A Brief Note on Social Motives

This note was prepared by Associate Professor John J. Gabarro with the assistance of Dr.
Wallance Wormley. The generalizations presented in this note are based primarily on the
work of David McClelland, David Winter and their colleagues as well as the scoring protocols
used to measure the three needs.

Implicit in the concept of motivation is the idea of “motives,” i.e., the underlying
reasons, needs, or wants that impel behavior. Within the past thirty years psychologists have
done a considerable amount of research on the different motives that influence behavior. This
research suggests that most people share many of the same “needs” or motives, but that the
strength of individual needs varies for different people. For some people, certain needs are
stronger than they are for others. The purpose of this brief note is to describe three motives
which have particular relevance to managers and to the process of managing: the need for
achievement; the need for power; and the need for affiliation.

These three motives have been studied extensively by David McClelland and his
associates and they are called the social motives because they come into play most strongly in
social interactions. These motives are also important determinants of what people prefer
doing, what kind of work they find challenging and satisfying, and how effectively they are
likely to be in different work settings and tasks. We will briefly describe the three social
motives in terms of the predispositions and behaviors which characterize each of them. The
strength of these motives can be measured by psychologists using projective tests. However,
these motives can also be inferred from thoughts, concerns, and actions of individuals.
Indeed, the stronger the motive, the more consistent and predictable a person’s behavior is
likely to be.

Need for Achievement

A person with a strong need for achievement is emotionally tuned to setting and
meeting goals. For such a person, the process of defining and attaining goals and competing
with others is, in and of itself, satisfying. Achieving unique results, and reaching self-initiated
standards, are major sources of reward for people within a high need for achievement.

People with a high need for achievement can be characterized as exhibiting the
following behaviors and concerns:

 meeting or surpassing self imposed goals or standards of excellence.

 choosing and defining goals so that they are realistically attainable. [Experiments
have shown that people with a high need for achievement are more apt to take
calculated but moderate risks than the population as a whole; i.e., they choose
goals and behaviors which are challenging but realistic and attainable]1

 seeking feedback about the efficacy of their actions. [People high in need for
achievement are concerned about “how well” they are doing and how they

1
J.W. Atkinson, An Introduction to Motivation (Princeton, Van Nostrand, 1964).

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 compare with others, particularly in terms of how they can modify their actions
to better meet their goals.]

 out-performing others, meeting or exceeding targets.

 taking actions which can be identified as their own; taking personal

responsibility for their actions.

 advancing their own career.

 doing things in an innovative or creative manner; performing unique

accomplishments.

Need for Power

A person with a high need for power has a strong drive to influence others. This need
to impact on others usually pervades both the work and the personal spheres of the person’s
life. A person with a high need for power is emotionally tuned to gaining the means of
influence within his or her environment, maintaining control, gaining status, and avoiding
positions of weakness or humiliation. In some people, the need for power manifests itself as a
strong desire to teach, coach or inspire others. People with a high need for power also show a
strong concern with “organizing things’ and getting organizations or groups to perform more
effectively. It is safe to say that many people who have a high need for power actively enjoy
the process of leading others.

Research on the power motive shows that it can manifest itself in two different ways
depending upon the person’s personality and the person’s values about the use of power. 2

1. Personalized Power: In some people the need for power is highly “personalized”
in that it focuses on attaining personal dominance and enhancing one’s sense of
aggrandizement. McClelland describes the characteristics of these people in the
following terms; “Life tends to be seen as a zero sum game” in which “if I win,
you lose” or “If I lose you win.” The imagery is that of the “law of the jungle” in
which the strongest survive by destroying their adversaries. 3 McClelland
describes the personalized “face” of power as being psychologically primitive “in
the sense that the strategies employed are adopted early in life, before the child is
sufficiently socialized to learn more subtle techniques of influence” or acquire
values which mediate the use of power. 4

2. Socialized Power: In contrast, others experience a need for power that is

“socialize” in that it focuses on exercising influence for the benefits of others
through groups or other organized processes. People with a high need for power of
this kind tend to join more organizations and are more apt to become officers in
them. Studies suggest that they also are more apt to join in organized informal
sports, even as adults. McClelland characterizes this type of power motive as “a
concern for group goals, for finding those goals which will move men, for helping
2
D.C. McClelland, “The Two Faces of Power,” Journal of International Affairs, 24, no. 1 (1970)
3
ibid., p. 435.
4
ibid., p. 439.

