BlBLlOTHECA SACRA 161 (April-June 2004): 215-31

CHRISTAS 'Αρχή
IN REVELATION 3:14
Michael J. Svigel

W HILE NON-TRINITARIANS have often cited Revelation 3:14

(Christ as "the αρχή of the creation of God") as evidence
that the Son is a created beir^g,1 Trinitarian scholars have
not agreed on how best to translate or interpret the phrase. Fur­
ther compounding the problem, the recent third edition of Bauer's
A Greek-English Lexicon of the New Testament and Other Early
Christian Literature makes a startling change under its definition
for αρχή. The earlier second edition cites Revelation 3:14 under the
meaning uthe first cause" with the following note: "but the meaning
beginning=ñrst created is linguistically possible."2 In the third edi-
tion, however, the alternative meaning for αρχή in this verse is
changed from "linguistically possible" to "linguistically probable"
without amending any of the cited evidence.3 In light of these

Michael J. Svigel is a Bible teacher in Dallas, Texas.

Notable among the adherents are the Jehovah's Witnesses, as seen in "Things in
Which It Is Impossible for God to Lie" (Brooklyn, NY: Watchtower Bible and Tract
Society, 1965), 122. See also "Make Sure of All Things," rev. ed. (Brooklyn, NY:
Watchtower Bible and Tract Society, 1957), 386-87; Rolf Furuli, The Role of Theol­
ogy and Bias in Bible Translation (Huntington Beach, CA: Elihu, 1999), 256; Greg
Stafford, Jehovah's Witnesses Defended, 2d ed. (Huntington Beach, CA: Elihu,
1999), 236; and Knowledge That Leads to Everlasting Life (Brooklyn, NY: Watch-
tower Bible and Tract Society, 1995), 39.
2
Walter Bauer, William F. Arndt, and F. Wilbur Gingrich, A Greek-English Lexi­
con of the New Testament and Other Early Christian Literature, 2d ed., rev. F.
Wilbur Gingrich and Frederick W. Danker (Chicago: University of Chicago Press,
1979), 112.
3
Walter Bauer, William F. Arndt, and F. Wilbur Gingrich, A Greek-English Lexi­
con of the New Testament and Other Early Christian Literature, 3d ed., rev. Freder­
ick W. Danker (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 2000), 138. Interestingly the
sixth German edition on which the third English edition is partially based retains
the statement "doch ist die Deutung Anfang = Erstingswerk möglich" ("still the
meaning Beginning = first created is possible") (Walter Bauer, Griechisch-deutsches
Wörterbuch zu den Schriften des Neuen Testaments, 6th ed., ed. K. Aland and B.
216 BlBLlOTHECA SACRA / ApriKJune 2004

problems, and bearing in mind that Revelation 3:14 is a verse of

significant Christological import, this article examines the inter-
pretational issues essential to discovering the most probable ren­
dering of the phrase "the αρχή of the creation of God" (ή αρχή της
κτίσεως τον θβον).

SURVEY OF INTERPRETATIONS
Modern commentators and translations have suggested at least six
meanings of αρχή.4
ΑΡΧΗ' AS ORIGIN
Most commentators understand αρχή to mean source or origin, 5
either of the original creation of Genesis 1:1,6 the new creation (2
Cor. 5:17; Rev. 21:l-5), 7 or both. 8
ΆΡΧΗ' AS RULER
The second most common interpretation of αρχή in Revelation 3:14
is Christ as Ruler 9 over either the original creation 1 0 or the new
creation. 11

Aland [Berlin: de Gruyter, 1988], 225).

For a discussion of Revelation 3:14 and its relationship to ante-Nicene and Ni-
cene Christological controversies see Michael J. Svigel, "Christ as Ή 'Αρχή της
Κτίσεως τον OeoO in Revelation 3:14" (Th.M. thesis, Dallas Theological Seminary,
2001), 4-14.
5
English translations include the New English Translation (NET) and the New
Revised Standard Version.
William Evans, Christ's Last Message to His Church (New York: Revell, 1926),
204.
Greg K. Beale, The Book of Revelation, New International Greek Testament
Commentary (Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 1999), 93; William J. McKnight, John to
the Seven Churches, vol. 1 of The Apocalypse of Jesus Christ—A Reappearance (Bos­
ton: Hamilton Brothers, 1927), 273; and Ford C. Ottman, The Unfolding of the Ages
in the Revelation of John (New York: Baker & Taylor, 1905; reprint, Grand Rapids:
Kregel, 1967), 298.
8
William Barclay, Letters to the Seven Churches (London: SCM, 1957), 115-16;
Stephen Alexander Hunter, Studies in the Book of Revelation (Pittsburgh: Pitts­
burgh, 1921), 110-11; and Harald Ulland, Die Vision als Radikalisierung der Wirk­
lichkeit in der Apokalypse Johannes, Texte und Arbeiten zum Neutestamentlichen
Zeitalter (Tübingen: Francke, 1997), 35-36.
As in the New International Version and Young's Literal Translation.
Albert Barnes, Notes, Explanatory and Practical, on the Book of Revelation (New
York: Harper, 1859), 122; Siegbert W. Becker, Revelation: The Distant Triumph
Song (Milwaukee, WI: Northwestern, 1985), 74; Henry Cowles, The Revelation of
John (New York: Appleton, 1872), 81; and William J. Reid, Lectures on the Revela-
tion (Pittsburgh: Stevenson, Foster, 1878), 77-78.
At least one English translation renders the phrase "the head of God's new or-
 Christ as Αρχή in Revelation 3:14 217

'ΑΡΧΗ' AS BEGINNING
A few commentators take αρχή as the first in a series of creatures
or first part of the original creation.12 For those who maintain the
deity of the Son, κτίσις (creation) is limited to the new creation
begun in Christ.13
ΑΡΧΗ' AS MEDIATE AGENT
Attempting to reconcile Revelation 3:14 with passages of the New
Testament that portray Christ not as the Creator but as the Fa­
ther's mediate agent in creation, some commentators understand
αρχή as the mediate agent or secondary source.14

ΑΡΧΗ' AS PHILOSOPHICAL "PRINCIPLE"

