give definition for plasma.
5. What is plasma approximation?
6. Define the degree of ionisation of a plasma.
7. How plasma can be defined by a magnetic field?

QUESTIONS
1. Plasma, in physics, an electrically conducting medium in which there are

roughly equal numbers of positively and negatively charged particles,
produced when the atoms in a gas become ionized. Principally, the plasma
is a state of matter. The three other common states of matter are solids,
liquids and gases, so plasma is sometimes called the fourth state of matter.
2. The uniqueness of the plasma state is due to the importance of electric and
magnetic forces that act on a plasma in addition to such forces as gravity
that affect all forms of matter. Since these electromagnetic forces can act at
large distances, a plasma will act collectively much like a fluid even when
the particles seldom collide with one another.
Self-Instructional
272 Material
3. Nearly all the visible matter in the universe exists in the plasma state, occurring Plasma Physics
predominantly in this form in the Sun and stars and in interplanetary and
interstellar space. Auroras, lightning, and welding arcs are also plasmas;
plasmas exist in neon and fluorescent tubes, in the crystal structure of metallic
solids, and in many other phenomena and objects. The Earth itself is immersed NOTES
in a tenuous plasma called the solar wind and is surrounded by a dense
plasma called the ionosphere.
4. Plasma is a state of matter in which an ionized gaseous substance becomes
highly electrically conductive to the point that long-range electric and magnetic
fields dominate the behaviour of the matter. The plasma state can be
contrasted with the other states: solid, liquid, and gas. Plasma is an electrically
neutral medium of unbound positive and negative particles (i.e., the overall
charge of a plasma is roughly zero). Although these particles are unbound,
they are not ‘free’ in the sense of not experiencing forces.
5. The plasma approximation applies when the plasma parameter, Λ,
representing the number of charge carriers within a sphere (called the Debye
sphere whose radius is the Debye screening length) surrounding a given
charged particle, is sufficiently high as to shield the electrostatic influence of
the particle outside of the sphere.
6. The degree of ionisation of a plasma is the proportion of atoms that have
lost or gained electrons, and is controlled by the electron and ion
temperatures and electron-ion vs. electron-neutral collision frequencies. The
degree of ionisation, is defined as is the number density of
neutral atoms.
7. The plasma can be defined by a magnetic field by measuring containment
time ( c), or the average time for a charged particle to diffuse out of the
plasma; this time is different for each type of configuration.
13.4 SUMMARY
Plasma, in physics, an electrically conducting medium in which there are

roughly equal numbers of positively and negatively charged particles,
produced when the atoms in a gas become ionized. Principally, the plasma
is a state of matter. The three other common states of matter are solids,
liquids and gases, so plasma is sometimes called the fourth state of matter.
molecules that are missing those same electrons.
The uniqueness of the plasma state is due to the importance of electric and
magnetic forces that act on a plasma in addition to such forces as gravity
Self-Instructional
Material 273
Plasma Physics that affect all forms of matter. Since these electromagnetic forces can act at
large distances, a plasma will act collectively much like a fluid even when
the particles seldom collide with one another.
NOTES
predominantly in this form in the Sun and stars and in interplanetary and
interstellar space.
Auroras, lightning, and welding arcs are also plasmas; plasmas exist in neon
and fluorescent tubes, in the crystal structure of metallic solids, and in many
other phenomena and objects. The Earth itself is immersed in a tenuous
plasma called the solar wind and is surrounded by a dense plasma called
the ionosphere.
A plasma may be produced in the laboratory by heating a gas to an extremely
high temperature, which causes such vigorous collisions between its atoms
and molecules that electrons are ripped free, yielding the requisite electrons
and ions.
Plasma is a state of matter in which an ionized gaseous substance becomes
highly electrically conductive to the point that long-range electric and magnetic
fields dominate the behaviour of the matter. The plasma state can be
contrasted with the other states: solid, liquid, and gas.
Plasma is an electrically neutral medium of unbound positive and negative
particles (i.e., the overall charge of a plasma is roughly zero). Although
these particles are unbound, they are not ‘free’ in the sense of not experiencing
forces.
Moving charged particles generate an electric current within a magnetic
field, and any movement of a charged plasma particle affects and is affected
by the fields created by the other charges. In turn this governs collective
behaviour with many degrees of variation.
The plasma approximation applies when the plasma parameter, Λ,
representing the number of charge carriers within a sphere (called the Debye
sphere whose radius is the Debye screening length) surrounding a given
charged particle, is sufficiently high as to shield the electrostatic influence of
the particle outside of the sphere.
The Debye screening length is short compared to the physical size of the
plasma. This criterion means that interactions in the bulk of the plasma are
more important than those at its edges, where boundary effects may take
place. When this criterion is satisfied, the plasma is quasi-neutral.
The electron plasma frequency (measuring plasma oscillations of the
electrons) is large compared to the electron-neutral collision frequency
(measuring frequency of collisions between electrons and neutral particles).
Self-Instructional
274 Material
When this condition is valid, electrostatic interactions dominate over the Plasma Physics
processes of ordinary gas kinetics.

