MODULE 2

Interpersonal Processes
and Behavior
Module Overview
The module discusses the effective management of people can improve a company’s
economic performance and where leadership is a key to influencing organizational behavior
and achieving organizational effectiveness. Significantly, entrepreneurs play a central role in
setting the ethical tone and moral values for the organization.
In this module, we will be learning all about the organization power and politics. To be
specific, the student is expected to learn the following:
1. what is power;
2. what are the three major types of influence;
3. what are the various types and bases of power;
4. how power is used ethically;
5. what are the approaches of attitude; and,
6. what is job satisfaction and its dimensions.

Module Outcomes
After reading this lesson, you should be able to understand and articulate answers to the
following:
1. explain the bases of power in organizational life;
2. recognize and account for the exercise of counterpower;
3. recognize and limit inappropriate or unethical political behavior;
4. create and maintain work environment; and,
5. develop committed workforce.

Lessons in the Module

This module covers the following:
Lesson 1: Organization Power and Politics
Lesson 2: Perception and Job Attitudes

MODULE 2: Lesson 1
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 Organizational Power
and Politics
Lesson Structure
MODULE NO. AND TITLE:
Module 2 - Interpersonal Processes and Behavior

LESSON NO. AND TITLE:

Lesson 1 - Organization Power and Politics

LEARNING OUTCOMES: The students will be able to:

1. define organizational power and politics;
2. differentiate the three major types of influence;
3. identify various types and bases of power; and,
4. appreciate how power is used ethically.

TIME FRAME:
This lesson will cover two (2) week.
Greetings everyone! Welcome to Lesson 1 of your Module 2 of the course, OA 111 -
Entrepreneurial Behavior and Competence which will cover two (2) weeks of self-paced
learning module. Have fun!

INTRODUCTION
Individuals have many forms of power to use in their work settings. Some of them are
interpersonal which is used in interactions with others. One of the earliest and most
influential theories of power comes from John French and betram Raven, who tried to
determine the sources of power of managers use to influence other people. Hence, politics
cannot and should not be eliminated from organizations. Managers can take a proactive
stance and manage the political behavior that inevitably occurs. Indeed, managing political
behavior at work is important.

ACTIVITY
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 To start, let us have a quick self-assessment. INSTRUCTION: Using your current or
former job experience, answer each of the following items by circling the response that most
suits your answer. In case of having no work experience, imagine as if you experience being
one.

Strongly Strongly
Disagree Agree
1. I always try to set a good example for other
1 2 3 4 5
employees.
2. My coworkers seem to respect me on the job. 1 2 3 4 5
3. Many employees view me as their informal leader at
1 2 3 4 5
work.
4. I know my job very well. 1 2 3 4 5
5. My skills and abilities help me a lot on this job. 1 2 3 4 5
6. I continually try to improve the way I do my job. 1 2 3 4 5
7. I have considerable authority in my job. 1 2 3 4 5
8. Decisions made at my level are critical to
1 2 3 4 5
organizational success.
9. Employees frequently ask me for guidance. 1 2 3 4 5
10. I am able to reward people at lower levels in the
1 2 3 4 5
organization.
11. I am responsible for evaluating those below me. 1 2 3 4 5
12. I have a say in who gets a bonus or pay raise. 1 2 3 4 5
13. I can punish employees at lower levels. 1 2 3 4 5
14. I check the work of lower-level employees. 1 2 3 4 5
15. My diligence helps to reduce the errors of others on
1 2 3 4 5
the job.

Source: https://opentextbc.ca/organizationalbehavioropenstax/chapter/limiting-the-influence-of-political-behavior/

ANALYSIS
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 Based on the given self-assessment activity, how does position and power in the
organization affects the organizational relationship such as employee-employer,
employee-employee, and superior-subordinate relationships.
Put your answers here: (Limit your answers of atleast 75 to atmost 100 words.)
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Is an organizational power a right or a privilege? Why? Cite illustrations.