Relying on a technical philosophical use of αρχή among classical
writers, some take Revelation 3:14 to mean Christ is the "elemen­
tary principle" of creation,15 or the starting point of all things in a
logical and ontological sense.16
ΑΡΧΗ' WITH DOUBLE ENTENDRES
While many commentators decide on only one meaning of the
phrase, others conclude that αρχή has a double nuance, usually
some combination of the preceding meanings.17

der" {The Bible in Basic English [Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1949]).
See also W. R. Hartridge, Revelation of Jesus Christ, 2d ed. (London: Carter, 1892),
15.
12
F. Edward Butterworth, Return of the Ancients (A Divine Drama Already in
Progress on the Deep Screen of Space) (Chico, CA: Cosmic, 1987), 73; Furuli, The
Role of Theology and Bias in Bible Translation, 256; and Stafford, Jehovah's Wit­
nesses Defended, 236.
13
William Hoste, The Visions of John the Divine (Kilmarnock, UK: Ritchie, 1900),
34.
14
John Wick Bowman, The First Christian Drama: The Book of Revelation (Phila­
delphia: Westminster, 1968), 39; Robert G. Bratcher and Howard A. Hatton, A
Handbook on the Revelation to John, United Bible Societies Handbook Series (New
York: United Bible Societies, 1993), 79; and George Eldon Ladd, A Commentary on
the Revelation of John (Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 1972), 65.
15
One English representative of this view is the New Jerusalem Bible.
16
Herbert H. Gowen, An Analytical Transcription of the Revelation of St. John the
Divine (London: Skeffington & Son, 1910), 44.
17
David Chilton, The Days of Vengeance (Fort Worth: Dominion, 1987), 133; and
Kendell H. Easley, Revelation, Holman New Testament Commentary (Nashville:
Broadman & Holman, 1998), 59. For many this double meaning is logical rather
than lexical, that is, Christ is the Ruler of creation because He is the Source of crea­
tion (William R. Newell, The Book of Revelation [Chicago: Grace, 1939], 75; Gerhard
A. Krodel, Revelation, Augsburg Commentary on the New Testament [Minneapolis:
218 BiBLiOTHECA SACRA / April-June 2004

Although a handful of interpretations dominate (Source, Ruler,

and Beginning), the commentaries are mottled with numerous mi­
nor nuances, a fact that can cause some confusion for students of
Scripture. A fresh examination of the evidence in this article will
perhaps aid in discovering the most probable rendering of Revela­
tion 3:14 and move translators and commentators toward a con­
sensus on this matter.

INTERPRETIVE ISSUES

To reach that goal requires attention to the lexical, syntactical,

contextual, and historical theological issues related to the interpre­
tation of Revelation 3:14. The results suggest that the most prob­
able interpretation of ή αρχή της κτίσεως τον Θβοϋ is "supreme
Authority over the creation of God," encompassing both the original
and new creations.

LEXICAL ISSUES

Below is a range of usages of αρχή in the ancient Greek-speaking

world with a focus on establishing both its common and obscure
nuances. To distinguish between various shades of meaning in
αρχή, the following categories of usage are based on an examination
of hundreds of individual examples from classical writings, the
Septuagint, and the New Testament.18
Protemporal. 'Αρχή is most often used to indicate the temporal
commencement of a particular event or series of events, that is, the
earliest point in time of something.19

Augsburg, 1989], 141-42; and Foy E. Wallace Jr., The Book of Revelation [Nashville:
By the author, 1966], 105). Others suggest that the ambiguous αρχή has an in­
tended double meaning (Isbon T. Beckwith, The Apocalypse of John [New York:
Macmillan, 1919], 488-89; James Glasgow, The Apocalypse Translated and
Expounded [Edinburgh: Clark, 1872], 173; Grant R. Osborne, Revelation, Baker
Exegetical Commentary on the New Testament [Grand Rapids: Baker, 2002],
204-5; and John P. M. Sweet, Revelation, Westminster Pelican Commentaries
[Philadelphia: Westminster, 1979], 107).
18
This includes at least two thorough examinations of each occurrence of αρχή in
the Septuagint, New Testament, and apostolic fathers, first determining types of
usage in various contexts and then establishing more general categories within
which each occurrence was either confirmed or reclassified with a greater degree of
precision.
19
For example Genesis 1:1; Mark 10:6; Josephus, The Antiquities of the Jews 1.1.1
(cf. Gerhard Delling, "άρχω, αρχή, απαρχή, αρχαίος, αρχηγός, άρχων? in Theological
Dictionary of the New Testament, ed. Gerhard Kittel and Gerhard Friedrich, trans.
Geoffrey W. Bromiley, vol. 1 [Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 1964], 479).
 Christ as 'Αρχή in Revelation 3:14 219

Causal. Especially prevalent in philosophical writings is the

use of αρχή as the chronological or logical origin of something or as
its underlying cause.20
Propartial. 'Αρχή is sometimes used for the first part of an ob­
ject, for example the opening of a literary work (Hos. 1:2; Mark 1:1)
or foundation of a building (Aristotle, Metaphysics 5.1.1).
Prosequential. This use of αρχή points to the first item in a
series of items that do not necessarily share the same nature and
qualities.21
Governmental. Sometimes αρχή means general political power
or a particular office.22 Other times the individual officeholder is in
view (Gen. 1:16; Luke 12:11; Eph. 3:10; Titus 3:1).
Prospatial. This is the first part of something in a physical
sense rather than a logical or chronological sense.23
Preeminent. Slightly different from governmental, αρχή can be
used to indicate supremacy by nature or merit rather than merely
by office (Num. 24:20).
Elemental.*Αρχή may indicate a fundamental or elementary
principle (Heb. 5:12; 6:1).24
Miscellaneous. When there are rare, doubtful, or debated uses
of αρχή that do not fall under any of the above categories, they may
be categorized as "miscellaneous."25
Αρχή in classical usage. Classical lexicons list many of the
same types of categories for αρχή as those above.26 However, the