Plasma temperature is commonly measured in kelvin or electron volts and
is, informally, a measure of the thermal kinetic energy per particle.
NOTES
High temperatures are usually needed to sustain ionisation, which is a defining
feature of a plasma.
The degree of plasma ionisation is determined by the electron temperature
relative to the ionisation energy (and more weakly by the density), in a
relationship called the Saha equation.
At low temperatures, ions and electrons tend to recombine into bound
states—atoms—and the plasma will eventually become a gas.
The term ‘Plasma Density’ by itself usually refers to the ‘Electron Density’,
that is, the number of free electrons per unit volume.
The degree of ionisation of a plasma is the proportion of atoms that have
lost or gained electrons, and is controlled by the electron and ion
temperatures and electron-ion vs. electron-neutral collision frequencies.
The degree of ionisation, is defined as where ni is the number

density of ions and nn is the number density of neutral atoms.
The electron density is related by the average charge state of the ions
through where ne is the number density of electrons.
The term fully ionized gas introduced by Lyman Spitzer does not mean the
degree of ionization is unity, but only that the plasma is in a Coulomb-collision
dominated regime, i.e., when , which can correspond to a
degree of ionization as low as 0.01%.
A partially or weakly ionized gas means the plasma is not dominated
by Coulomb collisions, i.e., when .
Over 99% of the matter in the visible universe is believed to be plasma.
When the atoms in a gas are broken up, the pieces are called electrons and
ions. Because they have an electric charge, they are pulled together or pushed
apart by electric fields and magnetic fields. This makes a plasma act differently
than a gas.
Plasma is usually very hot, because it takes very high temperatures to break
the bonds between electrons and the nuclei of the atoms. Sometimes plasmas
can have very high pressure, like in stars. Stars (including the Sun) are
mostly made of plasma. Plasmas can also have very low pressure, like in
outer space.
Self-Instructional
Material 275
Plasma Physics Magnetic fields are used to contain high-density, high-temperature plasmas
because such fields exert pressures and tensile forces on the plasma. An
equilibrium configuration is reached only when at all points in the plasma
these pressures and tensions exactly balance the pressure from the motion
NOTES of the particles.
The plasma can be defined by a magnetic field by measuring containment
time ( c), or the average time for a charged particle to diffuse out of the
plasma; this time is different for each type of configuration.
When a particle of charge ‘q’ and mass ‘m’ is placed in an electric field ‘E’,
the electric force exerted on the charge is ‘qE’. If this is the only force
exerted on the particle, it must be the net force and so must cause the
particle to accelerate. In this case, Newton’s second law applied to the
particle gives electric force on the charged particles in uniform electric field.
The acceleration of the particle is therefore electric force on the charge

particles,
If E is uniform (that is, constant in magnitude and direction), then the

acceleration is constant.
If the particle has a positive charge, then its acceleration is in the direction
of the electric field.
If the particle has a negative charge, then its acceleration is in the direction
opposite the electric field.
13.5 KEY WORDS
Plasma: An electrically conducting medium in which there are roughly equal

numbers of positively and negatively charged particles, produced when the
atoms in a gas become ionized.
Plasma approximation: The plasma approximation applies when the
plasma parameter, Λ, representing the number of charge carriers within a
sphere (called the Debye sphere whose radius is the Debye screening length)
surrounding a given charged particle, is sufficiently high as to shield the
electrostatic influence of the particle outside of the sphere.
Bulk interactions: This criterion means that interactions in the bulk of the
plasma are more important than those at its edges, where boundary effects
may take place. When this criterion is satisfied, the plasma is quasi-neutral.
Self-Instructional
276 Material
Plasma Physics
EXERCISES
1. What is plasma?
2. How plasma occurs in nature?
3. Define plasma frequency.
4. What is plasma temperature?
5. How will you determine the degree of plasma ionization?
1. Briefly discuss the significance, types and characteristic features of plasma
theory giving appropriate examples.
2. Explain the existence of plasma with the help of examples.
3. Discuss the conditions which are essential for plasma existence.
4. Explain the occurrence of various states of plasma.
5. Explain how the plasma can be defined by a magnetic field.

Sons.
Inc.
House Pvt. Ltd.
Self-Instructional
Material 277
Magnetohydrodynamics
UNIT 14 MAGNETOHYDRODYNAMICS
NOTES Structure
14.0 Introduction
14.1 Objectives
14.2 Magnetohydrodynamics
14.2.2 Pinch Effect
14.4 Summary
14.5 Key Words
14.0 INTRODUCTION
Magnetohydrodynamics or MHD is also termed as magneto-fluid dynamics or

hydro-magnetics. It is the study of the magnetic properties and behaviour of
electrically conducting fluids. Examples of such magneto-fluids include plasmas,
liquid metals, salt water, and electrolytes. The word ‘Magneto-Hydro-Dynamics
(MHD)’ is derived from ‘magneto-’ meaning ‘magnetic field’, ‘hydro-’ meaning
‘water’, and ‘dynamics’ meaning ‘movement’. The field of MHD was initiated by
the Swedish Physicist Hannes Alfvén, for which he received the Nobel Prize in
Physics in 1970. The fundamental concept behind MHD is that magnetic fields
can induce currents in a moving conductive fluid, which in turn polarizes the fluid
and reciprocally changes the magnetic field itself.
Principally, the Magneto-Hydro-Dynamics (MHD) evaluates the description
of the behaviour of a plasma (q.v.), or, in general, any electrically conducting fluid
in the presence of electric and magnetic fields. A plasma can be defined in terms of
its constituents, using equations to describe the behaviour of the electrons, ions,
neutral particles, etc. The inclusion of magnetic effects gives rise to a number of
quantities that have counterparts in ordinary fluid mechanics, for example, magnetic
viscosity, pressure, Reynolds number, and diffusion.
Magnetic confinement fusion is an approach to generate thermonuclear fusion
power that uses magnetic fields to confine the hot fusion fuel in the form of a
plasma. Apinch is the compression of an electrically conducting filament by magnetic
forces. The conductor is usually a plasma, but could also be a solid or liquid metal.
Pinches were the first type of device used for controlled nuclear fusion. In plasma
physics, waves in plasmas are an interconnected set of particles and fields which
propagate in a periodically repeating fashion. A plasma is a quasi-neutral, electrically
conductive fluid.
Self-Instructional
278 Material
In this unit, you will study about the magnetohydrodynamics, magnetic Magnetohydrodynamics
confinement, pinch effect, instabilities and plasma waves in detail.
14.1 OBJECTIVES NOTES