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 ABSTRACTION
Let us start our discussion, please spend enough time undertanding the contents of this
lesson, you can use dictionary or any references you have to aid your learning. I believe in
you! now let’s go down to the details of topic. Here’s a great tip to optimize your learning,
get a highlighter pen to shade important terms and/or phrases, and most importantly take a
good nap for you to be revitalized. Aja!

DEFINITION OF POWER
One of the earliest was suggested by Max Weber, the noted German sociologist, who
defined power as “the probability that one actor within a social relationship will be in a
position to carry out his own will despite resistance.” Similarly, Emerson wrote, “The power
of actor A over actor B is the amount of resistance on the part of B which can be potentially
overcome by A.”
In other words, power involves one person changing the behavior of another. It is
important to note that in most organizational situations, we are talking about implied force to
comply, not necessarily actual force. That is, person A has power over person B if person B
believes that person A can, in fact, force person B to comply.
Clearly, the concept of power is closely related to the concepts of authority and
leadership. In fact, power has been referred to by some as “informal authority,” whereas
authority has been called “legitimate power.” However, these three concepts are not the same,
and important differences among the three should be noted.

THREE MAJOR TYPES OF INFLUENCE

Power represents the capacity of one person or group to secure compliance from another
person or group. Nothing is said here about the right to secure compliance only the ability. In
contrast, authority represents the right to seek compliance by others; the exercise of authority
is backed by legitimacy. If a manager instructs a secretary to type certain letters, he
presumably has the authority to make such a request. However, if the same manager asked
the secretary to run personal errands, this would be outside the bounds of the legitimate
exercise of authority. Although the secretary may still act on this request, the secretary’s
compliance would be based on power or influence considerations, not authority.
Hence, the exercise of authority is based on group acceptance of someone’s right to
exercise legitimate control. As Grimes notes, “What legitimates authority is the promotion or
pursuit of collective goals that are associated with group consensus. The polar opposite,
power, is the pursuit of individual or particularistic goals associated with group compliance.”
Finally, leadership is the ability of one individual to elicit responses from another person
that go beyond required or mechanical compliance. It is this voluntary aspect of leadership
that sets it apart from power and authority. Hence, we often differentiate between headship
and leadership. A department head may have the right to require certain actions, whereas a
leader has the ability to inspire certain actions. Although both functions may be served by the
same individual, such is clearly not always the case.

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TYPES OF POWER
Two efforts have been made to identify the bases of power. One model has been
proposed by Etzioni, identifying three types of power. In fact, it is argued that organizations
can be classified according to which of the three types of power is most prevalent. Coercive
power involves forcing someone to comply with one’s wishes. A prison organization is an
example of a coercive organization. Utilitarian power is power based on performance-reward
contingencies; for example, a person will comply with a supervisor in order to receive a pay
raise or promotion. Business organizations are thought to be essentially utilitarian
organizations. Finally, normative power rests on the beliefs of the members in the right of the
organization to govern their behavior. An example here would be a religious organization.