20
Origen, Commentary on John 1.17: "Again, there is a beginning in a matter of
origin ( Έστι Sé αρχή και ή ώς γενέσεως)1* (cf. Aristotle, Metaphysics 1.3.5).
21
For example see Genesis 49:3; Matthew 24:8; and John 2:11. This verse in John
reads, Ταντην έποίησεν αρχήν των σημείων ("This Jesus did as a beginning of
signs"). Although the New American Standard Bible has "This beginning of [His]
signs Jesus did," the phrase is best translated as in the NET Bible: "Jesus did this
as the first of his miraculous signs," taking αρχή as the complement in an object-
complement construction (Daniel B. Wallace, Greek Grammar beyond the Basics
[Grand Rapids: Zondervan, 1996], 182-89).
22
Josephus, The Antiquities of the Jews, 1.33; Genesis 40:13; Luke 20:20.
23
For example the edge or extremity of an object is sometimes called an αρχή (Jo­
sephus, The Antiquities of the Jews 3.6.2; Exod. 39:16; Acts 10:11).
24
Origen notes, "There is also an arche in a matter of learning, as when we say
that the letters are the arche of grammar" (Origen, Commentary on John 1.18).
25
These are Numbers 1:2; 4:22; and 26:2 (mathematical sum); Isaiah 9:14 and
Ezekiel 10:11 (physical head, translating ttftô); Revelation 3:14 (under considera-
tion); 21:6; and 22:13 (abstract divine title, the meaning of which cannot be ab-
stractedfromthe merism).
26
See Henry George Liddell and Robert Scott, eds., A Greek-English Lexicon, 9th
ed., rev. H. S. Jones and Roderick McKenzie (Oxford: Clarendon, 1940), 252. Some
220 BlBLlOTHECA SACRA / April-June 2004

technical use of αρχή as the uncaused cause in many Greek meta­

physical writings tends to outweigh the more conventional uses. 2 7
In fact, while defining a number of his key metaphysical terms,
Aristotle gave an insightful synchronic summary of the various
uses of αρχή in philosophical discussions up to his day. 28
Αρχή in the Septuagint. In the Septuagint αρχή occurs at least
224 times, 2 9 of which the largest category is protemporal (about
eighty-seven times, or 38.8 percent of the occurrences). 30 Of these
protemporal uses, seventy-three occur in prepositional phrases be­
ginning most commonly with άπό9 eu, or έκ. The second most com­
mon use of αρχή in the Septuagint is governmental, occurring sev­
enty-five times (33.5 percent). 31 Sixty-five of these uses are imper-

definitions include "beginning, origin," "first principle, element," "end, corner,"

"sum, total," "power, sovereignty," "realm," "office," and "magistrate" (cf. Lloyd P.
Gerson, God and Greek Philosophy, Issues in Ancient Philosophy [London: Rout-
ledge, 1990], 5-6).
27
The technical philosophical use of αρχή in Greek metaphysics was that of an
uncaused, static, underlying principal that causes the rest of reality and on which
reality depends (Aristotle, Metaphysics 1.3.3-4). See Samuel Enoch Stumpf, Socrates
to Sartre: A History of Philosophy, 6th ed. (Boston: McGraw-Hill College, 1999), 88,
114-19.
28
These are (a) the part of a thing from which one may first move (propartial,
prospatial); (b) the practical starting point of a discourse (elemental); (c) the founda­
tional, internal part of something (propartial); (d) the foundational, external thing
which causes another to come into being (causal); (e) the highest position of author­
ity (governmental); (f) the artistic vocations whose practitioners "are wiser than
men of mere experience" (preeminent); and (g) "the point from which a thing is first
comprehensible" (elemental) (Aristotle Metaphysics 5.1.1-3).
2 9
All searches in this article were made by GRAMCORD for Windows, Morphologi­
cal Search Engine 2.4ap (Vancouver, WA: GRAMCORD Institute, 1999).
3 0
Genesis 1:1; 13:4; 40:13b; 41:21; 43:18, 20; Deuteronomy 11:12; 33:15, 27;
Joshua 24:2; Judges 7:19b; 20:18 (twice); Ruth 1:22; 2 Kings 7:10; 14:26; 17:9;
21:9-10; 4 Kings 17:25; 1 Chronicles 16:7; 17:9; 2 Chronicles 23:8; 1 Esdras 8:67; 2
Esdras 4:6; 8:18; 9:2 (debatable); 22:46; Esther 4:17; Judith 8:29; 1 Maccabees 15:17;
2 Maccabees 8:27 (protemporal is favored here because αρχή stands in apposition to
ήμεραν ταντην, thus indicating the time at which something commenced); 3 Mac­
cabees 6:26; Psalms 73:2; 76:12; 77:2; 101:26; 118:152; Proverbs 8:22-23; Ecclesias-
tes 3:11; Wisdom of Solomon 6:22; 7:18; 9:8; 12:11; 14:6, 13; Sirach 15:14; 16:26;
24:9; 36:10, 14; 39:25, 32; 51:20; Psalms of Solomon 8:31; 17:30; Micah 5:1; Habba-
kuk 1:12; Zechariah 12:7; Isaiah 1:26; 2:6; 19:11; 22:11; 23:7; 40:21; 41:4, 26; 42:9;
43:9, 13; 44:8; 45:21; 48, 16; 51:9; 63:16, 19; 25:20; Jeremiah 33:1; Baruch 3:26;
Lamentations 2:19; Ezekiel 16:55 (twice); 36:11; and Daniel 8:1; 9:21.
31
Genesis 1:16 (twice); 40:13, 20 (twice), 21; 41:13; Exodus 6:25 (debatable); Deu­
teronomy 17:18, 20; Judges 7:16, 20; 9:34, 43, 44 (twice); 1 Kings 11:11; 13:17
(twice), 18 (twice); 3 Kings 20:9; 20:12; 1 Chronicles 12:33; 26:10; 29:12; 2 Chronicles
13:12; 2 Esdras 19:17; Esther 4:17; 8:12; 1 Maccabees 5:33; 10:52; 2 Maccabees 4:10,
4:50; 5:7; 13:3; 3 Maccabees 6:24; 4 Maccabees 4:15, 17; 8:7; Psalms 109:3; 138:17;
Proverbs 16:12; 17:14; Job 37:3; 40:19; Psalms of Solomon 2:30; Hosea 2:2; Amos 6:7;
 Christ as 'Αρχή in Revelation 3:14 221

sonai, referring to an office, dominion, or military company. Ten

instances are personal or personified, referring to a ruler or rulers.
Four of these are singular, and six are plural. 3 2 The Septuagint
uses αρχή with a causal nuance only fourteen times (6 percent), all
of which are anarthrous. 3 3 All fourteen are in the wisdom litera­
ture and do not emulate the technical philosophical use of αρχή
common among Greek metaphysical writings. Instead they point
out a logical cause behind a result. 34
The propartial nuance of αρχή is employed nine times (4 per­
cent) in the Septuagint, and all of them are anarthrous. 3 5 The
prosequential tise of αρχή is even less common, occurring four
times (1.7 percent), all followed by a plural noun. 3 6 Neither the
propartial nor the prosequential occurrences in the Septuagint
take an article. The prospatial nuance of αρχή is found twenty-one
times (9.3 percent), indicating the beginning of a road, the edge of a
building, a camp site, and so forth. 37 'Αρχή has a nuance of pre-
eminece eight times in the Septuagint (3.5 percent). 3 8 Only Psalm
118:160 appears to be a debatable candidate for the elemental use
of αρχή. There are five miscellaneous uses of αρχή, some of which
may be quirks of the Septuagint translation. 39