Understand and explain what magnetohydrodynamics is
Determine the magnetic confinement
Evaluate the pinch effect
Expalin instabilities and plasma waves
14.2 MAGNETOHYDRODYNAMICS
Magnetohydrodynamics or MHD is also termed as magneto-fluid dynamics or

hydro-magnetics. It is the study of the magnetic properties and behaviour of
electrically conducting fluids. Examples of such magneto-fluids include plasmas,
liquid metals, salt water, and electrolytes. The word ‘Magneto-Hydro-Dynamics
(MHD)’ is derived from ‘magneto-’ meaning ‘magnetic field’, ‘hydro-’ meaning
‘water’, and ‘dynamics’ meaning ‘movement’. The field of MHD was initiated
by Swedish Physicist Hannes Alfvén, for which he received the Nobel Prize in
Physics in 1970 for fundamental work and discoveries in magnetohydrodynamics
with fruitful applications in different parts of plasma physics.
The fundamental concept behind MHD is that magnetic fields can induce
currents in a moving conductive fluid, which in turn polarizes the fluid and
reciprocally changes the magnetic field itself. The set of equations that describe
MHD are a combination of the Navier–Stokes equations of fluid dynamics and
Maxwell’s equations of electromagnetism.
Principally, the Magneto-Hydro-Dynamics (MHD) evaluates the
description of the behaviour of a plasma (q.v.), i.e., it is the physical-mathematical
framework that concerns the dynamics of magnetic fields in electrically conducting
fluids, for example in plasmas and liquid metals.
A plasma can be defined in terms of its constituents, using equations to
describe the behaviour of the electrons, ions, neutral particles, etc. The inclusion
of magnetic effects gives rise to a number of quantities that have counterparts
in ordinary fluid mechanics, for example, magnetic viscosity, pressure, Reynolds
number, and diffusion.
The central point of MHD theory is that conductive fluids can support
magnetic fields. The presence of magnetic fields leads to forces that in turn act
on the fluid (typically a plasma), thereby potentially altering the geometry or
topology, and strength of the magnetic fields themselves. A key issue for a
Self-Instructional
Material 279
Magnetohydrodynamics particular conducting fluid is the relative strength of the advecting (advection is
the transport of a substance or quantity by bulk motion) motions in the fluid,
compared to the diffusive effects caused by the electrical resistivity.
The simplest form of MHD, specifically ‘Ideal MHD’, assumes that the
NOTES
fluid has so little resistivity that it can be treated as a perfect conductor. This is
the limit of infinite magnetic Reynolds number. In ideal MHD, Lenz’s law states
that the fluid is in a sense tied to the magnetic field lines. To explain, in ideal
MHD a small rope-like volume of fluid surrounding a field line will continue to
lie along a magnetic field line, even as it is twisted and distorted by fluid flows
in the system. This is sometimes referred to as the magnetic field lines being
‘frozen’ in the fluid. The connection between magnetic field lines and fluid in
ideal MHD fixes the topology of the magnetic field in the fluid, for example, if
a set of magnetic field lines are tied into a knot, then they will remain so as long
as the fluid/plasma has negligible resistivity. This difficulty in reconnecting magnetic
field lines makes it possible to store energy by moving the fluid or the source
of the magnetic field. The energy can then become available if the conditions for
ideal MHD break down, allowing magnetic reconnection that releases the stored
energy from the magnetic field.
The MHD Equations
MHD is a macroscopic theory. The partial differential equations of MHD can
in principle be derived from Boltzmann’s equation assuming space and time
scales to be larger than all inherent scale-lengths, such as the Debye length or
the gyro-radii of the charged particles. It is, however, more convenient to obtain
the MHD equations in a phenomenological way as the electromagnetic extension
of the hydrodynamic equations of ordinary fluids, where the main approximation
is to neglect the displacement current.
In the standard nonrelativistic form the MHD equations consist of the
basic conservation laws of mass, momentum and energy together with the
induction equation for the magnetic field. The equations are, written in SI
units as,
(14.1)
Where ‘ ’ is the mass density and is the fluid bulk velocity. The
equation of motion,
(14.2)
Where p is the gas pressure, is the magnetic field (the magnetic flux
density), is the current density, 0
is the vacuum permeability,,
and is the viscous stress tensor.
Self-Instructional
280 Material
The equation for the internal energy, which is usually written as an equation Magnetohydrodynamics
for the pressure p is given as,
(14.3)
NOTES
Where Q comprises the effects of heating and cooling as well as thermal
conduction and γ is the adiabaticity coefficient. Equation (14.3) implies that the
equation of state of the ideal ionized gas as,
Which is well satisfied for most dilute plasmas, T is the temperature, mi the
ion mass, kB the Boltzmann constant, and the factor ‘2’ arises because ions and
electrons contribute equally.
The induction equation, or Faraday’s law is,
(14.4)
Inserting Ohm’s law,
Where is the electrical resistivity (the magnetic diffusivity). The magnetic

field is coupled to the fluid by the Lorentz force in the equation of
motion in Equation (14.2).
In total the MHD equations thus consist of two vector and two
scalar partial differential equations (or eight scalar equations) that are to be
solved simultaneously, either analytically or numerically.
Basic MHD Parameters
When the resistivity is negligible, η = 0, which is called ideal MHD, Equation
(14.4) implies that the magnetic field is tightly coupled to the fluid, it is said to
be frozen into the fluid. The relative strength of resistivity is measured by a
dimensionless number, the magnetic Reynolds number ‘Rm’ as,
Where U is the characteristic amplitude of the fluid velocity and the