BASES OF POWER
Although useful for comparative analysis of divergent organizations, this model may
have limited applicability, because most business and public organizations rest largely on
utilitarian power. Instead, a second model, developed by French and Raven, of the bases of
power may be more helpful.
French and Raven identified five primary ways in which power can be exerted in social
situations.
1. Referent Power. In some cases, person B looks up to or admires person A, and, as a
result, B follows A largely because of A’s personal qualities, characteristics, or reputation. In
this case, A can use referent power to influence B. Referent power has also been called
charismatic power, because allegiance is based on interpersonal attraction of one individual
for another. Examples of referent power can be seen in advertising, where companies use
celebrities to recommend their products; it is hoped that the star appeal of the person will rub
off on the products. In work environments, junior managers often emulate senior managers
and assume unnecessarily subservient roles more because of personal admiration than
because of respect for authority.
2. Expert Power. Expert power is demonstrated when person A gains power because A
has knowledge or expertise relevant to B. For instance, professors presumably have power in
the classroom because of their mastery of a particular subject matter. Other examples of
expert power can be seen in staff specialists in organizations (e.g., accountants, labor
relations managers, management consultants, and corporate attorneys). In each case, the
individual has credibility in a particular—and narrow—area as a result of experience and
expertise, and this gives the individual power in that domain.
3. Legitimate Power. Legitimate power exists when person B submits to person A
because B feels that A has a right to exert power in a certain domain. Legitimate power is
really another name for authority, as explained earlier. A supervisor has a right, for instance,
to assign work. Legitimate power differs from reward and coercive power in that it depends
on the official position a person holds, and not on his or her relationship with others.
Legitimate power derives from three sources. First, prevailing cultural values can assign
power to some group. In Japan and Korea, for instance, older employees derive power simply
because of their age. Second, legitimate power can be attained as a result of the accepted
social structure. For example, many Western European countries, as well as Japan, have royal

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families that serve as a cornerstone to their societies. Third, legitimate power may be
designated, as in the case of a board of directors choosing a new company president or a
person being promoted into a managerial position. Whatever the reason, people exercise
legitimate power because subordinates assume they have a right to exercise it. A principal
reason given for the downfall of the shah of Iran is that the people came to first question and
then denounce his right to legitimate power.
4. Reward Power. Reward power exists when person A has power over person B
because A controls rewards that B wants. These rewards can cover a wide array of
possibilities, including pay raises, promotions, desirable job assignments, more responsibility,
new equipment, and so forth. Research has indicated that reward power often leads to
increased job performance as employees see a strong performance-reward contingency.
However, in many organizations, supervisors and managers really do not control very many
rewards. For example, salary and promotion among most blue-collar workers is based on a
labor contract, not a performance appraisal.
5. Coercive Power. Coercive power is based primarily on fear. Here, person A has
power over person B because A can administer some form of punishment to B. Thus, this
kind of power is also referred to as punishment power. As Kipnis points out, coercive power
does not have to rest on the threat of violence. “Individuals exercise coercive power through a
reliance upon physical strength, verbal facility, or the ability to grant or withhold emotional
support from others. These bases provide the individual with the means to physically harm,
bully, humiliate, or deny love to others.”
Examples of coercive power in organizations include the ability (actual or implied) to fire or
demote people, transfer them to undesirable jobs or locations, or strip them of valued
perquisites. Indeed, it has been suggested that a good deal of organizational behavior (such as
prompt attendance, looking busy, avoiding whistle-blowing) can be attributed to coercive, not
reward, power. As Kipnis explains, “Of all the bases of power available to man, the power to
hurt others is possibly the most often used, most often condemned and most difficult to
control.”

BEHAVIORAL CONSEQUENCES OF POWER

The power of the individual rests on a particular attribute of the power holder, the
follower, or their relationship. In some cases (e.g., reward power), power rests in the superior;
in others (e.g., referent power), power is given to the superior by the subordinate. In all cases,
the exercise of power involves subtle and sometimes threatening interpersonal consequences
for the parties involved. In fact, when power is exercised, employees have several ways in
which to respond.
1. Employee Reactions to Bases of Power. If the subordinate accepts and identifies with
the leader, his behavioral response will probably be one of commitment. That is, the
subordinate will be motivated to follow the wishes of the leader. This is most likely to happen
when the person in charge uses referent or expert power. Under these circumstances, the
follower believes in the leader’s cause and will exert considerable energies to help the leader
succeed.

