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    A Journey Through The Landscape of Philosopy

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    Franco James Sanpedro
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    A Journey Through the Landscape of Philosopy

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    A Journey Through The Landscape of Philosopy

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    Franco James Sanpedro

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    WtO¢57 134 | orn chi ri Seu Ming as As pus Soren Ett i Sle ecbcon Manger acy al Proje Coron Ta enon Eero ae Map: eco ing sce Nera Cy sevor Cow Dogan Nb Day Cover Deg: Kay Fernie i) Covet mige8 ack Bowen 3 inwatng Roe ay Head mera Re RR Demy nd Sotaonkars AA Gouri Pow Co Capos ay bray of Congress Cataloging in-Pubiation Data owen ack ‘Ajourey trough helandicepe of phir: see Jack owen ste peo. IS. 97e0 21328049 Isuw0-0-71-348 1, Pls. Tie, soi.asr aor ode oro Copyright 2008 by Pez Bicone Al ght served. No partof hie pabltion my be reproduced oredins ‘eval temo taunted, nay form oy yea devon mechanic, shotonpying. rding or ater thot he poe wren permission of te obser Pune inthe United Sates Isa 1s 976 0-21-1824 (sai ioosa1-tome 3456789 10-DOH—I0 09 os Dedicated tall those who inspired, challenged, and encouraged sme in the classroom, Withee rtf he edo enjoy incrative expreson tnd tno —auseRr ENrEns Especially my philosophy professors at Stanford and California State University Long Beach—that a dedication to this volume may. provide at least a glimpse of my profound experience with you. ‘vem afi and fr ap Teh ne fan tor ifn ‘And to my students and athletes over the past seven years—that you see your fingerprints throughout this volume and realize you Ihave shaved wid: ses snucl have with you. otc it len ose jouneer Contents Preface x Song lyrics and Movie Tits xiv Gide to Critical Thinking and Logic Acknowledgments xxv PROLOGUE Philosophy 1 The Allegory of the Cave Pusvo. 2 The Vale of Phiesophy BuneRasD Rows, 7 The Function of cation wou KesinaouRey 12 ‘The Ofte Theory Sev Veeck 17 TheApolgy Puro 25 Movi Ties 38 Songlytis 38 CHAPTERI Knowledge 39 Theneretas Puro aL Meditations fand 1 Rane Descasres 47 Thre Dilegus Between Hylas ed Ponous Gronce exeatey 52 ‘41 Binay Concerning Human Understanding Jones Lacks Tt “Appecrnce and Reality Bixtran Russa, 81 {ithe So of the Kromer Epistemology Sgnfeant? organ Cove 87 Movie Tes 95 Soopiyrics 9 CHAPTER? _Self,Mind,and Soul 98 Of Persona deity Davo Hue 100 Whee Arai? Dass. C.Duvwerr 108 ‘Te Buds Theory of "No Self” Senc-Canstomee KOM 119 On the Soul (Mediaions Nand VI) RENEDIscamTs: 126 The Mind-Body Poem ox Seaas 134 Whar ts Like o Bea Bai? TwOMAS NAGRL 144 The Concept of Mind: Descartess Myth Gunexr ROLE 153, Sensations an Brain Proceses SMART. 161 Mov Ties “168 Soogycics 170 CHAPTER3 Science 172 ‘A Breauter ith Dod Hume Wester C.Satmow 174 ‘The Sucre of Scie Revolutions THOMAS KUHN 196 Science: Conjectures end Refutions Kast Poveen 206 Hw to Defnd Society Apsinst Science PAO. PENRABEND 217 Why Astrology Isa Pseudoscience Pax R. THAGARD 228 What is Thue? Riera Deans 235 ‘Subjects, Power, and Knowledge Description av Prescription in Feminist, ‘Philosophies ef Science USUEN LONGING. 241 Movie Tae 259 Songer 254 CHAPTER4 GodandCreation 257 Five Prof of Go's Erne THOMAS AQUDUS 259 ‘The Onolgicl Argument "ANS oF Choreasvny 262 ‘Theology and Flafication Aavost Few, RM, Hate, Bast Mecue 266 Agnins Religious Dgmatism Rawaxwisina 273 Dialogues Concerning Natural Zalgion Divo Hume 277 ‘The Watchmaker and Design Wn Patsy 289 Inteligent Design: The Sint Alenativ to Bolton ‘WAN S Hasan Jon H. Cave 292 ‘he Blind Watchmaker WucuasD Dawes 308 Believing Where We Cannot Prove Patue Kress 322 ‘Movie Ties 334 Songhytis 398 CHAPTERS The Religious Problem of Evil 337 ‘Avis: The Gase Against Gad Gronce Surat 338, The Probl of Bil Jorn Hick 343 Movie Tike 350, - Songlyces 390 CHAPTER6 Faith and Reason 351 Thoughts “Bas Pateat 352 Gencluding Unscientific Rosrpe Sonn Kunezcaano 356 ‘The thes of Belief Wain K. Crono 363, ‘he Wilt Belew Wranejanes 370 ‘The Bouton of Religious Beli Sten Powe 281 CHAPTER7 Eastern Thought 386 ‘The Four Noble Truths Tae Buona 387, Sct Writings Gavowt 390 TheDao De fing Loe. 397 Move Tider 404 Songs 406 CHAPTERS FreeWill 405 Fndom and Deteriniom Recaxo"Taton 407 Thelsion of Free Wil" PanLd Howaacn 