dominating length scale. The magnetic Reynolds number can be thought of as
a typical ratio of the advective and diffusive terms in the induction Equation
(14.4). Only in the case of superconductors is the resistivity identically zero.
Self-Instructional
Material 281
Magnetohydrodynamics Ideal MHD Equations
The ideal MHD equations consist of the continuity equation, the Cauchy
momentum equation, Ampere’s Law for neglecting displacement current, and
NOTES a temperature evolution equation. As with any fluid description to a kinetic
system, a closure approximation must be applied to highest moment of the
particle distribution equation. This is often accomplished with approximations to
the heat flux through a condition of adiabaticity or isothermality.
The main quantities which characterize the electrically conducting fluid are
the bulk plasma velocity field v, the current density J, the mass density ‘ ’, and
the plasma pressure p. The flowing electric charge in the plasma is the source
of a magnetic field B and electric field E. All quantities generally vary with
time t. Vector operator notation will be used, in particular is gradient, ‘ ’
is divergence, and ‘ ×’ is curl.
The mass continuity equation is,
The Cauchy momentum equation is,
The Lorentz force term J × B can be expanded using Ampere’s law and
the vector calculus identity,
This gives,
Where the first term on the right hand side is the magnetic tension force
and the second term is the magnetic pressure force. The ideal Ohm’s law for
a plasma is given by,
Faraday’s law is,
The low-frequency Ampere’s law neglects displacement current and is

given by,
Self-Instructional
282 Material
The magnetic divergence constraint is, Magnetohydrodynamics
The energy equation is given by,

NOTES
Where is the ratio of specific heats for an adiabatic equation of

state. This energy equation is, of course, only applicable in the absence of
shocks or heat conduction as it assumes that the entropy of a fluid element does
not change.
Applicability of Ideal MHD to Plasmas
Ideal MHD is only strictly applicable when:
1. The plasma is strongly collisional, so that the time scale of collisions is
shorter than the other characteristic times in the system, and the particle
distributions are therefore close to Maxwellian.
2. The resistivity due to these collisions is small. In particular, the typical
magnetic diffusion times over any scale length present in the system must
be longer than any time scale of interest.
3. Interest in length scales much longer than the ion skin depth and Larmor
radius perpendicular to the field, long enough along the field to ignore
Landau damping, and time scales much longer than the ion gyration time
(system is smooth and slowly evolving).
In an imperfectly conducting fluid the magnetic field can generally move through
the fluid following a diffusion law with the resistivity of the plasma serving as a
diffusion constant. This means that solutions to the ideal MHD equations are
only applicable for a limited time for a region of a given size before diffusion
becomes too important to ignore. One can estimate the diffusion time across a
solar active region (from collisional resistivity) to be hundreds to thousands of
years, much longer than the actual lifetime of a sunspot—so it would seem
reasonable to ignore the resistivity. By contrast, a meter-sized volume of seawater
has a magnetic diffusion time measured in milliseconds.
Magnetohydrodynamic Waves
The wave modes derived using MHD plasma theory are called
magnetohydrodynamic waves or MHD waves. In general there are following
three MHD wave modes:
• Pure (or Oblique) Alfvén Wave
• Slow MHD Wave
• Fast MHD Wave
Self-Instructional
Material 283
Magnetohydrodynamics All these waves have constant phase velocities for all frequencies, and hence
there is no dispersion. At the limits when the angle between the wave propagation
vector k and magnetic field B is either 0 (180) or 90 degrees, the wave modes
are called, Sound wave, Alfvén wave and Magnetosonic wave.
NOTES
Convection is the process whereby energy is transported by bulk fluid motions.
It is driven by buoyancy. Since there is approximate horizontal pressure balance
(no large scale sideways motions), warm fluid is less dense and buoyant, while
cool fluid is denser and is pulled down by gravity. In a stratified system, where
there is a large difference in density between the top and bottom of the convecting
layer, there is asymmetry between the upward and downward motions because
of mass conservation. Density decreases with increasing height, so rising fluid
must diverge and must turn over within a density scale height, the distance over
which the density decreases by a factor of e = 2.72. Similarly, descending fluid
must converge. The divergence of rising fluid tends to smooth out any fluctuations
and turbulence. The convergence of descending fluid tends to enhance fluctuations
and turbulence.
Magneto-convection is convection in an ionized plasma in the presence
of magnetic fields. If the Lorentz force exerted by the magnetic field is weaker
than the force exerted by the moving plasma (turbulent pressure), then the
convective motions twist and stretch the magnetic field, which in a turbulent flow
increases its strength (dynamo action). If the Lorentz forces are stronger than
the turbulent pressure forces, then the magnetic field channels the plasma motions
along the field direction and inhibits the convection. In a stratified medium, the
diverging upflows sweep the magnetic field into the converging, turbulent
downflow lanes (Weiss 1966; Hurlburt & Toomre 1988). When strong magnetic
flux threads through a horizontal convective layer, it tends to get concentrated
in strong patches, with convection proceeding relatively unencumbered outside
the patches in a phenomenon known as flux separation (Tao et al. 1998).
14.2.2 Pinch Effect
A pinch, also referred as ‘Bennett pinch’ (named after Willard Harrison Bennett),
‘electromagnetic pinch’, ‘magnetic pinch’, the ‘pinch effect’ or ‘plasma pinch’,
is the compression of an electrically conducting filament by magnetic forces. The
conductor is usually a plasma, but could also be a solid or liquid metal. In a z-
pinch, the current is axial (in the z-direction in a cylindrical coordinate system)
and the magnetic field azimuthal; in a -pinch or theta-pinch, the current is
azimuthal (in the theta direction in cylindrical coordinates) and the magnetic field
is axial.
Pinches occur naturally in electrical discharges, such as lightning bolts, the
aurora, current sheets, and solar flares.
Self-Instructional
284 Material
A pinch is the compression of an electrically conducting filament by Magnetohydrodynamics
magnetic forces. The conductor is usually a plasma, but could also be a solid
or liquid metal. Pinches were the first type of device used for controlled nuclear
fusion.
NOTES
Pinches exist in nature and can be produced in laboratories. Pinches differ
in their geometry and operating forces. These include the following:
Uncontrolled: When the electric current moves in large amounts (e.g., lightning,
arcs, sparks, discharges) then a magnetic force can pull together plasma. This
can be insufficient for fusion.
Sheet Pinch: An astrophysical effect, this arises from vast sheets of charge
particles.
Z-Pinch: The current runs down the axis (or walls) of the cylinder while the
magnetic field is azimuthal.
Theta Pinch or -Pinch: The magnetic field runs down the axis of the cylinder,
while the electric field is in the azimuthal direction (also called a thetatron).
Screw Pinch: A combination of a Z-pinch and theta pinch (also called a stabilized
Z-pinch, or θ-Z pinch).
Reversed Field Pinch: This is an attempt to do a Z-pinch inside an endless
loop. The plasma has an internal magnetic field. As you move out from the
center of this ring, the magnetic field reverses direction. Also called a toroidal
pinch.
Inverse Pinch: An early fusion concept, this device consisted of a rod
surrounded by plasma. Current traveled through the plasma and returned along
the center rod. This geometry was slightly different than a Z-pinch in that the
conductor was in the center, not the sides.
Pinches may become unstable. They radiate energy as light across the
whole electromagnetic spectrum including radio waves, X-rays, gamma rays,
synchrotron radiation, and visible light. They also produce neutrons, as a product
of fusion.
Pinch effect name is given to manifestations of the magnetic self-attraction
of parallel electric currents having the same direction. The effect at modest
current levels of a few amperes can usually be neglected, but when current
levels approach a million amperes, such as they occur in electrochemistry, then
the effect can be damaging and must be taken into account by electrical engineers.
The pinch effect in a gas discharge has been the subject of intensive study, since
it presents a possible way of achieving the magnetic confinement of a hot
plasma (a highly ionized gas) necessary for the successful operation of a
thermonuclear or fusion reactor.
The law of attraction which describes the interaction between parallel
electric currents was discovered by A. M. Ampère in1820. For a cylindrical
Self-Instructional
Material 285
Magnetohydrodynamics wire of radius ‘r’ meters carrying a total surface current of ‘I’ amperes, it
manifests itself as an inward pressure on the surface (Refer Figure (14.1)) given
by I2/2 × 107πr2 pascals. For the electric currents of normal experience, this
force is small and passes unnoticed, but it is significant that the pressure increases
NOTES with the square of the current, I2.
Fig. 14.1 Pinch Pressure on a Current-Carrying Conductor
There are a number of ways in which the magnetic field of a fusion