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 A second possible response is compliance. This occurs most frequently when the
subordinate feels the leader has either legitimate power or reward power. Under such
circumstances, the follower will comply, either because it is perceived as a duty or because a
reward is expected; but commitment or enthusiasm for the project is lacking. Finally, under
conditions of coercive power, subordinates will more than likely use resistance. Here, the
subordinate sees little reason—either altruistic or material—for cooperating and will often
engage in a series of tactics to defeat the leader’s efforts.
2. Power Dependencies. In any situation involving power, at least two persons (or
groups) can be identified: the person attempting to influence others and the target or targets
of that influence. Until recently, attention focused almost exclusively on how people tried to
influence others. Only recently has attention been given to how people try to nullify or
moderate such influence attempts. In particular, we now recognize that the extent to which
influence attempts are successful is determined in large part by the power dependencies of
those on the receiving end of the influence attempts. In other words, all people are not subject
to (or dependent upon) the same bases of power. What causes some people to be more
submissive or vulnerable to power attempts? At least three factors have been identified.
3. Subordinate’s Values. To begin, person B’s values can influence his susceptibility to
influence. For example, if the outcomes that A can influence are important to B, then B is
more likely to be open to influence than if the outcomes were unimportant. Hence, if an
employee places a high value on money and believes the supervisor actually controls pay
raises, we would expect the employee to be highly susceptible to the supervisor’s influence.
We hear comments about how young people don’t really want to work hard anymore.
Perhaps a reason for this phenomenon is that some young people don’t place a high value on
those things (for example, money) that traditionally have been used to influence behavior. In
other words, such complaints may really be saying that young people are more difficult to
influence than they used to be.
4. Nature of Relationship Between A and B. In addition, the nature of the relationship
between A and B can be a factor in power dependence. Are A and B peers or superior and
subordinate? Is the job permanent or temporary? A person on a temporary job, for example,
may feel less need to acquiesce, because he won’t be holding the position for long. Moreover,
if A and B are peers or good friends, the influence process is likely to be more delicate than if
they are superior and subordinate.
5. Counterpower. Finally, a third factor to consider in power dependences is
counterpower. The concept of counterpower focuses on the extent to which B has other
sources of power to buffer the effects of A’s power. For example, if B is unionized, the
union’s power may serve to negate A’s influence attempts. The use of counterpower can be
clearly seen in a variety of situations where various coalitions attempt to bargain with one
another and check the power of their opponents.

THE ETHICAL USE OF POWER

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 People are often uncomfortable discussing the topic of power, which implies that
somehow they see the exercise of power as unseemly. On the contrary, the question is not
whether power tactics are or are not ethical; rather, the question is which tactics are
appropriate and which are not. The use of power in groups and companies is a fact of
organizational life that all employees must accept. In doing so, however, all employees have
a right to know that the exercise of power within the organization will be governed by ethical
standards that prevent abuse or exploitation.
Several guidelines for the ethical use of power can be identified. These can be arranged
according to our previous discussion of the five bases of power. As will be noted, several
techniques are available that accomplish their aims without compromising ethical standards.
For example, a manager using reward power can verify subordinate compliance with work
directives, ensure that all requests are both feasible and reasonable, make only ethical or
proper requests, offer rewards that are valued by employees, and ensure that all rewards for
good performance are credible and reasonably attainable. Even coercive power can be used
without jeopardizing personal integrity. For example, a manager can make sure that all
employees know the rules and penalties for rule infractions, provide warnings before
punishing, administer punishments fairly and uniformly, and so forth. The point here is that
managers have at their disposal numerous tactics that they can employ without crossing over
into questionable managerial behavior. In view of the increasing number of lawsuits filed by
employees for harmful practices, it seems wise for a manager to consider his behaviors before
acting; this will help ensure the highest ethical standards.