418 Meaning and Pree Wil Jou Hosrms 426 re Will Ancient Dipute New Tomer Rowent Kast 433 Free Wilf and Morality WT Stace 441 How Advertsing Changes the Wy We Tinkand Fee! Jean Kasourse 449 Minds, Brains and Programs Jou esate 465: Machine Consciousness Wat Lxcas 477 Movie 485 Seaghyres 5 CHAPTERS Politicsand Society 487 Jectie and Moray PLATO 488 Leviathan TionasHonees 511 Tow Meares of overnment Jolin Locke 528 Thedijthof Merit TasYouc $37 Movie Ties 542 Somglyle 512 Cones + i CHAPTER 10 Aesthetics 543, WherisArd Iso Towstor 544 ‘The NEA Should Not Fund Obwenty. jesse Haus $52 Movie Ties 557 Senger 557 CHAPTER 11 Morality 558 The OalengeofCutwal Rlatvine Jars Roctas $60 icomachean Ethics AusTons. 570 Foundations ofthe Metaphysics of Morale IMManue. Kast 594 Usliteranism Yous Seuner Mi 608 Core Based Ethics Canou GHLCAN 621 ‘thie Bgoiom the Viewe of Seihnees 4 Rao 692 SPECIAL TOPICS:ISSUES IN APPLIED ETHICS ABORTION. (nthe Moral and Legal Stans of Abortion Many ANE WARREN 642 Abortion and the “Feminine Voice” Cen Wour-DEVIE 649 DEATH PENALTY (Capt Punishment ANTHONT G. AMSTERDAM 662 ‘The Uhimate Punshment A Defense of Capital Punishment BroesrvaN DON Faas 674 CLONING “Goodbye Dol?” Te Ethie of Haman Cloning Jv Hass 679, The Wisdom of Repuguence iow Kass 699 Poly om Stem Call Reseach ard Vato of Stem Cl Research “Evkanement Act Geonck W. Bust 599, ANIMALRIGHTS ‘All Animals Are Equal... PBCERSWGER 703 The Case forthe Use of Animals in Biomedical Reearch Cant. Cowen 714 sPonrs Eraics Why the Goed Foul Is Not Good WaRnen Passe 723, CCrininal Punishment of Vilence in Sport cx Bowen 726 Movie Ties 729 Senge 729 Preface “item meat piapy butt plop Introduction ‘Asa auth and philosopher I expec tha seaderespproach this book fr sy number of reasons. It could derive fom a genuine interest ato what ‘ilosphy sal about Or maybe from some sor of school-related requie- ‘ment. And it might bea fello-upto previous endestore—eiher ae revising ror paosophclly related discussions, oan already helghtned interes in Philosophical ines or mays even a rel fiom ending this book's core sponding nore, The Dream Weaver. Regardless, this book for everyone — reryone interested in coming to know the word apund him or her, in exploring new ideas, in challenging one's curently held point of view, ann exploring on own place in the word ‘Thetrucnatreof philosophy is dificult to pinpoint. One could decipher ‘the root ofthe Greek word philcrphic—oveof wisdom though that paints very broad pictre. Philosophy intlly earned the designation Queen of Sciences ast iluminated undying sues ofall ther disciplines a well as ving rise to new branches of science. My rel hope hee i, instead of my ‘efning it hat you take am active role a this youre The del rel fr the ‘caer stat they lear o piso aswel a en about philosophy. Tn my esearch over the yeas Thaw encountered hundreds of academic expe ‘ents which capture elements of human and animal nature and also relate cet toimparaat themes whi philosophy. Treen particular and out, nthe fit ofthese, experimenters pace ve monkey ina cage containing a Ter leading to a banana. When a monkey ecends the ladder, the othe: Prac four cre hosed down with cold water. To avoid further water-dousing the ‘monkeys attack any monkey who attempss to climb the de in thefts. ‘The experimenters then eplace one ofthe monkeys When tht replacement inevitably goes forthe banana, the other four aac him. Agsn, one ofthe for remaining origin] monkeys ie replaced and spain the four attack him ‘wen he ascends the ladder. This cars nt alive monkeys inthe cage ate nhew-—rone of them have any knowledge of the cold-water punishment because none ofthe original monkeys are in the group Ye anytime = monkey str tothe lade, the ater four attack ir jst bese, Inthe second experiment an infamous 1964 dy done tale University by Stanley Milgram, volunteer subjects (refered to as “reader") are ineucted to reed word pista “learner” (ho the reader bless al a voluneer) wh i supposed to memorize them. The reader ist watches a the lernerisrapped down toa chair in ea adjacent room and connected to an“ electroshock device” Subject are to thatthe purpose ofthe experiment ieto tet the effects of punishment on esi. Aaytime the letter gies an incorrect anaes the reader is nstrcted to niminster an electric shock to the leaner. The hocks begin very mull (15 yls) and increase by 15 vl very time the lesmer responds