reactor can be arranged around the plasma to hold it together, and one of these
methods is the pinch effect. A fusion reactor using this type of confinement
would ideally be a toroidal tube in which the confined plasma would carry a
large electric current induced in it by magnetic induction from a transformer core
passing through the major axis of the torus. The current would have the double
function of ohmic heating the plasma and compressing the plasma toward the
center of the tube.
Characteristically, as can be shown by high-speed photography, the pinch
forms at the inner surface of a discharge tube wall and contracts radially inward,
forming an intense line, the pinch, on the axis; the pinch rebounds slightly; the
contracted discharge rapidly develops necks and kinks; and in a few microseconds
all structure is lost in an apparently turbulent glowing gas which fills the tube.
Thus, the pinch turns out to be unstable, and plasma confinement is soon lost
by contact with the wall. The cause of the instability is easily seen qualitatively.
The pinch confinement can be described as being caused by the magnetic field
lines encircling the pinch which are stretched longitudinally but which are in
compression transversely (Refer Figure (14.2)).For a uniform cylindrical pinch,
the magnetic pinch pressure is everywhere equal to the outward plasma pressure,
but at a neck or on the inward side of a kink, the magnetic field lines crowd
together, creating a higher magnetic pressure than the outward gas pressure.
Consequently, the neck contracts still further, the kink cuts in on the concave
side and bulges out on the convex side, and both perturbations grow. The
instability has a disastrous effect on the confinement time.
Self-Instructional
286 Material
NOTES
Fig. 14.2 Instability
The term theta pinch has come into wide usage to denote an important
plasma confinement system which relies on the repulsion of oppositely directed
currents and which is thus not in accord with the original definition of the pinch
effect (self-attraction of currents in the same direction). Plasma confinement
systems based on the original pinch effect are known as Z-pinches.
In plasma physics, waves in plasmas are an interconnected set of particles and
fields which propagate in a periodically repeating fashion. A plasma is a quasi-
neutral, electrically conductive fluid. In the simplest case, it is composed of
electrons and a single species of positive ions, but it may also contain multiple
ion species including negative ions as well as neutral particles. Due to its electrical
conductivity, a plasma couples to electric and magnetic fields.
Waves in plasmas can be classified as electromagnetic or electrostatic
according to whether or not there is an oscillating magnetic field. Applying
Faraday’s law of induction to plane waves, we find , implying that
an electrostatic wave must be purely longitudinal. An electromagnetic wave, in
contrast, must have a transverse component, but may also be partially longitudinal.
Waves can be further classified by the oscillating species. In most plasmas
of interest, the electron temperature is comparable to or larger than the ion
temperature. This fact, coupled with the much smaller mass of the electron,
implies that the electrons move much faster than the ions. An electron mode
depends on the mass of the electrons, but the ions may be assumed to be
infinitely massive, i.e., stationary. An ion mode depends on the ion mass, but the
electrons are assumed to be massless and to redistribute themselves
instantaneously according to the Boltzmann relation.
The various modes can also be classified according to whether they
propagate in an unmagnetized plasma or parallel, perpendicular, or oblique to
the stationary magnetic field. Finally, for perpendicular electromagnetic electron
waves, the perturbed electric field can be parallel or perpendicular to the stationary
magnetic field.
Self-Instructional
Material 287
Magnetohydrodynamics The stability of a plasma is an important consideration in the study of
plasma physics. When a system containing a plasma is at equilibrium, it is
possible for certain parts of the plasma to be disturbed by small perturbative
forces acting on it. The stability of the system determines if the perturbations will
NOTES grow, oscillate, or be damped out.
In many cases, a plasma can be treated as a fluid and its stability analyzed
with magnetohydrodynamics (MHD). MHD theory is the simplest representation
of a plasma, so MHD stability is a necessity for stable devices to be used for
nuclear fusion, specifically magnetic fusion energy. There are, however, other
types of instabilities, such as velocity-space instabilities in magnetic mirrors and
systems with beams. There are also rare cases of systems, for example the
field-reversed configuration, predicted by MHD to be unstable, but which are
observed to be stable, probably due to kinetic effects.
Plasma Instabilities: Plasma instabilities can be divided into following two
general groups:
1. Hydrodynamic Instabilities
2. Kinetic Instabilities
Plasma instabilities are also categorised into different modes, such as with reference
to a particle beam.
Check Your Progress