Micah 3:1; 4:8; Obadiah 20; Nahum 1:6; 3:8; Isaiah 9:5-6; 10:10; 41:27; 42:10;
Jeremiah 13:21; 22j6; 25:15; 28:58; 30:18; 41:1; Ezekiel 29:14-15; Daniel 2:37; 6:27;
7:12,14, 26-27; 11:41.
32
Genesis 1:16 (twice); Exodus 6:25 (debatable); 1 Chronicles 12:33; 2 Esdras
19:17; Job 40:19; Hosea 2:2; Micah 3:1; Daniel 7:27; 11:41.
33
Psalm 110:10; proverbs 1:7; 9:10; 15:33 (debatable); 16:7; Wisdom of Solomon
6:17 (debatable); 7:$; 12:16; 14:12, 27; Sirach 1:14; 10:12; 10:13; 25:24.
34
The Septuagint ι of Psalm 110:10 reads, αρχή σοφίας φόβος κυρίου, "The fear of
the Lord is the causo that results in wisdom" (cf. Wisd. of Sol. 14:27).
35
Genesis 2:10 (debatable); 10:10; Exodus 34:22; Ecclesiastes 7:8; Hosea 1:2;
Isaiah 19:15; Jerdmiah 2:3; Daniel 9:23; Sirach 37:16 (this may be propar­
tial—reason as the first part of the action—or also elemental—reason as the fun­
damental principle controlling an action, but prosequential is unlikely since reason
is the guiding principle of a single action, not the first in a series of distinct actions).
36
Genesis 49:3; Exodus 12:2; Deuteronomy 21:17; Ecclesiastes 10:13.
37
Exodus 36:23; Judges 7:11, 17, 19; 9:37; 3 Kings 7:21; Song of Solomon 4:8; Na­
hum 3:10; Lamentations 4:1; Ezekiel 16:25, 31; 21:24 (twice), 26; 31:3, 10, 14; 42:10,
12; 43:14; 48:1.
38
Numbers 24:20; Psalm 136:6; Ecclesiastes 5:10 (variant); Amos 6:1; Sirach 11:3;
16:27; 29:21; 39:26.
39
Numbers 1:2; 4:22; and 26:2 all use αρχή to refer to the taking of a census.
Isaiah 9:14 and Ezdkiel 10:11 seem to refer to a physical head, where κεφαλή would
have been more appropriate. With regard to such uses of αρχή, Delling notes, "Many
peculiarities and obscurities are caused by the often fairly automatic use of αρχή for
222 BiBLiOTHECA SACRA / April-June 2004

In summary the most common nuance of αρχή in the Septua­

gint is protemporal. The governmental sense follows closely in sec­
ond place, while all other shades of meaning are less frequent.
'Αρχή in the New Testament.*0 Of the fifty-five occurrences of
αρχή in the New Testament, twenty-eight (50.9 percent) are pro-
temporal.41 As in the Septuagint, the second most common use of
αρχή in the New Testament is governmental, occurring twelve
times (21.8 percent). Of these governmental uses, five refer to an
office or dominion,42 while seven refer to personal rulers, all in the
plural.43 Five (9 percent) verses have a propartial use of αρχή** and
two (3.6 percent) have a prosequential nuance, both of which are
followed by a plural genitive.45 There are two prospatial uses of
αρχή (Acts 10:11; 11:5), one debatable use meaning preeminent
(Col. 1:18), two elemental uses (Heb. 5:12; 6:1), and three uses
categorized as miscellaneous (Rev. 3:14 [under consideration]; 21:6;
22:13).
As in the Septuagint the majority of the occurrences of αρχή in
the New Testament are protemporal, with the governmental sense
in the second place. Of significance is the fact that there are no
clear uses of αρχή as causal.
'Αρχή in the apostolic fathers. In the writings of the apostolic
fathers αρχή occurs at least twenty-six times.46 Of these, sixteen
are likely protemporal (61.5 percent),47 four seem to be causal (15.4

[variety]" ("άρχω, αρχή, απαρχή, αρχαίος, αρχηγός, άρχων," in Theological Dictionary

of the New Testament, 1:481).
4 0
Louw and Nida's definitions of αρχή are beginning (aspect or time), first cause,
sphere of authority, ruler, supernatural power, elementary aspect, and corner (Jo­
hannes P. Louw and Eugene A. Nida, eds., Greek-English Lexicon of the New Tes­
tament [New York: United Bible Societies, 1988], 2:35).
4 1
Matthew 19:4, 8; 24:21; Mark 10:6; 13:19; Luke 1:2; John 1:1-2; 6:64; 8:25 (de­
batable); 8:44; 15:27; 16:4; Acts 11:15; 26:4; Hebrews 1:10; 2:3; 2 Peter 3:4; 1 John
1:1; 2:7,13-14, 24 (twice); 3:8,11; 2 John 5, 6.
4 2
Luke 20:20; 1 Corinthians 15:24; Ephesians 1:21; Colossians 2:10; Jude 6.
4 3
Luke 12:11; Romans 8:38; Ephesians 3:10; 6:12; Colossians 1:16; 2:15; Titus 3:1.
4 4
Matthew 24:8; Mark 1:1; 13:8; Philippians 4:15 (debatable); Hebrews 3:14 (de­
batable).
4 5
John 2:11; Hebrews 7:3.
4 6
This figure is from Edgar J. Goodspeed, ed., Index Patristicus (Leipzig: Hen­
richs, 1907; reprint, Naperville, IL: Allenson, I960), 28.
4 7
1 Clement 19:2; 31:1; 47:2; Barnabas 15:3, 8 (debatable); 16:8; Shepherd of Her­
mas, Similitude 9.11.9; Diognetus 2:1; 8:11; 11:4; 12:3a; 12:3b (debatable); Ignatius,
Letter to the Ephesians 19:3; idem, Letter to the Magnesians 13:1; Polycarp, Letter to
the Philippians 7:2; and Martyrdom of Polycarp 17:1.
 Christ as Αρχή in Revelation 3:14 223