incorrectly Alo the way, the learner begins to el out in pan pleading that they cease the experiment, complaining of = heart condition and eventually (ithe reader continues long enough) the eedbock stope altogether OF the 4 slant who pattipated 5 percent auminitered the strongest shock possible (50 vals) despite she learner’ pleading and evntal ak of response (Gee footnote below before continuing)” Inthe tied ofthe studies, 2 subject view: 25-second fm depleting two teams of three people (one team in blac, he oter in white). Each eam ha abet Sabjece are aked 0 determine how many passes the white eam makes to themselves. After about 1W seconds a person dreeed in a goila ont slowly wall into the room, stands in the middle of the room besting his chest, and then lly walls of Despite being onthe eceen for 9 seconds and in clear view, alot the 10,000 subjects aldose the gor When shown the vido again an ted to lok for the gorilla, ie appeated so obvious tha subjects often acased the exper enter of showing two diferent videos. ‘What can we discern from these studs The monkeys ilutate that we may often act without even rezing wiy we dso Yt it scemslike we should st Teas question the reasons behind why we do something insted of doing it jus becouse "thas how i's done” especialy in «case where others inca hstm. This snot to say that we ought to spend our time questioning al omony eld belies ll the ime. But dong so some ofthe time can result in two things In certain cae, itean help illuminate an iportnt truth upon hich we ca at As Koll Annan opined inhi 1997 onnmencement adres UMTT,"To lve isto choose. Butt choose wll you must know who you ‘what you stand fox where you want tg, and why you want og there” The second shortcoming that results fom fue to question the zu quo can be Sen through mare of personal lene: In fling to vette the rth that we take for granted, we may miss out on 2 deeper understanding of thet ticular phenomenon. ArT, Elie wrote in Four Quares ‘esha not couse fom exportion And he end ofall one exploring Willbeto acre where we tart ‘And know the place forthe fist ine ‘The “invite gor luminates jue how bated and limited we can be in| ‘ural to peeve the wodd. Given oer unique respective upbrngings and vironments, we became blind wo things outside our scope of atention, We ltrly donot se things that ae theewheter they be physi objets or ides that may run counter fo our wa. Once we eave what mostofen dite our attention television, cation, pola, advertisers religion we can then make changes accordingly oat the les, ain awareness of these forces ‘These ines aba nay ara Oe Por examples + hasbeen shown that parents are moe key to uc thee childern the avi the childs consdered more aractve + When ld tata person on the eke end ofthe phone i of ino sc, the speaker aug as much atthe sme okes old when they peeve the ‘edie snow mine cant proposals ae reviewed anonymously they at meted songs males and females When the ne erate diplay gener ‘pec names males are he ines more kl to win these {na survey inuling so who woud ea entry int esa, he only 65 escent predied Michal ore, 79 penn beled Mather Tere. Bt he Peon hat pent sive there belived would be meet ly oma it te hewen vas terse (This bis also lsat bythe Clee tance xalnation Boas survey of 629,00 high col venor of which ew per centred themervesas below area in "cil o pet along wih oer") leat our bits reach out to others andthe way we etter, nvr to ‘hey we view ou own ess and dep inward tothe may weview ouseles The Milgram experiment clearly demonstrates the inporance of think ing for once While neal everyone values another’ right tobe fee fom ham more than a scientists desire to conduct an experiment « majority cod totally counter otis. Without rst xtablishings sound foundation for (us bli we may act from ethers position of ignorance ot from other faz. out of our conto. Stanley Milgram referenced Next henchmen es just nother group who di wht they were told without thinking through Ae Hitler himself noted,"What good fortune for those in power that people don'tknoor how to think” n short, these three findings encourage ws to learn how to think for curselves ac examine what we know and hove we knit In iit introductory précis to the compendium that fellows, will ty to summarize jst what philosophy “doce” Philosophy nt only enlightens us by logialy framing often dificult issues, batt so provides an opportunity