1. Explain the term magnetohydrodynamics.
2. What is the fundamental concept behind magnetohydrodynamics.
3. What is plasma?
4. Give the standard nonrelativistic form the MHD equations.
5. What is ideal MHD equation?
6. Explain the mass continuity equation and the Cauchy momentum equation.
7. What are magnetohydrodynamic waves?
8. Define magneto-convection.
9. Explain pinch effect.
10. What are plasma waves?

QUESTIONS
1. Magnetohydrodynamics or MHD is also termed as magneto-fluid dynamics

or hydro-magnetics. It is the study of the magnetic properties and behaviour
of electrically conducting fluids. Examples of such magneto-fluids include
plasmas, liquid metals, salt water, and electrolytes. The word
‘Magneto-Hydro-Dynamics (MHD)’ is derived from ‘magneto-’ meaning
Self-Instructional
288 Material
‘magnetic field’, ‘hydro-’ meaning ‘water’, and ‘dynamics’ meaning Magnetohydrodynamics
‘movement’.
2. The fundamental concept behind magnetohydrodynamics or MHD is that
magnetic fields can induce currents in a moving conductive fluid, which in
NOTES
turn polarizes the fluid and reciprocally changes the magnetic field itself.
of the behaviour of a plasma (q.v.), i.e., it is the physical-mathematical
framework that concerns the dynamics of magnetic fields in electrically
conducting fluids, for example in plasmas and liquid metals.
3. A plasma can be defined in terms of its constituents, using equations to
describe the behaviour of the electrons, ions, neutral particles, etc.
4. In the standard nonrelativistic form the MHD equations consist of the basic
conservation laws of mass, momentum and energy together with the induction
equation for the magnetic field. The equations are, written in SI units as,
Where ‘ ’ is the mass density and is the fluid bulk velocity..

5. The ideal MHD equations consist of the continuity equation, the Cauchy
momentum equation, Ampere’s Law for neglecting displacement current,
and a temperature evolution equation. This is often accomplished with
approximations to the heat flux through a condition of adiabaticity or
isothermality.
6. The mass continuity equation is,
The Cauchy momentum equation is,
7. The wave modes derived using MHD plasma theory are called
magnetohydrodynamic waves or MHD waves. In general there are following
three MHD wave modes:
• Pure (or Oblique) Alfvén Wave
• Slow MHD Wave
• Fast MHD Wave
All these waves have constant phase velocities for all frequencies, and hence
there is no dispersion.
8. Magneto-convection is convection in an ionized plasma in the presence of
magnetic fields. If the Lorentz force exerted by the magnetic field is weaker
Self-Instructional
Material 289
Magnetohydrodynamics than the force exerted by the moving plasma (turbulent pressure), then the
convective motions twist and stretch the magnetic field, which in a turbulent
flow increases its strength (dynamo action). If the Lorentz forces are stronger
than the turbulent pressure forces, then the magnetic field channels the plasma
NOTES motions along the field direction and inhibits the convection.
9. A pinch, also referred as ‘Bennett pinch’ (named after Willard Harrison
Bennett), ‘electromagnetic pinch’, ‘magnetic pinch’, the ‘pinch effect’ or
‘plasma pinch’, is the compression of an electrically conducting filament by
magnetic forces. The conductor is usually a plasma, but could also be a
solid or liquid metal. In a z-pinch, the current is axial (in the z-direction in a
cylindrical coordinate system) and the magnetic field azimuthal; in a -pinch
or theta-pinch, the current is azimuthal (in the theta direction in cylindrical
coordinates) and the magnetic field is axial.
10. In plasma physics, waves in plasmas are an interconnected set of particles
and fields which propagate in a periodically repeating fashion. A plasma is a
quasi-neutral, electrically conductive fluid. In the simplest case, it is composed
of electrons and a single species of positive ions, but it may also contain
multiple ion species including negative ions as well as neutral particles. Due
to its electrical conductivity, a plasma couples to electric and magnetic fields.
14.4 SUMMARY
Magnetohydrodynamics or MHD is also termed as magneto-fluid dynamics

or hydro-magnetics. It is the study of the magnetic properties and behaviour
of electrically conducting fluids. Examples of such magneto-fluids include
plasmas, liquid metals, salt water, and electrolytes.
The word ‘Magneto-Hydro-Dynamics (MHD)’ is derived from ‘magneto-
’ meaning ‘magnetic field’, ‘hydro-’ meaning ‘water’, and ‘dynamics’
meaning ‘movement’.
The field of MHD was initiated by Swedish Physicist Hannes Alfvén, for
which he received the Nobel Prize in Physics in 1970 for fundamental work
and discoveries in magnetohydrodynamics with fruitful applications in different
parts of plasma physics.
The fundamental concept behind MHD is that magnetic fields can induce
currents in a moving conductive fluid, which in turn polarizes the fluid and
reciprocally changes the magnetic field itself. The set of equations that
describe MHD are a combination of the Navier–Stokes equations of fluid
dynamics and Maxwell’s equations of electromagnetism.
of the behaviour of a plasma (q.v.), i.e., it is the physical-mathematical
framework that concerns the dynamics of magnetic fields in electrically
conducting fluids, for example in plasmas and liquid metals.
Self-Instructional
290 Material
A plasma can be defined in terms of its constituents, using equations to Magnetohydrodynamics
describe the behaviour of the electrons, ions, neutral particles, etc.

