Reading theories pp

1. 1. 1 Reading Theories and Their Relationship to Reading Instruction • Major Theories –

Behaviorism – Cognitivism – Constructivism – Transactionalism • These theories have
neither been proven nor unproven. • They are simply alternative ways of explaining the
process of learning to read. • These theories have led teachers to a variety of beliefs about
instructional choices to help children develop successful reading strategies.
2. 2. 2 Behaviorism and a Parts-to-Whole, Bottom-Up Reading Process • Behaviorism –
learning was essentially a conditioned response to a stimulus. • In reading the stimulus for
reading is the print on the page. • Bottom-up – progressing from the parts of language
(letters) to the whole (meaning). • Reading theorists for this model include: – Holmes; Singer;
Gough; and LaBerge and Samuels
3. 3. 3 Meaning Text Paragraphs Sentences Words Letters Behaviorist or Bottom-up model Of
the reading process
4. 4. 4 Sound/symbol relationships Words Meaning Phonics-first or subskills instruction Teach
phonics first with letters of the alphabet and the sounds these letters represent before
beginning to read books independently.
5. 5. 5 Cognitivism and the Interactive Reading Process • Cognitive interactive reading theories
place equal emphasis on the role of a reader’s schema and the importance of the print on
the page. • Word, sentence, and text meaning are conditioned, influenced, or shaped by the
whole set of experiences and knowledge the reader brings to reading, rather than the
meaning jumping off the page into the reader’s head based on a verbatim rendering of text.
6. 6. 6 Cognitivism: an Hybrid • Cognitivism is a combination of Gestaltist thinking and
Behaviorism
7. 7. 7 Knowledge Experiences Emotions Reader’s Intentions Meaning Gestaltist or top-down
theory reflected in a model of the reading process.
8. 8. 8 Experiences Knowledge Emotions Reader’s intentions Meaning Select unit of print
Sentences Words Letters Paragraphs Text Cognitive or Interactive model of the reading
process Strengths of both Gestalt and behaviorist theories were combined while at the same
time minimizing weaknesses associated with either theory.
9. 9. 9 Vocabulary Decoding Comprehension A skills instructional approach to reading is
advocated by the interactive model of reading
10. 10. 10 Constructivism and the Transactional Reading Model • Constructivism is a theory of
learning that represents the culmination of several distinct lines of research: –
Developmental Psychology (Piaget) – Socio-historical Psychology (Vygotsky) – Semiotic
Interactionism (Bruner, Gardner, Eisner, & Goodman) • Meaningful learning is at the core of
constructivist theory. • Language cueing systems – syntax, semantics, grapho/phonics,
pragmatics. • Reading becomes a whole-to-part-to-whole process.
11. 11. 11 Syntax and semantics– word order that determines sentence meaning. MEANING
Graphophonics – Letters and letter sounds Social and situational context and stance
TRANSACTIONAL READING MODEL Learner constructs a mental version of the text by
using theses cues.
12. 12. 12 Views of Literacy • Learning to read and write begins at 6.5 years of age. • Reading
develops first, and then writing. • Literacy develops through learning isolated skills, such as
phonics and writing the alphabet. • Experiences of the child before schooling are considered
irrelevant. • Children all pass through a predetermined scope and sequence of readiness and
reading skills and their progress should be monitored by periodic formal testing. • Learning to
read and write begins very early in life. • Reading and writing develop concurrently and
interrelatedly in young children. • Literacy develops from real life situations in which reading
and writing are used to get things done. • Children learn literacy through active engagement.
• Being read to plays a special role in the literacy development of the young child. • Learning
 to read and write is a developmental process. Children pass through the stages in a variety
of way and at different ages. Traditional Constructivist (Reading Readiness) (Emergent
Literacy)
13. 13. 13 Focused/ Explicit Language Instruction Elements of a Balanced Literacy Program
(Holdaway, 1979) •Reading Aloud •Shared Reading and Writing •Guided Reading and
Interactive Writing •Language Experience •Supported Reading and Writing •Independent
Reading and Writing •Assessment •Design Literacy Environments •Instructional Planning
14. 14. 14 Syntax– word order that determines sentence meaning. MEANING Graphophonics –
Letters and letter sounds Pragmatics - Social and situational context and stance
TRANSACTIONAL READING MODEL Semantics – comprehension / meaning Transactional
Literacy Event
15. 15. 15 Transactionalism • Transactionalism is based on the notion that all literacy events are
a transaction between the sender and the receiver in which both are changed by the event. •
The stance taken by each is key to the transaction. (Efferent and Aesthetic) (Rosenblatt)
16. 16. 16 Stance • Efferent – The reader’s expectation is that the reading will be one that
informs, gives details, and is usually expository. • Aesthetic – The reader’s expectsation is tht
the reading will deal with feelings, emotions and is usually narrative.