Guidelines for Use

Basis of Power
• Treat subordinates fairly
• Defend subordinates’ interests
• Be sensitive to subordinates’ needs, feelings
Referent Power
• Select subordinates similar to oneself
• Engage in role modeling

• Promote image of expertise

• Maintain credibility
• Act confident and decisive
Expert Power • Keep informed
• Recognize employee concerns
• Avoid threatening subordinates’ self-esteem

Legitimate Power • Be cordial and polite

• Be confident
• Be clear and follow up to verify understanding
• Make sure request is appropriate
• Explain reasons for request
• Follow proper channels
• Exercise power regularly
• Enforce compliance

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 • Be sensitive to subordinates’ concern

• Verify compliance
• Make feasible, reasonable requests
• Make only ethical, proper requests
Reward Power
• Offer rewards desired by subordinates
• Offer only credible rewards

• Inform subordinates of rules and penalties

• Warn before punishing
• Administer punishment consistently and uniformly
• Understand the situation before acting
Coercive Power
• Maintain credibility
• Fit punishment to the infraction
• Punish in private

Source: Adapted from Gary A. Yukl, Leadership in Organizations, 8th edition 2013 (Englewood
Cliffs, N.J.; Pearson), pp. 44–58.

Great job! Now, give yourself two big thumbs up for your effort!

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 APPLICATION
I would like to know how much learnings you gain. Please summarize and put your
answers on the space provided below. (Limit your answers of atleast 50 to atmost 75 words.)

1. On your own point of view, in your family how power is used?

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2. Compare and contrast power, authority, and leadership.

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3. Why is it important that the exercise of power and politics be handled in an

ethical fashion? What might happen if employees felt that managers were using power
in an unethical fashion?

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 MODULE 2: Lesson 2
Perception and Job Attitudes

Lesson Structure
MODULE NO. AND TITLE:
Module 2 - Interpersonal Processes and Behavior

LESSON NO. AND TITLE:

Lesson 2: Perception and Job Attitudes

LEARNING OUTCOMES: The students will be able to:

1. identify the various approaches of attitude; and,
2. define job satisfaction; and,
3. differentiate the dimensions of job satisfaction.

TIME FRAME:
This lesson will cover two (2) week.
Greetings everyone! Welcome to Lesson 2 of your Module 2 of the course, OA 111 -
Entrepreneurial Behavior and Competence which will cover two (2) weeks of self-paced
learning module. Have fun!

INTRODUCTION
Individuals are unique in terms of their skills, abilities, personalities, perceptions,
attitudes, emotions, and ethics. Individual differences represent the essence of the challenge
of management. Entrepreneurs must often work with people who posseses a multitude of
individual characteristics, so the more entrepreneurs understand individual differences, the
better can work with others.

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 Thus entrepreneurs should understand the antecedents to attitudes as well as their
consequences. They also need to understand the different components of attitudes, how
attitudes are formed, the major attitudes that affect work behavior, and how to use persuasion
to change attitudes.

ACTIVITY
To start, let us have a drill first by answering the caselet provided below. Comprehend
the case and answer the following case questions brief and concise. Please write legibly your
answers on the space provided for each case question. (Limit your answers of atleast 50 to
atmost 75 words.) Take enough time and have fun!
For instance, you found out that one student from your school has created a blog about
the school. Other students are also posting on this blog, and the picture they are painting is
less than flattering. They are talking about their complaints, such as strict implementation of
school rules and regulations and enrollment processes. Worse, they are talking about the
people in your school by name. There are a couple of postings mentioning them by name and
calling them unfair and unreasonable.
What action would you take when you learn the presence of this blog?

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Would you take action to stop this blogger? How?

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ANALYSIS
From the caselet given above, would you do anything to learn the identity of the
blogger? If you found out, what action would you take? (Limit your answers of atleast 50
to atmost 75 words.)

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Would you post on this blog? If so, under what name, and what comments would
you post? (Limit your answers of atleast 50 to atmost 75 words.)

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 How would you handle a situation like this now and in the future? Cite concrete
illustrations. (Limit your answers of atleast 50 to atmost 75 words.)