The inclusion of magnetic effects gives rise to a number of quantities that
have counterparts in ordinary fluid mechanics, for example, magnetic
NOTES
viscosity, pressure, Reynolds number, and diffusion.
The simplest form of MHD, specifically ‘Ideal MHD’, assumes that the
fluid has so little resistivity that it can be treated as a perfect conductor. This
is the limit of infinite magnetic Reynolds number.
In ideal MHD, Lenz’s law states that the fluid is in a sense tied to the magnetic
field lines.
In the standard nonrelativistic form the MHD equations consist of the basic
conservation laws of mass, momentum and energy together with the induction
equation for the magnetic field. The equations are, written in SI units as,
Where ‘ ’ is the mass density and is the fluid bulk velocity..

The equation of motion,
Where p is the gas pressure, is the magnetic field (the magnetic flux
density), is the current density, m0 is the vacuum

permeability, and s is the viscous stress tensor.
The relative strength of resistivity is measured by a dimensionless number,
the magnetic Reynolds number ‘Rm’ as,
Where U is the characteristic amplitude of the fluid velocity and the

dominating length scale.
The ideal MHD equations consist of the continuity equation, the Cauchy
momentum equation, Ampere’s Law for neglecting displacement current,
and a temperature evolution equation.
The plasma is strongly collisional, so that the time scale of collisions is shorter
than the other characteristic times in the system, and the particle distributions
are therefore close to Maxwellian.
In an imperfectly conducting fluid the magnetic field can generally move
through the fluid following a diffusion law with the resistivity of the plasma
serving as a diffusion constant.
The wave modes derived using MHD plasma theory are called
magnetohydrodynamic waves or MHD waves. In general there are three Self-Instructional
Material 291
Magnetohydrodynamics MHD wave modes, Pure (or Oblique) Alfvén wave, Slow MHD wave and
Fast MHD wave.
Magneto-convection is convection in an ionized plasma in the presence of
magnetic fields.
NOTES
If the Lorentz force exerted by the magnetic field is weaker than the force
exerted by the moving plasma (turbulent pressure), then the convective
motions twist and stretch the magnetic field, which in a turbulent flow
increases its strength (dynamo action).
If the Lorentz forces are stronger than the turbulent pressure forces, then
the magnetic field channels the plasma motions along the field direction and
inhibits the convection.
A pinch, also referred as ‘Bennett pinch’ (named after Willard Harrison
Bennett), ‘electromagnetic pinch’, ‘magnetic pinch’, the ‘pinch effect’ or
‘plasma pinch’, is the compression of an electrically conducting filament by
magnetic forces. The conductor is usually a plasma, but could also be a
solid or liquid metal.
In a z-pinch, the current is axial (in the z-direction in a cylindrical coordinate
system) and the magnetic field azimuthal; in a -pinch or theta-pinch, the
current is azimuthal (in the theta direction in cylindrical coordinates) and the
magnetic field is axial.
Pinches occur naturally in electrical discharges, such as lightning bolts, the
aurora, current sheets, and solar flares.
A pinch is the compression of an electrically conducting filament by magnetic
forces. The conductor is usually a plasma, but could also be a solid or liquid
metal. Pinches were the first type of device used for controlled nuclear fusion.
Pinches may become unstable. They radiate energy as light across the whole
electromagnetic spectrum including radio waves, X-rays, gamma rays,
synchrotron radiation, and visible light. They also produce neutrons, as a
product of fusion.
In plasma physics, waves in plasmas are an interconnected set of particles
and fields which propagate in a periodically repeating fashion.
A plasma is a quasi-neutral, electrically conductive fluid. In the simplest
case, it is composed of electrons and a single species of positive ions, but it
may also contain multiple ion species including negative ions as well as neutral
particles. Due to its electrical conductivity, a plasma couples to electric and
magnetic fields.
Waves in plasmas can be classified as electromagnetic or electrostatic
according to whether or not there is an oscillating magnetic field.
An electron mode depends on the mass of the electrons, but the ions may
be assumed to be infinitely massive, i.e., stationary.
An ion mode depends on the ion mass, but the electrons are assumed to be
massless and to redistribute themselves instantaneously according to the
Self-Instructional Boltzmann relation.
292 Material
14.5 KEY WORDS
Magnetohydrodynamics or MHD: It is also termed as magneto-fluid
dynamics or hydro-magnetics. It is the study of the magnetic properties and NOTES
behaviour of electrically conducting fluids.
Magneto-convection: It is convection in an ionized plasma in the presence
of magnetic fields.
Pinch: A pinch is the compression of an electrically conducting filament by
magnetic forces.
Z-Pinch: The current runs down the axis (or walls) of the cylinder while the
magnetic field is azimuthal.
Theta Pinch or -Pinch: The magnetic field runs down the axis of the
cylinder, while the electric field is in the azimuthal direction (also called a
thetatron).
Screw Pinch: A combination of a Z-pinch and theta pinch (also called a
stabilized Z-pinch, or -Z pinch).

EXERCISES

1. Define the term magnetohydrodynamics.
2. Explain the principle of magnetohydrodynamics.
3. What is ideal magnetohydrodynamics equation?
4. Define magnetic confinement.
5. What is pinch effect? Why it is named so?
6. Explain the instabilities in magnetohydrodynamics.
7. What are plasma waves?
1. Briefly discuss the fundamental concepts and equations for
magnetohydrodynamics.
2. Explain the field where magnetohydrodynamics is used.
3. Discuss the different magnetohydrodynamics equations and ideal
magnetohydrodynamics equations.
4. Expalin magneto-convection with reference to magnetohydrodynamics.
5. Briefly explain pinch effect and its various types.
6. Discuss instabilities issues in magnetohydrodynamics and plasma waves.
Self-Instructional
Material 293

Sons.
Inc.
House Pvt. Ltd.
Self-Instructional
294 Material
:woleb denoitnem sYou
a egaare
p reinstructed
u ot dethe
tcurcover
tsni erpage
oC eht fothe
ezifont
s tnosize
f ehof
t esthe
aerCourse
cnI .1 Name.
13 MM