1. Cognitive Theories and Reading Comprehension Building Blocks of the Reading

Process
2. Why is reading comprehension important? • NCLB – reading scores are critical to
making AYP and everything that goes along with it • Content-Area reading comprehension
continues to suffer – impacting students ability to independently process complex ideas •
Students reading skills will have a direct impact on their earning potential
3. How can teachers improve students reading comprehension?  • Recognize the
complexity of a reading process • Use knowledge of cognitive and the reading processes to
develop lessons that help students comprehend a variety of text • Help the students develop
and master the skills that will enable them to become successful readers
4. During the Presentation I will: • Examine the reading process from both the Information
Processing Theory and the Constructivism theoretical perspectives • Provide the background
on the reading process and how it ties in with the cognitive theories
5. Instructional Reading Strategies • Many of the cognitive theories act as a basis for
reading instructional theories • Overall comprehension is directly impacted by all three stages
of the reading process • (Before, During & After) • Each stage has a set of skills that are
common to all successful readers

6. Instructional Reading Strategies • Many of these skills transcend one particular stage
of the reading process • The reading process is a dynamic process – everyone must find their
own recipe to become a successful reader. • That recipe is constantly changing • Many people
have an over simplified understanding of the reading process
7. Levels of Comprehension Meaningful Learning:recognizing a relationship between new
information and information already in your long-term memory Rote Learning:Learning without
attaching much meaning to it. Evaluate Synthesize Analyze Application Bloom’s Taxonomy
Comprehension Knowledge
8. Theoretical Perspectives of the Reading Process • Information Processing Theory •
Focuses on what goes on inside the learners head – learning, memory & performance •
 Identify the internal mechanisms that help people process information • Many of the skills of
the Before and During reading stages focuses on mechanisms readers dynamically employ to
comprehend a reading
9. Theoretical Perspectives of the Reading Process • Information Processing Theory -
Examples • Prior Knowledge and Making Connections • Computer Analogy – Forgetting to
Save the information to your long-term memory • Predictions and Questions • Ways of
interacting with the information • Monitoring Comprehension • Metacognition – Thinking about
thinking • The reader is able to adapt their own reading process to ensure comprehension –
fix-it-up strategies
10. Theoretical Perspectives of the Reading Process • Constructivism Theory • Focuses
on how the learner internalizes new information and creates their own understanding •
Examines how people combine new knowledge with their already created schemas • Much of
the After reading stage focuses on the skills the readers dynamically employ to comprehend a
reading - building their own interpretations of new information
11. Theoretical Perspectives of the Reading Process Constructivism Theory - Examples
Summarize – Explicit vs. Implicit (Not Paraphrasing) Students perceptions of the reading will
be impacted by the prior or background knowledge Synthesize – mix new and old information
to generate a personal understanding Students take ownership of the information -
strengthens the students ability to retrieve information Evaluation – Form and Support
Opinions Students take ownership of the information - strengthens the students ability to
retrieve information
12. Before Reading Skills • Previewing / Surveying – scan pictures, titles and subtitles •
Text Analysis – identify text format and select proper reading strategies based on the type and
genre of the text • Elicit prior knowledge – past experiences used to make connections while
reading • Develop a purpose for reading by making questions and predictions based upon the
preview of the text
13. Before Reading Skills - continued • Helps readers focus their attention • Questions,
Predictions and Text analysis allows the reader to read at the appropriate rate • Will help them
move information from the sensory register into their working (short-term) memory • Eliciting
Prior knowledge helps reader jump start the cognitive process
14. During Reading Skills • Update and create new predictions and questions to maintain
focus while actively reading • Work to expand vocabulary skills • Reading Rate – adjust
reading rate based on the difficulty of the text and personal reading skills • Visualize – using