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 the group to formulate them, for taking some initiative in providing members of
the group with the means of achieving such goals, and for giving group members
the feelings of strength and competence they need to work hard for such goals.” 5

McClelland’s studies also suggest that individuals with a socialized need for power
experience greater ambivalence about holding power than individuals with highly
personalized power needs and wield it more cautiously. 6 Studies by others suggest that
managers with socialized power needs tend to be more effective and successful than those
with personalized power needs. 7

Thus the particular ways in which a high need for power manifests itself can vary
greatly depending upon whether its focus is personalized or socialized. In general, however,
people with a high need for power can be characterized by the following behaviors and
concerns:

 having impact or influence on others.

 taking forceful and strong actions which affect others.

 being interested in status, position and influence (of others as well as oneself).

 giving advice, assistance, support, or help to others.

 being predisposed to persuading or arguing with others.

 being sensitive to the interpersonal influence patterns of organizations or groups.

 impressing others or “the world at large.”

 being actively interested and involved in the “politics” of the organizations he or

she belongs to.

 controlling others by regulating their behavior or by gaining important

information.

Need for Affiliation

A person with a high need for affiliation is concerned with establishing, maintaining
or restoring positive emotional relationships with others. 8 Liking others, and being liked by
others are especially important concerns to a person with a strong affiliation need, as is
gaining the approval or affection of others. For these reasons, activities which are affiliative
in nature, such as “bull sessions,” small talk and working together, are especially rewarding

5
ibid., p. 439.
6
ibid., p. 436.
7
D.W. Andrews, “The Achievement Motive in Two Types of Organizations” (Harvard University); see also H.A.
Wainer and I.M. Rubin, “Motivation of Research and Development Entrepreneurs: Determinants of Company
Success” 53 No. 3 (1969).
8
D. A. Kolh, I.M. Rubin, J.M. McIntyre, Organizational Psychology: An Experiential Approach (Englewood Cliffs,
Prentice Hall, 1971) pp. 68-69.

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to such a person. 9 Being friendly and being concerned with the well being of others also
characterize a high need for affiliation.

In general terms, the following concerns and behavior are characteristic of a high need
for affiliation:

 being with someone else (others) rather than being alone.

 being like and accepted by others (approval-seeking).

 enjoying task situations where he or she can demonstrate performance by

working with others in a cooperative atmosphere.

 establishing, maintaining, or restoring a warm, close, friendly relationship.

 enjoying the interpersonal aspects of his or her job more than the task-related
aspects.

 interacting with others frequently, e.g., visiting, talking, telephoning, etc.

 being predisposed to participating in convivial and friendly social situations

(e.g., club reunions, bull sessions, parties, etc.)

 being upset over the disruption of positive interpersonal relations; expressing

concern over these disruptions.

Generalizations about Motive Patterns of Managers

In any given type of managerial job, successful managers can be found who possess
very different motive patterns. Thus it would be dangerous to make generalizations such as
“only managers with a high need for achievement are successful in A type jobs, and only
managers with a high need for power are successful in B type jobs.” However, the research
that has been done on the motive patterns of managers does suggest that some patterns fit
certain managerial roles better than other patterns.

Need for Achievement. Researches have found a strong relationship between a high need for
achievement and success in entrepreneurial ventures. 10 Many of the characteristics of a high
need achievement person seem particularly well suited to starting new ventures (e.g., focus
on self-improvement, setting and meeting self-initiated goals, taking realistic risks, the desire
to take personal responsibility, and the ability to work independently). However, some of
these characteristics can also become liabilities unless they are balanced by moderate needs
for power and affiliation or by behavior which compensates for achievement motive
predispositions. 11 For example, managers with a high need for achievement often have
problems delegating to others because of their strong sense of personal responsibility and

9
ibid., p.67.
10
D.C. McClelland. The Achieving Society (Princeton, Van Nostrand, 1961).
11
Kolb, Rubin, and McIntyre (op. cit.) p. 82.