to “ofr the sake of doing” Imagine avoiding questions such asDo we haves soul” and "What f beauty?” and “in what ry do we hve fee wil™—all because yor fear not getting an answer. tthe last this quest for answers wil iluninate your own limits to knowledge. At the most wil provide you with ‘ret insight sbout yourel and the world. Cetin though, it wil encour {ge you to think for youreeland the ability to think for oneself is exential to becoming a self-sustaining person. After al, most of us forget the Krebs (Gyte an how to solve diferetalequations—or at he les, we a locate the information quickly on the Internet. But once you leatn to think, i becomesa part of you ands something that one could not otherwise quickly scceein a Book orn a computer, ‘And so your assver othe age-old question "What isthe meaning of ie” may well fer fom mine Income sen ie ke aking, "What she most valuable ching” IT ofr you the choice between one milion dollars and 2 truckload of water, imagine the money would have considerably grester "alueto you, Yet the sme ofler made to a cetawayon deserted ils the opposite answer. Coming to opposing yt "correct answers doesnot render the metning-oflife question useless. The quet self provides meaning, "Everyone vsesplosopy, thnks philrophically and benedts fom the fruits of philosophical discourse. In delving deeper, you will hopefully ‘become awvate ofthis in yourself and wil realize new and diferent waye to expand your 6wn horizon. The practical use of philosophy, is application to real-world issue, end its ailty to enlighten just happen tobe very «compeling by-prodcts—the cing onthe cake, as they say. Or maybe it’ the other way around. You can decide for youre Song Lyrics and Movie Titles Song Lyris Included st the end ofeach chapter you wil ind a it of cong tes, These song weve selected becuse of thelr philosophical relevance and relation to the topics of each respective chapter, My hope for the reader is tht you explore these Ijries on Your own and with frends snd classmates and Jecipher your own meaning + What partic pilrophilrlevane doe the onghave? ow does rele any ofthe readings, tbe, theories dicated is te chapter? + Bee there ay expecially poignant stanzas or Phrase? * What doe mean to Youn your wn i? ‘You ae also encouraged to find philosophically relevant Iyses in your ‘own musi collection (and email them tothe author if you're feeling especialy motivate). You will likely realize that, once again, philo- sophical inquiry snot limited to academia but, instead is prevlen: in our daly culture The Ice to most songs sre casi accessible onthe Interact through various search engines by entering the song tte (typi in quotation) performer's name, and the word Tis" For examples of five song (accompanied with questions, visit the books website dreamveaverpilosply.com—and go to the "Music Picks" ‘Seton under" ania Your Word Song rics and Move Tiles «a Movie Titles Alco incuded following each chapter ita list of movie tls wih «bref synopsis or philosophically relevant question. Agin ste how you can apply the das fom each chapter tthe themes and istues in each movie. Layries tothe Book's Theme Song* Beantifal Colors “The words quite pesca, ‘With my head dwn in heard Tes coal and is quiet ere, ‘boned to undentand es gest myer, seeing onl shadows of eat. Sol my head tthe wold, ‘sd in tied bythe ih you see the word in black and white, yore ising ou on allthe bes colors. ‘ak and light, wrong sod, Mayor might sndall there. Iya keapan tavling ote ext, Yow end op we Your paradigms ae ated. ‘hea you sees connec. You embrace both hese an mind inseking what ou find You hare ne idea my son our journey’ jut Degen yosloae with jes wide ope, ured the word wonders, nd you arenot lone “The word equi ill of wonder, ith ny ead out ofthe std Discussion Questions yorance i bls” In what ways might this be true? ‘negative consequences ofthis ideal How do you evaluate “angen bch hme pe onde Sang Lyte sn Movie Ties the opening and closing stanzas ofthe song thet seem tobe totally ‘opposing views? ‘What virtue might there be i seeing the world in “back and white"? What woul this mean? If right-and-wrong (mora) is not black- ‘nd-white issue, then how could we come to any answers cegarding ‘morality? If morality isa matter of black and white, why cast weal agree on moral vert ‘What produces greater insights fr you—your heat (intition, fh, passion) or mind loi, math