percent),48 five have a propartial nuance (19.2 percent),49 and one is

governmental (3.9 percent).50 Obviously this data pool is too small
to surmise the range of usage of αρχή based on the occurrences in
the apostolic fathers alone. However, it is apparent that the pro-
temporal use, as in the Septuagint and New Testament, stands at
the fore.
Conclusions concerning the meaning of αρχή. While it is wrong
to determine the meaning of a word in a particular context based
on statistical probability alone, the data from the nuances of αρχή
in the Septuagint, the New Testament, and the apostolic fathers
show an overwhelming tendency to employ αρχή as a protemporal
or a governmental indicator. Among the eight categories of usage
in these writings, several are nonpersonal, that is, they are never
used in reference to a person. These include protemporal, prospa­
tial, causal, propartial, and elemental. Only the governmental,
prosequential, and possibly the preeminent nuances are used of a
person.
Although not determinative, these facts ought to be considered
in any deliberation about the most probable meaning of ή αρχή της
κτίσβως του θεοΰ.51 For example, although a propartial meaning
("the first part of the creation of God") is linguistically possible,
semantic considerations alone render it highly improbable, since
the nuance itself is employed in only 6 percent of the 305 instances
and none of these is personal. A prosequential nuance is also possi­
ble and perhaps more probable than propartial, since it is used in a
personal sense. However, the prosequential use of αρχή occurs in
conjunction with a plural genitive and is itself quite rare (2 percent
of the occurrences). Thus the understanding of αρχή in Revelation
3:14 as "created being" is improbable. On the other hand the gov­
ernmental nuance is common and personal in both singular and
plural, making "the supreme Authority over the creation of God"
not merely possible, but probable.

48
Ignatius, Letter to the Ephesians 14:1 (twice); idem, Letter to the Smyrnaeans
8:1; and Polycarp, Letter to the Philippians 4:1.
49
Barnabas 1:6 (twice); 15:8b (debatable); Ignatius, Letter to the Ephesians 3:1;
and idem, Letter to the Romans 1:2 (debatable).
50
Martyrdom of Polycarp 10:2. In this context the άρχαί referred to by Polycarp
seem to be personal.
51
One can rule out two uses of αρχή as so improbable that they are virtually im­
possible. These include the nonsensical protemporal nuance ("the earliest point in
time of God's creation") and the prospatial nuance ("the corner/edge of God's crea­
tion").
224 BlBLlOTHECA SACRA / ApriKJune 2004

SYNTACTICAL ISSUES
Of special concern in Revelation 3:14 is the meaning of κτίσις, usu­
ally translated "creation.'' The first question is whether κτίσις, a
verbal noun, in this context focuses on its active verbal aspect (the
process of creation) or its passive nominal aspect (the thing cre­
ated). If it is the latter, does it indicate the whole of creation (the
universe) or the sum of its elements (all creatures)?
Louw and Nida list five uses of κτίσις in the New Testament:
creation, creature, universe, institution, and authority. 52 While the
last two can be ruled out as highly unlikely, the first three options
are possible. In the Septuagint κτίσις occurs only in the Apocrypha
where it is found fifteen times. 5 3 Of these uses only Psalms of
Solomon 8:7 stands as a clear example in which "creation" is con­
ceived of as the "act" or "process" of creating. When it is used in the
singular in constructions such as πάσα κτίσις, πάσα ή κτίσις, and
ή κτίσις, the term most often means "the universe." 54 Besides re­
ferring to creation as a whole, κτίσις may also refer to an individ­
ual creature (Wisd. of Sol. 16:24) or in the plural to all creatures
severally (Tob. 8:15). In the New Testament κτίσις occurs eighteen
times (excluding Rev. 3:14).55 Of these, only Romans 1:20 most
likely reflects an active nuance. 5 6 The other seventeen have a
nominal emphasis, of which ten refer to the universe 57 and six refer
to individual creatures, with Mark 16:15 difficult to determine. 5 8

52
Louw and Nida, Greek-English Lexicon of the New Testament, 2:148.
53
According to GRAMCORD κτίσις occurs in the Septuagint in Judith 9:12; 16:14;
Tobit 8:5, 15; 3 Maccabees 2:2, 7; 6:2; Wisdom of Solomon 2:6; 5:17; 16:24; 19:6;
Sirach 16:17; 43:25; 49:16, and Psalms of Solomon 8:7.
54
Judith 9:12; 16:14; Tobit 8:5; 3 Maccabees 2:2, 7; 6:2; Wisdom of Solomon 2:6;
5:17; 19:6; and Sirach 16:17; 49:16. In such nuances "the process of creation is no
longer focal, and what is in focus is the total physical universe" (Louw and Nida,
Greek-English Lexicon of the New Testament, 1:1).
55
Mark 10:6; 13:19; 16:15; Romans 1:20, 25; 8:19-22, 39; 2 Corinthians 5:17; Gala-
tians 6:15; Colossians 1:15, 23; Hebrews 4:13; 9:11; 1 Peter 2:13; 2 Peter 3:4.
56
In Romans 1:20 the knowledge of God to which Paul referred is acquired
through the created things and has been so known άπα κτίσεως κόσμου. Unless άπό
is being used as means, the nuance must be active, κόσμου functioning as an objec­
tive genitive.
57
Mark 10:6; 13:19; Romans 8:19-22; Colossians 1:15, 23; Hebrews 9:11; 2 Peter
3:4.
58
Romans 1:25; 8:39; 2 Corinthians 5:17; Galatians 6:15; Hebrews 4:13; 1 Peter
2:13. Although κτίσις in Mark 16:15 may be loosely equivalent to "all the world* in
the first part of the imperative, the "world" may be a geographical indicator while
"creation" refers to all creatures in it.
 Christ as 'Αρχή in Revelation 3:14 225

This survey of κτίσις in the Apocrypha and the New Testament

demonstrates that its most common nuance is passive, and that it
is seldom used in an active sense. Thus with regard to Revelation
3:14 an interpretation that regards κτίσις as something other than
the entire universe bears the greater burden of proof. Thus under­
standing τον θεον as a subjective genitive of the verbal idea in
κτίσις and then αρχή as prosequential (Christ as the first of God's
creative actions) is improbable. An alternative that sees τον θεον
as a genitive of source and κτίσις as the whole universe, with αρχή
as propartial would make better sense syntactically (Christ as the
first part of the universe created by God), but it must be recalled
that in the Septuagint or New Testament the propartial nuance of
αρχή is never used of a person. A third alternative understands
αρχή as causal (Christ as the origin of the universe of God), but the
causal nuance—like the propartial—is also never used of a person.
Based on these syntactical issues the most natural rendering of the
phrase would be "the supreme Authority over the creation of God,"
taking της κτίσεως as a genitive of subordination and τον θεον as
source or producer, an interpretation that avoids the objections
against the former options.