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 ABSTRACTION
JOB ATTITUDE
An attitude is a hypothetical construct; that is, although its consequences can be
observed, the attitude itself cannot. Second, an attitude is a unidimensional concept: An
attitude toward a particular person or object ranges on a continuum from very favorable to
very unfavorable. We like something or we dislike something (or we are neutral). Something
is pleasurable or unpleasurable. In all cases, the attitude can be evaluated along a single
evaluative continuum. And third, attitudes are believed to be related to subsequent behavior.
We will return to this point later in the discussion.
An attitude can be thought of as composed of three highly interrelated components: (1) a
cognitive component, dealing with the beliefs and ideas a person has about a person or object;
(2) an affective component (affect), dealing with a person’s feelings toward the person or
object; and (3) an intentional component, dealing with the behavioral intentions a person has
with respect to the person or object.

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TWO APPROACHES OF ATTITUDES
1. Dispositional Approach argues that attitudes represent relatively stable
predispositions to respond to people or situations around them. That is, attitudes are viewed
almost as personality traits. Thus, some people would have a tendency—a predisposition—to
be happy on the job, almost regardless of the nature of the work itself. Others may have an
internal tendency to be unhappy, again almost regardless of the actual nature of the work.
Evidence in support of this approach can be found in a series of studies that found that
attitudes change very little among people before and after they make a job change. To the
extent that these findings are correct, managers may have little influence over improving job
attitudes short of trying to select and hire only those with appropriate dispositions.
2. Situational Approach argues that attitudes emerge as a result of the uniqueness of a
given situation. They are situationally determined and can vary in response to changing work
conditions. Thus, as a result of experiences at work (a boring or unrewarding job, a bad
supervisor, etc.), people react by developing appropriate attitudes. Several variations on this
approach can be identified. Some researchers suggest that attitudes result largely from the
nature of the job experience itself. That is, an employee might reason: “I don’t get along well
with my supervisor; therefore, I become dissatisfied with my job.” To the extent that this
accurately describes how attitudes are formed, it also implies that attitudes can be changed
relatively easily. For example, if employees are dissatisfied with their job because of conflicts
with supervisors, either changing supervisors or changing the supervisors’ behavior may be
viable means of improving employee job attitudes. In other words, if attitudes are largely a
function of the situation, then attitudes can be changed by altering the situation.

JOB INVOLVEMENT AND ORGANIZATIONAL COMMITMENT

Job involvement refers to the extent to which a person is interested in and committed to
assigned tasks. This is not to say that the person is “happy” (or satisfied) with the job, only
that he feels a certain responsibility toward ensuring that the job itself is done correctly and
with a high standard of competence. Here the focus of the attitude is the job itself.
Organizational commitment, on the other hand, represents the relative strength of an
individual’s identification with and involvement in an organization.
Commitment can be characterized by three factors: (1) a strong belief in and acceptance of
the organization’s goals and values, (2) a willingness to exert considerable effort on behalf
of the organization, and (3) a strong desire to maintain membership in the organization.
When viewed this way, commitment represents something beyond mere passive loyalty to the
company. Instead, it involves an active relationship with the organization in which
individuals are willing to give something of themselves in order to help the company succeed
and prosper. A careful reading of the research on keys to the success of many Japanese firms
will highlight the importance played by a committed work force. Now we turn to the third
work attitude of job satisfaction.

JOB SATISFACTION

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 Job satisfaction may be defined as “a pleasurable or positive emotional state resulting
from the appraisal of one’s job or job experience.” It results from the perception that an
employee’s job actually provides what he values in the work situation. Several characteristics
of the concept of job satisfaction follow from this definition. First, satisfaction is an
emotional response to a job situation. It can be fully understood only by introspection. As
with any attitude, we cannot observe satisfaction; we must infer its existence and quality
either from an employee’s behavior or verbal statements.
Second, job satisfaction is perhaps best understood in terms of discrepancy. Several
writers have pointed to the concept of job satisfaction as being a result of how much a person
wants or expects from the job compared to how much he actually receives.
People come to work with varying levels of job expectations. These expectations may
vary not only in quality (different people may value different things in a job), but also in
intensity. On the basis of work experiences, people receive outcomes (rewards) from the job.
These include not only extrinsic rewards, such as pay and promotion, but also a variety of
intrinsic rewards, such as satisfying coworker relations and meaningful work. To the extent
that the outcomes received by an employee meet or exceed expectations, we would expect the
employee to be satisfied with the job and wish to remain. On those occasions when outcomes
actually surpass expectations, we would expect employees to reevaluate their expectations
and probably raise them to meet available outcomes. However, when outcomes do not meet
expectations, employees are dissatisfied and may prefer to seek alternative sources of
satisfaction, either by changing jobs or by placing greater value on other life activities, such
as outside recreation.