reson) Is one “beter” than the othe? ‘What kind of thing alfect your paradigm (world-view)— Science? ‘Advertsing? Religion Society" With allo these Inflences, how can you make truly authentic choices? Do you find greater beauy/onder in something the more or less you ove about kt How does your answer affect the very you approsch ‘mowing your sl othersand the wold around you? Guide to Critical Thinking and Logie Mapp we somerset hey eth net reo eat at nt reno ef nde hat dart was ntlly abit apprehensive about ncuding fe a guide in what could lready bean intimidating book But gen the power of exit thiakingin co ‘many ventures, I igured that this might end up being the most important part ofthe book for the introductory-lvel reader Furthermore, aback: {round ia loge may actually ask your stedy of philorophy more enjoyeble, logics often considered the "nts and bot” of pieeophy. ‘A basic understanding of logic provides many adational benefits. A sharp citcl eye helps to dispel many ofthe logical rcke often used by ‘others who attempt to manipulate ws or convince sof someshing that snot, ttue~poltcan, fr example, and advertiser, the media, certain religious persons, cls, Interne scams ec. As Adolf Hider frighteningly usteated, "Thank goodnes for thor in power thet people dont know how to think” Just a Smportanty, having an understanding of loge and tsps can ‘help one avoid drawing incarect conclusions themselves swell asf help us vod peaking logically when we atempt todo othervise ‘And critical thinking can actualy befor, s you wil soon se. It ofen lps laminate exact what conclsion x revn and owt i defended nd then one can discover deeper trths in a more lucid manner Lasts criti thinking helps to determine not jus.at you think but ‘why you think ian why other think what he think a wel. In deciphering i sel + Gulde te Cra Thinking and Logie ‘exactly what conclusion enother defend an how they defend it you will not only learn alot about that person, bur you wil have a chance to len et shout your own position on a given topic, Learning about what you think teaches you something cbout who you ae for in many ways we ae what we ‘ink. Thinking erticlly wil take you beyond the banter ofen heard when psople are merely sharing tei opinions. While people are certainly fee to hav opinions (hough I would go so far aso say they have a ight other 2 soften sai, fr Pm nt sure who would grant this ight), these opinions ‘enol worth much if they ate not backed up by anything more than 8 ‘mere ling. nny ese, having the right to an opinion does't make thet opinion ight Insead of merely scering able or repeatedly contradicting someon, ‘one can formulate sn argument. The reader should noe thatthe em arg ‘ment’ here may ifr fom the usual ue and snot be cafased withthe oft-efrenced argument or impassioned verbal dispute in which frends, lovers and politic assalans ten participate Instead teers to thelogial us ofthe word—the defense of concusion through the use of any number cof premises! Tn what fellows, provide the base structure ofan argument alongwith» rnetod forasesamentindudnga basic overview of sos ofthe moreimportark Ins of log. Once we detenin good argument, ilustatesomeof he more prevalent pital (laces) ican in deelopingan argument. ‘Detectingand devising an argument is simplo—look for conduson and then loak or supporting evidence (premises) wed to defend tht conlsion, ‘nce you have done this, ine the premises upto se how they defend the conclusion Hee ia smple example of thi "We know that all humane ate ‘mammals and eae tat lan ina homan, Ths, wecan conclude tht ln is ‘mannal” This very basi argument with two premises and a conelision. [ren be standardized as follows Althumansare mami, (premise) 2 Tan isa human, (premise 2) 4 Therefore isamamsma,eencson) In his case, the premises ofthe argument are“Al humans ae mammals” "an sa human" The conelsion ie“lan sa mammal” Thise an example of a deduetvely valid argarent—if al the premises ae tue then the conc ‘Son mst be tr. this case, determining the truth of the premses ie quite ‘easy. at sol couched in defition, Bat ook tthe folowing argument “The death peasy in cheaper punishment than life estence in priser 2 Weshoul employ the cherpr a wo punishments. ie ia hiking eg +n 9: Therefore, should employ the deth penal In this as the argument is valid the premises ar tru then the conda- sion is true. But two problems arise with