CONTEXTUAL ISSUES

With both the preceding lexical and syntactical considerations as

guides, this section examines the broad and narrow contexts of
Revelation 3:14.
For all their diversity the messages to the seven churches in
Revelation 2 and 3 each follow a structure that includes (a) an in­
troductory title of Christ, (b) a commendation of areas in which the
churches excelled (exhortation and encouragement), (c) a condem­
nation for areas in which they were failing (warning and call to
repentance), and (d) a promise to the one who overcomes (usually
eschatological in nature).59 Of particular importance for this study
is the use of the introductory titles of Christ in the messages. It has
been shown by many commentators that the characterization of
Christ at the beginning of each message is often applicable in some
way to the historical situation in the local congregation and espe­
cially to the content of its adjoining message.60 This leads to the

David E. Aune, Revelation 1-5, Word Biblical Commentary (Dallas: Word,

1997), 119-24; Beale, The Book of Revelation, 224-25; and G. B. Caird, The Revela­
tion of Saint John, Black's New Testament Commentaries (London: Black, 1966;
reprint, Peabody, MA: Hendrickson, 1993), 27.
6 0
Caird, The Revelation of Saint John, 27; Ladd, A Commentary on the Revelation
of John, 36; and William M. Ramsay, The Letters to the Seven Churches of Asia and
226 BlBLlOTHECA SACRA / ApriKJune 2004

question of how the title for Christ in Revelation 3:14 relates to the
message to Laodicea, the answer to which may help determine the
most probable meaning of the title itself.61
In Revelation 3:14 Christ is called "The Amen, the faithful and
true witness." This portion of the introductory title is most likely
drawn from Isaiah 65:16, in which God is called "the God of Amen,"
and which speaks of God's truthfulness. 62 Thus Christ is truthful,
but also His truthfulness translates into faithfulness.63 This is fol­
lowed by the phrase "the αρχή of the creation of God." The context
of the original Isaiah passage includes new creation language to
which some have pointed as the interpreting background for the
meaning of ή αρχή της κτίσεως τον θεον.64 If Revelation 3:14 is
alluding to this new-creation language, it is not difficult to see how
Beale concludes that της κτίσεως τον θεον refers to the new crea­
tion begun in Christ, of which He is the "inaugurator." 65 In agree­
ment with Beale the allusion to Isaiah 65:16-17 does in fact sug­
gest that the new creation is in view in Revelation 3:14. However,
such an allusion does not necessitate that only the new creation is
in view.66 Beale does not consider that the emphasis in the New
Testament and especially in the Apocalypse is Christ's rule over
creation (especially the new creation) rather than His being either
the first part or inaugurator of that new creation. Rather than re-

Their Place in the Plan of the Apocalypse (London: Hodder and Stoughton, 1904),
198. For a more complete treatment of the verbal and thematic relationships be­
tween the title of Christ and the body of each of the seven letters see Svigel, "Christ
as Ή 'Αρχή της Κτίσεως του θεοϋ in Revelation 3:14," 52-58.
61
Thus Beale writes, "The titles in ν 14 must be related to the rest of the letter in
some way since the titles introducing all the previous letters are related to and de­
veloped in the letters" {The Book of Revelation, 301).
62
The Hebrew reads ]DK *φ*Ζ τρ^ΓΓ ("he shall be blessed by the God of Amen").
The Septuagint translates the verse εύλογήσουσιν yâp τόν θεόν τόν άληθινόν. This
already suggests that Revelation 3:14 shows a dependence on Isaiah 65:16 as well
as a knowledge of both the Hebrew and the Greek versions of the verse (Aune, Reve­
lation 1-5, 255; Beale, The Book of Revelation, 298-99; and Ladd, A Commentary on
the Revelation of John, 64).
63
It is probably correct to take "the Amen" as epexegetical to "the faithful and true
witness." This is suggested by the Septuagint translation of Isaiah 65:16, where God
is called "the true God" (Beale, The Book of Revelation, 299; and Ladd, A
Commentary on the Revelation of John, 64-65).
64
Beale, The Book of Revelation, 298-301.
65
Ibid., 301.
66
The use of the Old Testament in the Apocalypse is too dynamic for the meaning
here to be limited to that of the Old Testament context (see Greg K. Beale, John's
Use of the Old Testament in Revelation, Journal for the Study of the New Testament
Supplement Series [Sheffield: Sheffield Academic, 1998]).
 Christ as 'Αρχή in Revelation 3:14 227

lying strictly on the Old Testament allusions, the remainder of the

letter to Laodicea must be examined with due regard for the lexical
and syntactical issues considered above.
In the charge and warning of Revelation 3:15-16 Christ
wished that the Laodiceans' works were of some value.67 While
claiming to be believers, the Laodiceans were living distasteful and
useless lives. In contrast to Christ, they were neither faithful nor
true witnesses, resulting in condemnation.68 In verses 17-18 Christ
said that the Laodiceans claimed one thing but their conduct was
in stark contrast (cf. James 2:16). While they relied on the world
for their wealth and well-being, Jesus was telling them to rely in­
stead on Him for spiritual blessings.69 In Christ's call to repentance
(Rev. 3:19-20) He reaffirmed His love, calling them, in a picture of
intimate table fellowship, to repent.70 The promise in verses 21-22
to the "one who overcomes'* is similar to the promise to the church
of Thyatira (2:26-28). The idea—prevalent in the Apocalypse—is
the present reign of Christ with the Father and the future reign of
believers with Christ in His eternal kingdom.
This brief examination has shown that the Laodicean letter
has no apparent new-creation language or theme. What is present,
however, is a promise of reigning with Christ in His kingdom. This
suggests that the debated phrase in Revelation 3:14 means "the
supreme Authority over the creation of God," with κτίσις referring
not merely to the new creation, but also to the present world as
well. The phrase ή αρχή της κτίσεως τον θεον relates to the mes­
sage to Laodicea most naturally if αρχή is understood in its gov­
ernmental sense.