DIMENSIONS OF JOB SATISFACTION

It has been argued that job satisfaction actually represents several related attitudes. So,
when we speak of satisfaction, we must specify “satisfaction with what?” Research has
suggested that five job dimensions represent the most salient characteristics of a job about
which people have affective responses. These five are:
1. Work itself. The extent to which tasks performed by employees are interesting and
provide opportunities for learning and for accepting responsibility.
2. Pay. The amount of pay received, the perceived equity of the pay, and the method of
payment.
3. Promotional Opportunities. The availability of realistic opportunities for
advancement.
4. Supervision. The technical and managerial abilities of supervisors; the extent to which
supervisors demonstrate consideration for and interest in employees.
5. Coworkers. The extent to which coworkers are friendly, technically competent, and
supportive.

Great job! Now, give yourself two big thumbs up for your effort!

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 APPLICATION
Remarkable! I know you are capable of so much more! Don’t be shy, please share your
brilliant ideas on the things you have learned out from readings. You can use real-life
experiences if want to. Have fun! Put your answers here: (Limit your answers of at least 50
to at most 75 words.)
1. What is attitude, and how does it impact the work environment?

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2. In your experience being an employee or ask an individual who has, what are the
major reasons for job satisfaction? What are the primary consequences of
dissatisfaction? Explain.

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 MODULE ASSESSMENT
INSTRUCTION: Answer the following questions/scenarios short and concise. (Limit
your answers of at least 50 to at most 75 words.)
1. What is the difference between job satisfaction and organizational commitment?
Which do you think would be more strongly related to performance?

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2. In your opinion, what are the three most important factors that make people
dissatisfied with their job? What are the three most important factors relating to
organizational commitment?

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3. Do you think younger and older people are similar in what makes them happier at
work and committed to their companies? Explain your answers.

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REFERENCES
Henderson, A. and T. Parsons, Max Weber: The Theory of Social and Economic
Organization. (New York: The Free Press, 1947), p. 152.
R. Emerson, “Power Dependence Relations,” American Sociological Review, 1962, 27, p. 32.
H. Mintzberg, Power in and Around Organizations (Englewood Cliffs, N.J.: Prentice Hall,
1983); R. J. House, “Power and Personality in Complex Organizations,” in B. M. Staw
and L. L. Cummings, eds., Research in Organizational Behavior (Greenwich, Conn.: JAI
Press, 1988), pp. 307–357.
A. Grimes, “Authority, Power, Influence, and Social Control: A Theoretical Synthesis,”
Academy of Management Review, October 1978, p. 726.
A. Etzioni, Modern Organizations (Englewood Cliffs, N.J.: Prentice-Hall, 1964).
J. French and B. Raven, “The Bases of Social Power,” in D. Cartwright and A. Zander, eds.,
Group Dynamics (New York: Harper & Row, 1968); P. Podsakoff and C. Schriesheim,
“Field Studies of French and Raven’s Bases of Power: Critique, Reanalysis, and
Suggestions for Future Research,” Psychological Bulletin, May 1985, pp. 376–398.
D. Tjosvold, “Power and Social Context in the Superior-Subordinate Interaction,”
Organizational Behavior and Human Decision Processes, June 1985, pp. 281–293.
Y. Shetty, “Managerial Power and Organizational Effectiveness: A Contingency Analysis,”
Journal of Management Studies, 1978, 15, pp. 178–181.

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