this argument. Fist, the second premise is questionabe: Do we really want o bate oor penal sem only on oa fo, then we should not have death row and instead shoul iedtely Filth condemned pgoner,thoxgh this wil kelp result in mote deaths of those weronly accused. So thi premize neds to be explored in greater depth? Secondly the fst premise isnot tue: Because ofthe appeals process ad ‘many other factor, the desth penalty costs the state considerably ore than 2 lite em in prison. So wl this argent valli not sound A sound argument is one in which the premises of ald argument are tue ‘An important not (and oft-ade mistake): Just because an argument is Invalid or unsound, this doesnot necessate tat the conclusion i unaceeps able. For example, while the previous argument i not sound, the conelsion ‘cons be true bat for other reasons. Be aware of someone dang acon asin is weg ju eae wn defended poorly Another thing fo beware of m arguments sa missing premise Very oen, 1 premise wil ether be astumed or Intentionally le oa ofan argued Look the following argument 1. The death pny ot ony athe he sn 2 Therefore, weshould employ the deh pel (sing) prize, “Weshould employ punishments ‘atch the crime” While you may agree with the fist premise you would iso need to gree with he missing premise in ores for ‘he argumentto be sou —deductively valid with tue prmie. The rgument canbe rewiten to include the missing premise 1. The deat pray matches the crime 2 (ie should employ pnishnents ht atch th crime) 5. Therefore, we should employe death pena. (Once we have done this we can ases the mising premise along withthe stated premise in order to deermine the soundhess ofthe argument. (Question: How do you sets this premise?) For the sake of follow-up onthe role of opinion in an argument we can standardize an argameat tat actly based on opinion: Here is how it ‘would ook 1. ee the death penal wong. S 2 Therefor, the death pension. 0% + Guide Critical Thinking and Loge ‘As you can now se, theres a mising premise in this vat fe ‘o-be wrong iswrong” While it maybe tue tha T think the death penaliy is ‘wrong the mitsing premise cetany doesnot hold teue—thee i reason to elev that I can sorachow set the standard of morality for everyone tht, "thinking makes its Considerably more work needs to be done in defense ofthiconcuson, Obviously, one key to deeming an argument sound is determining wheter it i ei. All sound argument re valid Sonne argument forme ae says vad in thatthe follow a loge law. There are many lopcl laws, some consierbly complex. Here sre just few (Question: How do you assess ‘the premises and overall arguments inthe following argument) Logical Law Diginstve Syllgia 1, Ether Aor 2 Nata, 3. Theor, Here is an example of a valid argument in the form of a disjunctive sylogam: 1. The univer ter a eu of mere chance or an inelget designe. 2 Theunirese snot sreltof mece dance, 5 Therefore, the nies sa esl of an nteligent signer, Because ths argurnnt iin the form ofa djonctivesylogsm, weknow that itis vali All we need to dois ass the two premise as true and we have 2 sound argument. Logical Law Aoi Pomens 1 Athen 2A 3. Therefore, ‘ere isam example of valid argument in the form of tds omens 1 tftheunerse ks designed hen itmust hae ben dsignedby an ineliget designee 2 Theuniverselooke designed. 5. Therefore the universe was designed by ar itlignt designe. oie! Law MoDas Talons 1 Athen 8 2 Nae. 5. Thereoresnot 8 Geet Creat Thaking ad Lagi = ere isan example of vali argument in the form of modus tlle 1, Tod created the wiverse then would be fre of lv. 2. The univer is not feo al evi 3. Therefore God id not cease ever, “Those arguments areal deductive valid arguments Even the arguments with ust he band B's are valid bated on thei etracture: If the premises ‘were tre thes the agusdent would be sound, ‘We should also examine arguments that aze inductive (as opposed to deductive). A cogent inductive argument is one based on probability and one in which, while the premises are tru, the conclusion could il be fle Inductive arguments rely onthe esuraption tht trends observed rom past ‘experiences or data will continue inthe future Wheres deductive arguments sm fo provide conclusive support fora conclusion, inductive arguments Provide probable support fra concusion, For example: 1. Brey day the sn sien, 2 Theor, tomorow then wile ‘This very strong indtive argument because we have alo of dts and experience (ll the days throughout history) and assume tht tomorrow should resemble previous days in all relevant respects. But lok at this Indoctinargumest. 