information from both the text and prior knowledge to create and maintain a mental image
while your read • Connection – develop links between the text and prior knowledge to ensure
comprehension
15. During Reading Skills - continued • Develop Inferences – combining information from
the text and prior knowledge to make both explicit and implicit conclusions • Monitor
Comprehension – identifying possible reading difficulties while completing a reading
assignment, then taking correct measures to ensure comprehension • Re-read – taking time
to re-read a passage if not completely understood • Context Clues – use various strategies to
determine the basic meaning of an unknown or unfamiliar word
16. During Reading Skills - continued • During reading skills help the reader sift through
the information in their working memory • Starts the process of transferring information into
long-term memory • Students move beyond rehearsal – focusing on basic facts • Stop reading
passively and begin to become an active reader
17. During Reading Skills - continued • Active Readers start the process of transferring
information in the long-term memory by: • Elaboration – adding additional ideas to new
 information • Organizing – Making connections among various new pieces of information •
Visual Imagery – Making mental images
18. After Reading Skills • Assess Reading Comprehension – use a series of questions to
check overall comprehension • Summarize – identifying the both the explicit and implicit main
idea(s) and the supporting details • Synthesize – mix prior knowledge with information from
the text to generate a personal understanding from a passage • Evaluate – form and support
opinions based upon information from a reading
19. After Reading Skills - continued • Active Readers continue the process of transferring
information in the long-term memory by: • Elaboration – adding additional ideas to new
information • Organizing – Making connections among various new pieces of information •
Visual Imagery – Making mental images
20. After Reading Skills - continued • Once the students begin to summarize, synthesize
and evaluate more often and with greater incite: • More meaningful learning experiences will
occur • Greater chance of retrieving the information • The information could be less likely to
decay
21. Building Comprehension A Model of Hunan Memory Lost ? Lost Lost SensoryRegister
Working(Sort-Term) Memory Long-TermMemory Input In-depth cognitive processing - Making
Connections Attention Ormond, J. (2006). Essential of Educational Psychology. Upper Saddle
River: Pearson Education, Inc. (p. 25)
22. Resources Daniels, H. & Zemelman, S. (2004). Subjects matter: Every teacher’s guide to
content-area reading. Portsmouth: Heineman. Ormond, J. (2006). Essential of Educational
Psychology. Upper Saddle River: Pearson Education, Inc.. Oczkus, L. (2004). Super 6
comprehension strategies: 35 lessons and more for reading success. Norwood: Christopher-
Gordon Publishers. Robb, L. (2000). Teaching reading in middle school. New York:
Schoolastic Professional Books. Wilson, E. (2004). Reading at the middle and high school
levels: Building active readers across the curriculum. Arlington: Educational Research
Service.

Updated Mar 3, 2020

What Is Stratified Random Sampling?

Stratified random sampling is a method of sampling that involves the division of a
population into smaller sub-groups known as strata. In stratified random
sampling, or stratification, the strata are formed based on members' shared
attributes or characteristics such as income or educational attainment.

Stratified random sampling is also called proportional random sampling or quota

random sampling.

KEY TAKEAWAYS

 Stratified random sampling allows researchers to obtain a sample

population that best represents the entire population being studied.
 Stratified random sampling involves dividing the entire population into
homogeneous groups called strata.
  Stratified random sampling differs from simple random sampling,
which involves the random selection of data from an entire population, so
each possible sample is equally likely to occur.
Volume 75%
 

1:40
Stratified Random Sampling
How Stratified Random Sampling Works
When completing analysis or research on a group of entities with similar
characteristics, a researcher may find that the population size is too large for
which to complete research. To save time and money, an analyst may take on a
more feasible approach by selecting a small group from the population. The
small group is referred to as a sample size, which is a subset of the population
that is used to represent the entire population. A sample may be selected from a
population through a number of ways, one of which is the stratified random
sampling method.