HISTORICAL THEOLOGICAL CONTEXT

In the preceding sections it was argued that a governmental un­

derstanding of Revelation 3:14 is the most probable interpretation
based on lexical, syntactical, and contextual issues. However, such
a hypothesis must be weighed against the historical theological
context of the New Testament within which the passage was writ-

b l
Beale, The Book of Revelation, 303. See also Aune, Revelation 1-5, 257; Caird,
The Revelation of Saint John, 57; Ladd, A Commentary on the Revelation of John,
65; and Stan Porter, "Why the Laodiceans Received Lukewarm Water (Revelation
3:15-18),* Tyndale Bulletin 3 (1987): 143-49.
6 8
Caird, The Revelation of Saint John, 57.
6 9
Ladd, A Commentary on the Revelation of John, 66.
Aune, Revelation 1-5, 250-54.
228 BlBLlOTHECA SACRA / April-June 2004

ten and read. Of primary concern in this section is the teaching in

the New Testament and in the early church about the agency of
Christ in relation to creation.
The concept of the Son of God as Creator has biblical sup­
port.71 However, Christ's relationship to creation is most often por­
trayed as one of agency rather than primary source.72 God the Fa­
ther is repeatedly associated with the act of creation as the ulti­
mate cause or unqualified initiator,73 the Son being viewed as the
personal agent through whom this activity is executed. Since this
notion of Christ as the agent of creation is so prevalent in the New
Testament,74 the likelihood that αρχή in Revelation 3:14 means
"first cause" of creation becomes less probable. The emphasis of
Scripture and early Christian theology is the headship of the Fa­
ther and the functional agency of the Son (1 Cor. 11:3; 15:27-28),
according to which the Father alone could appropriately be de­
scribed as the αρχή of creation if αρχή is understood as causal.75

71
John 1:3,10; 1 Corinthians 8:6; Colossians 1:15-17; Hebrews 1:2,10.
72
The Son is related to creation most often with the preposition old (John 1:3, 10;
1 Cor. 8:6; Heb. 1:2), although êv is also used (Col. 1:16). Wallace writes, "An inter-
mediate agent, usually expressed by δια + the genitive, is an agent who acts on
behalf of another or in the place of another. This agent is not, strictly speaking, used
by another as an instrument would be" (Wallace, Greek Grammar beyond the Ba­
sics, 373). A. T. Robertson explains, "When δια occurs with the personal agent, he is
regarded as the intermediate agent," and he points to 1 Corinthians 8:6 as an ex­
ample of God the Father as source and God the Son as the mediate agent of all
things (A Grammar of the Greek New Testament in the Light of Historical Research,
4th ed. [New York: Hodder & Stoughton, 1923; reprint, Nashville: Broadman, 1934],
582-83).
73
Romans 1:25; Ephesians 3:9; 1 Corinthians 8:6; 11:12; Hebrews 3:3-4.
74
Only one example, Hebrews 1:10 (which is actually a quotation of Psalm
102:25-27 originally applied to Yahweh), refers to the Son in the role of the direct
Creator of the universe.
75
These statements are descriptive of the historical theological situation at the
time and in no way suggest an ontological subordination of the Son to the Father.
Instead they describe the economic or functional submission typical of New Testa­
ment and early Christian dogma—how the divine persons acted distinctly in crea­
tion. In this regard the Father is the primary cause, the Son the mediating cause,
and the Spirit the perfecting cause (Basil, Liber de Spiritu Sancto 16.38; and John
of Damascus, De Fide Orthodoxa 1.8). For contemporary discussions from various
major Christian traditions see James D. G. Dunn, Christology, vol. 1 of The Christ
and the Spirit: Collected Essays of James D. G. Dunn (Grand Rapids: Eerdmans,
1998), 381, 417-20; Catherine Mowry LaCugna, God for Us: The Trinity and Chris­
tian Life (San Francisco: HarperCollins, 1991), 21-52; Vladimir Lossky, The Mysti­
cal Theology of the Eastern Church, trans. Fellowship of St. Alban and St. Sergius
(Cambridge: James Clarke, 1957; reprint, New York: St. Vladimir's Seminary Press,
1976), 58-62, 100-101; and Peter Toon, Our Triune God: A Biblical Portrayal of the
Trinity (Wheaton, IL: Victor, 1996), 240.
 Christ as 'Αρχή in Revelation 3:14 229

Most importantly, in the Apocalypse itself God the Father is

portrayed as the Creator of the world five times,76 while Christ is
never portrayed as the Creator or even the agent in creation. On
the other hand God the Father is described in terms of sovereign
rule on six occasions,77 while Christ as Ruler occurs in at least
eleven contexts.78
In light of these considerations from the New Testament and
especially the Book of Revelation, it is apparent that the emphasis
is on Christ's reign rather than His being the primary source of
creation as would be indicated if αρχή were taken in its impersonal
nuance as "source."79 Furthermore Christ's consistent role as di­
vine agent in creating—not as the object of creation—argues
against a propartial or prosequential understanding.
CHALLENGES TO THE INTERPRETATION
One challenge to the governmental interpretation of Revelation
3:14 is the text's choice of the feminine and abstract αρχή to convey
such a meaning. To help explain this, one must note the use of αρχή
in Colossians, an epistle that was no doubt in the hands of the
Laodiceans by the time Revelation was written and with which
they were familiar.80 Throughout Colossians αρχή is used in a gov­
ernmental sense and in the plural, in reference to the spiritual
and/or secular forces at odds with God's kingdom. Only in Colos­
sians 1:18 is αρχή used in the singular with reference to Christ,
and this is in a context that refers to His kingdom (v. 13) and His
supremacy over the plurality of άρχαί mentioned in verse 16. Thus
by using αρχή in Revelation 3:14 Christ made a conceptual contact
with the Colossian epistle and communicated His supremacy over
all so-called άρχαί. While the Laodiceans were aware that there are