1 Alten cows hve seen ate blak, 2 Teer all crows are bac, ‘Thisisa very weakndoctive argument A sample ie often rosie nota good representation ofl erowsthat exit eter formulation ofthis would be 1, Allen cows hive cen ate lack, 2 Therefore, ost rows are rababy black ‘Though you can se ere that the conclusion is not very song sit now includes ‘most and "probably" Last lok t this argument: 1. have seen 10,000 roms throughout he wot ad they were al black 2, Therefoall crowsate bleh ‘hiss certainly « much stronger inductive argument. While we can msg in thatthe premise could be true yet the conclusion be fe fx jut ery ‘unlikely? One ofthe difficulties in aeesing inductive arguments is 10 determine when the inductive claim can be generalized. And remember we still need to detemine the acceptability and relevance ofthe premises of Inductive argument. ‘ail + Guide to Crtal Thinking and Logie [Now that we have abasic overview of logic and methods of devising ‘ali, sound arguments, iis important to take 3 brief look at common, errors of in some eases, common seights of hand—known a red herrings*—that occur when developing an argument. The following is lst of ogial illaces ‘Ad Hominem—Latin for “at che man” (often refered to o5 an a hom attack), tis eror occurs when one's argument isttcked based on the chor acter of the one making the argument. For example, if a death rove inmate provides a seemingly sound argument eguns the death peal, one might, respond (wrongly), "That bad argument because youle a tecible person sid commited horeendous crime” While that maybe tee the character of theaguerisizelevant to the argument presented. This alo ocears when the motive of the aguer sin question or when the person arguing doesnot abide by his or her on log For example, fsome- fone ilateto cars and another tant classmate say 1, Wain ina cl lat derapts the as for alee other sade. 2, Toushouldtdsupt the cs for alle othe staders 3 Therefore, you shou be ate oes. The reponse maybe Tote al he time Why should eno ou?"— Butiowoeld een tea om flag Petrone ofthe geri sstveat einen “sfc oc moe fen thn you may eae ats aver rower falar of ting a gure (fed ing 1 es note Ingle of he agua! bt atte cracer of te rg As the plsopher Gt Hegel wre lea mater of psec inference whe hing eri ‘te. The only question etn an fr? “The only tine tha one’ charete relevant oan argument when a premiee fle on such face or example, when coniering for ‘orm we hoa oe Presiden, theprenite"He' comida ‘evant in support of the concason “You should mat vote for him fr Treen Begging the Question —This ero oceits when the ruth ofthe condusion is assumed ina premise Its alo refered to as elrealar reasoning, For example, tone cannot logically clam thatthe deth penalty i wrong bated on the premise “Its unethical fr the government to il criminals® Both of those Scatements say basically the seme thing Riu have the goverment il cximinls 2 Therefor, erang to iplement the death pena In this case the same things beng sad inthe premite sin the conclusion but wth diferent words The word “wrong” subttted with “unethical” snd he phrase “eu peal” wth goverment il criminal” eee another common example 1. God ial pomert 2 Inorder for a being to be all-powesul tht being mast exis 5. Therefore, God ext This examples ight eke, ai doesnot simply redefine words Intend, Premise one asm the eth of the conclusion, The argument tries to prove ‘that God exists, ye this isthe point of contelin, So the evidence for Gas ‘sence (the premises eannet ely onthe azumption that God ex (ain premise one) In his case premise one begs te question by assuming Gods existence by stating, “God i, ..”—that ithe very question tat the argu- ment attempts to answer (Ley deGed?\? 7 Bquivcation—This error occurs when an arguer ues the ame word in two premises to mein diferent things. For example, 1. Allen ate crested esl 2. Nowomen are man 5. Therefore, women are teil 0 men ‘eretheter messed diferent nthe rt pom, iti a erent {orion being” (ie, bath men and women) wen the second premise ts ‘tied asthe plural fan” IL becomes more apprent when rewrite 1 All human beings re rested egal 2 Nowomen are males. 