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their preference for autonomy. This inability to delegate sometimes prevents the
entrepreneur’s firm from growing beyond a “one man show.”

Need for Power. An increasing amount of research suggests that successful and effective
managers of large complex organizations (as compared to small entrepreneurial ventures)
tend to be characterized by a high need for power. 12 This should not be surprising given the
earlier description of the concerns and behavior characteristic of a high need for power (e.g.,
influencing others, giving advice, assistance, coaching, leading, etc.)

Need for Affiliation. Although some managerial jobs of an integrating nature require a
relatively high need for affiliation, considerable evidence suggests that managers with a high
need for affiliation (not balanced by at least moderate needs for power and achievement) tend
not to be effective except at lower supervisory levels. Some research suggests that these
managers are not able to confront difficult task and interpersonal issues because they fear
disrupting relationships. 13 Research does suggest, however, that managers with high needs
for power and achievement are more effective if they have at least moderate needs for
affiliation. This is because the affiliation motive is helpful in developing sensitively to the
social environment and in understanding other’s points of view.

Motive Patterns and Motivation

Understanding the motive patterns of organizational members can have a number of

implications for motivating people as well as for assigning people to tasks which fit their
needs. Doing this requires a good understanding of the people involved and of the tasks
which need to be performed. For example, research as well as common sense suggest that a
high need for achievement and at least a moderate need for affiliation are useful for many
selling jobs which require unsupervised travel and customer contact.

Similarly the way in which a manager organizes a group, rewards individual

members, and assigns or delegates responsibility can also influence which of the three
motives are “aroused.” For example, a manager who sets high standards, encourages
innovation, gives individual and organizational rewards, provides autonomy and stresses
realistic risk taking will create a climate conducive to achievement-oriented behavior. 14
Conversely, a manager who stresses informality, a relaxed atmosphere, avoids individual
punishment, avoids conflicts and creates friendly relationships, will create a climate which
arouses affiliative behavior.

Although other generalizations could be made about the implications of social

motives for motivation, the usefulness of these ideas is very contingent on understanding the
people involved and the nature of the tasks to be performed. Thus, in practice, these concepts
must be used within the context of a given situation, the jobs to be performed, and the people
available. 15

12
McClelland, “The Two Faces of Power.”
13
Kolb, Rubin, and McIntyre (op. cit.); D.A. Kolb, and R. Boyatzis. “On the Dynamics of the Helping Relationship,”
Journal of Applied Psychology, 1970.
14
R. Tagiuri, and G.H. Litwin eds., Organizational Climate (Boston, Harvard Business School Division of
Research, 1968).
15
ibid.

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 Bibliography
Atkinson, J. W. An Introduction to Motivation. Princeton: Van Nostrand, 1964,

Brown, R. Social Psychology. New York: The Free Press, 1965, Chapter 9 “The Achievement Motive.”

Kolb, D. A., Rubin, I.M., McIntyre. J.M., Organizational Psychology: An Experiential Approach. Englewood Cliffs:
Prentice Hall, 1971.

McClelland, D.C., The Achieving Society Princeton: Van Nostrand, 1961.

McClelland, D.C., “The Achievement Motivation Can Be Developed,” Harvard Business Review, vol. 43, 1965.

McClelland, D.C., Davis, W.N., Kalin, R., Wanner, E. The Drinking Man. New York: The Free Press, 1972.

McClelland, D.C., and Burnham, D.H., “Power as the Great Motivator,” Harvard Business Review, vol. 54, 1976.

McClelland, D.C., Power: The Inner Experience. New York: John Wiley, 1975.

Winter, D. G. the Power Motive. New York: The Free Press, 1973.