.egaP revoC e2.ht nuse
i rethe
daefollowing
f eht esin
u the
.2 Cover Page.
YTISREVINUALAGAPPA
APPAGALAUNIVERSITY
M.Sc. [Physics]

elcyC drihT eht ni )46.3:APGC( CA[Accredited
AN yb edarGwith
’+A’’A+’
htiwGrade
detidby
ercNAAC
taC Graded
KARAIKUDI
K – 630 003
345 23 NOITACUDE ECNATSIDDIRECTORATE
FO ETAROTCEOF
II - Semester
M.Sc. [Physics]
345 23
oitnem sYou
a egaare
p reinstructed
u ot dethe
tcurcover
tsni erpage
oC eht fothe
ezifont
s tnosize
f ehof
t esthe
aerCourse
cnI .1 Name.
egaP revoC e2.ht nuse
i rethe
daefollowing
f eht esin
u the
.2 Cover Page.
ISREVINUALAGAPPA
APPAGALAUNIVERSITY
drihT eht ni )46.3:APGC( CA[Accredited
AN yb edarGwith
’+A’’A+’
htiwGrade
detidby
ercNAAC
taC Graded
KARAIKUDI
K – 630 003
M.Sc. [Physics]
ITACUDE ECNATSIDDIRECTORATE
FO ETAROTCEOF
II - Semester

PG M.sc. Physics 345 23 Electromagnetic Theory MSC Physics

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

You might also like

PG M.sc. Physics 345 23 Electromagnetic Theory MSC Physics

Uploaded by

Document Information

Original Title

Copyright

Available Formats

Share this document

Share or Embed Document

Sharing Options

Did you find this document useful?

Is this content inappropriate?

Copyright:

Available Formats

PG M.sc. Physics 345 23 Electromagnetic Theory MSC Physics

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

:woleb denoitnem sYou

Directorate of Distance Education

"The copyright shall be vested with Alagappa University"

Vikas® is the registered trademark of Vikas® Publishing House Pvt. Ltd.

Phone: 0120-4078900 Fax: 0120-4078999

Website: www.vikaspublishing.com Email: helpline@vikaspublishing.com

BOLCK I: ELECTRO AND MAGNETOSTATICS MAXWELL’S

BOLCK II: REFLECTION AND REFRACTION OF ELECTRO-

BOLCK III: DISPERSION AND SCATTERING OF EM WAVES

BLOCK I: ELECTRO AND MAGNETOSTATICS MAXWELL’S

BLOCK II: REFLECTION AND REFRACTION OF ELECTRO-MAGNETIC WAVES

BLOCK III: DISPERSION AND SCATTERING OF EM WAVES

UNIT 1 ELECTRO AND

After going through this unit, you will be able to:

Fig. 2.1 Coulomb’s Force

Removing the proportionality,

Where, = Permittivity in free space =

𝑄1 𝑄2 (𝑥2 − 𝑥1 )𝑎𝑥⃗ + (𝑦2 − 𝑦1 )𝑎𝑦⃗

Fig. 1.2 Coulomb's Force on Charges at a Distance

Similarly, for force exerted by charge Q2 on Q1 is given by,

𝐹21⃗ = −𝐹12⃗ ∵ 𝑎𝑅12⃗ = −𝑎𝑅21⃗

Along a line, charge, 𝑄 = 𝜌𝐿 . 𝑑𝑙⃗

On a surface, charge, 𝑄 = 𝜌𝑆 . 𝑑𝑠⃗

Inside a volume, charge, 𝑄 = 𝜌𝑉 . 𝑑𝑣

Where, 𝜌𝐿 = line charge density (𝐶/𝑚)

Electric Field Intensity Due to a Line Charge

Fig. 1.3 Charge Distribution Due to Line Charge

There are two conditions associated with . They are,

Fig. 1.4 Ring of Charge

When R 0, ring represents a point charge, therefore,

Fig. 1.5 Electric Field Due to a Circularly Charged Disc

From Figure (1.5),

1 𝜌𝑆 . (2𝜋𝑟) (𝑎 sec 2 𝜃 𝑑𝜃)

1.2.1 Electric Flux Density

Consider a point charge, Q located at point P as shown in Figure (1.6).

Fig. 1.6 Electric Flux Density 𝐷⃗ Due to a Point Charge

Assuming that 𝐷⃗ is normal to the Gaussian surface,

𝑄 = 𝜌𝐿 . 𝑙 = 𝐷⃗ . 𝑑𝑆⃗ = 𝐷𝜌 . 𝑎𝜌⃗ 𝑑𝑆⃗

Fig. 1.7 Electric Flux Density 𝐷⃗ Due to Infinite Line Charge

(c) Determining 𝐷⃗ due to Charged Sphere

Fig. 1.8 Electric Flux Density 𝐷⃗ Due to Charged Sphere

Consider a sphere of radius, r. Electric flux density, 𝐷⃗ may either be inside

Electric field, 𝐸⃗ can be obtained by three ways.

𝑑𝑊⃗ = −𝐹⃗ . 𝑑𝑙⃗ = −𝑄 𝐸⃗ . 𝑑𝑙⃗

If A is at a distance of rA from origin and B is at a distance of rB from origin,

If rB is moved to infinity, then VB 0, then

Fig. 1.9 Voltage Around a Loop

Therefore, applying Stokes's theorem to above closed line integral expression,

1.2.5 Relation between 𝐸⃗ and V

Differentiating the above expression,

Substituting for 𝐸⃗ in Maxwell’s second equations,

Fig. 1.10 Electric Dipole

Fig. 1.11 Potential Due to an Electric Dipole

For a far-field analysis, i.e., assuming that point P is at a faraway distance,

The scalar potential is inversely proportional to the square of the distance

Magnetic Flux Density

Magnetic flux density, is given as,

Different current density are produced based on the nature of movement of