75
Revelation 4:11; 10:6; 14:7; 21:2, 5.
77
Revelation 1:8; 11:15,17; 12:10; 15:3; 19:6.
78
Revelation 1:5, 6 (debatable), 9; 2:26-27; 3:21; 5:12-13; 11:15; 12:5, 10; 17:14;
19:11-16; 20:4-6.
79
Since αρχή is never used in a causal sense in the New Testament and rarely in
the Septuagint, the background for the understanding of αρχή as source or origin
would likely be its causal usage in Greek metaphysical thought. However, if Revela­
tion 3:14 is drawing on that background, the term would also carry the philosophi­
cal meaning, which is the primary cause, behind which there is no other. However,
to view Revelation 3:14 as stating that Christ is the primary cause of either the
original creation or the new creation is inconsistent with the New Testament em­
phasis on Christ as the agent of creation and the Father alone in the proper role of
αρχή in this specific philosophical sense.
8 0
See Colossians 2:1; 4:13,15-16 (Aune, Revelation 1-5, 249).
230 BiBLlOTHECA SACRA / April-June 2004

many άρχαί in the world, only Christ is the αρχή par excellence and
therefore calls for total allegiance.
Also the causal, propartial, and prosequential interpretations
face similar problems with the use of αρχή in Revelation 3:14. If
the verse intends to express the notion of personal cause of crea­
tion, the masculine αίτιος would have served better (cf. Heb. 5:9).
If the intended meaning were "first created being," then πρώτος
would have best communicated such an idea. Thus it appears that
any viable position on the passage must address the question of the
use of αρχή as opposed to a more concrete and personal term. A
governmental view has no disadvantage on this point.
OTHER APPEALS TO PARALLEL PASSAGES
In previous studies on the meaning of αρχή in Revelation 3:14 em­
phasis has been placed on "parallel" passages in the New Testa­
ment or even the Septuagint. 81
The problem with appealing to parallel passages at the begin­
ning of a study of Revelation 3:14 is one of validation. The passages
are used to conclude a particular view of αρχή often without ex­
amining the consistency of such a view with the immediate context
itself.82 Also appealing to obscure passages gives little help in
shedding light on the already obscure title in Revelation 3:14.83
While Burney's argument for Proverbs 8:22 as the background to
Revelation 3:1484 is given considerable weight in the third edition
of A Greek-English Lexicon of the New Testament and Other Early

81
Some point to John 1:1 and the reference to Christ's agency in the creation of
the universe iv αρχή as support for a causal interpretation (e.g., NET Bible on Rev.
3:14). Others argue that the hymn of Colossians 1:15-18 and its use of αρχή for
Christ stands as the background for a governmental, causal, or even propartial or
prosequential interpretation, the variance resulting from the obscurity of the Colos-
sian use itself (e.g., Aune, Revelation 1-5, 256; and R. H. Charles, The Revelation of
St. John, International Critical Commentary [Edinburgh: Clark, 1920], 1:94). Oth­
ers point to the description of personified wisdom as αρχή in the Septuagint of Prov­
erbs 8:22, where wisdom shares in the creative activity of God (e.g., C. F. Burney,
"Christ as the αρχή of Creation," Journal of Theological Studies 26 [1925-1926]:
160-77). Cf. Heinrich Kraft, Die Offenbarung des Johannes, Handbuch zum Neuen
Testament (Tübingen: Mohr, 1974), 85.
82
Beale rightly balances the matter when he writes, "Regardless of the relation-
ship of Rev. 1:5 and 3:14 to Col. 1:15-18, both texts are to be interpreted primarily
by their immediate contexts in Revelation" (The Book of Revelation, 298).
83
Appeals to Colossians 1:18 and Proverbs 8:22 are examples of this. The proper
interpretations of these are disputed, as are the relevant parts they play in the
meaning of Revelation 3:14.
84
Burney, "Christ as the αρχή of Creation," 160-77.
 Christ as 'Αρχή in Revelation 3:14 231

Christian Literature,85 his failure to begin with a lexically and con-

textually sensitive exegesis of the passage mitigates against his
conclusions.86 It is the present writer's conviction that one must
begin with a lexical, syntactical, contextual, and historical theo­
logical investigation, as presented in this article.

CONCLUSION

The constellation of evidences presented in this article strongly

suggests that viewing αρχή in Revelation 3:14 as governmental is
most probable, whereas causal, propartial, or prosequential inter­
pretations are improbable. This view fits the theme and theology of
the Apocalypse itself (Christ as Ruler over the present and future
ages); it harmonizes with the New Testament doctrine of the
agency of Christ in creation (by and through the Son, but from the
Father); it adopts a legitimate nuance of αρχή when referring to
persons; it harmonizes with the most probable understanding of
κτίσις (the created universe rather than the act of creating); it best
explains the syntactical functions of the noun αρχή, and the two
genitives (777^ κτίσεως as a genitive of subordination and τον θεον
as a genitive of source); and it best accounts for the subsequent ref­
erence in Revelation 3:21-22 to Christ being granted authority to
rule by the Father.
The translation "the Ruler of God's creation" may reflect the
intended meaning, but it is a bit too personal for the governmental
nuance of αρχή. In the other extreme the impersonal "rule" would
also be inappropriate. Therefore the rendering "the supreme
Authority over the creation of God" seems to be the most probable
interpretation and most accurate translation of Revelation 3:14.
Though such an interpretation is compatible with both non-
Trinitarian and Trinitarian Christologies, it does deprive non-
Trinitarian advocates of a proof text. Regarding the recent asser­
tion by Bauer, Arndt, Gingrich, and Danker that the meaning "first
created" for αρχή in Revelation 3:14 is linguistically probable,87 in
light of the evidence and arguments presented in this article the
entry should be amended to "linguistically improbable."

05
Bauer, Arndt, Gingrich, A Greek-English Lexicon of the New Testament and
Other Early Christian Literature, 3d ed., 138.
8 6
See L. H. Silberman, "Farewell to ό αμήν. A Case for a Semitic Original of the
Apocalypse," Novum Testamentum 14 (1972): 277-79.
8
Bauer, Arndt, and Gingrich, A Greek-English Lexicon of the New Testament and
Other Early Christian Literature, 3d ed., 138.
 ^ s
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