3. Thee ‘What is important isthe meaning ofthe word nd not the word isle ‘Mary Anne Warren argues that the typical argument gun abortion ils for sna ran eer etn ramingy Hees hewn ‘you ean decide for yourself): ” ° 1. is wrong toll an innocent oma Being 2 The fee ran innocent bumon being. 5. Therefore itl rong ill ts ‘Warren argues tht "human being wsed to mean two differen (Le, uneqait ‘cl things. In premise one it neans "perio with moralsighs andi premise ‘vo itmeans, “organism wih human DNA. (And, scoring to Warren you ‘change the cond premise to avoid thi lacy then it commits the flacy of begpng the question, Can you ee why? Do you agree?) Critical Thinking and Logic ‘Appel Poplsoy—"s eco ven argument ees ona thor of ppl ia” hoe cn tn ante pres wich She Amory of ope tink ery bod hing 2 (Wnt neo pel tin be po ng met bea god hing) 3 Thor dey pod ing ‘ou cathe angen above tht vet aid coach ted on someting mre thn wt ary of peop ink fs Gana Brana wees “Irth does ot change becuse oH 0, eed by 2 aon oe oo Fale Dilemma—This error occurs witen an eitheror premise given, yt there are mor than jst wo options. Fr example, 1, Btherthe medicine cured he cancer othe magic words cured he. 2, Themedicne didnot are er 3, There the mage words ured be ‘ie his arguments vai in form (Can ou sc wi? Which ogi li does Ie fallow), commits the flay of fale dilemma. Premise one presents an titer situation in which thee are other options for acure—redoterspy, for example, orin some cases this occurs natal. ‘gnorance—This enor occurs when the aguer css ether (a) Because X not be proven false hat t must be true or () Because X cent be proven true that it mst be fale or example 1, No nels proven that len fe doesnot et 2 Therefore alien fe exits oR 1. Theres no prof that alien fe exis 2 Therefore len ie doesnot exist Something other than alck of bility to prove something one way o another rust be given in proper support ofa conelsion, As Cat! Sagan noted, “Absence ofeidence snot evidence of sence” ‘oat Hoe—Shor for pot ho ergo proper hae ate thi, therefore, because of {hi hemor occurs when one agus thet X cae ut rue X cme before ¥ While that maybe relevant ts certainly no sufcent For example ate tee bask ast ght pd woke wp today and my cold was gone. 2 Theor, eting tee bak tes cole, sie ea hig and ap «ey In this case, jus besa you at tree bark and then your cold went ay snot rence enough o sy that eting tee bak ces colds This isan example of enecdots evidence—something that occurs once a is hus asumed te ‘work universal. An event simply preceding another event is ot enough to say thatthe at event cased heater event Slippery Slope—Thiseroe occurs when one argues that allowing A would ‘esultin Band therefore we hoald not allow For example 1, Ifwe blow tepsized abortion in the fret riety il lead olen shotion inthe second restr, which wil les oleae boston ae ‘hid trimester, which wl edt the legis kilos 2 We should not allow for something that wl lee tthe lege kiling of 2 Therefore, we should not allow elie abortion the fit rimeste, ‘While abortion in the fie triester maybe considered immoral (remeiber, justbecese an argument is falieiou, this doesnot necessarily mean that the ‘onclsion is wrong), it should not be considered so ox whet may happen tn the fut, Naturalistic Fllacy—This eror occurs when one argues that hecanse Something is one way that i ought ta be thet way Ik wivngiywases soles Jndgmen witha fetal cain or example 1s Males of spies are bilogcly posed to act promibcvusy 2, Therefore adultery in ua mle sould be petted, Here, a biological (ie. natural) cam i being transformed into a moral claim, Just because something is natural dots not necestate it being moral As the Rossin playwright Anton Chekhov wrote, "Maa wit become beter when you show hm what he fit” Simply beng naturally Predisposed to stealing (Reptomania} doesnot in ite make i morally ‘cceptabl to steal Denying the Antecedent This eso occre when ansagurent isin the fl. lowing ogi form 1. Athen. 2. Nota 3. Theor, n01 3 While this may look similar tothe dedutvely valid mds tl thee isan Inmportant difference. Given the trath of"If then B" then jase becaurs A st = Gude etal ing eg (the secadent—ante meaning “before i ote case, it doesnot neces tate that Bis matthe case. For example: 1. Ifyoudinkhe piso, hen you wl de 2 ou dl oc ink the oon. 3. Thee, ou yi ote ‘Thiefalacy show pe obvious once thivexample is undersod. AMfeming the Consequent This erorocuts wen an argument itn he folowing logical form: 1, Athen 2B 3. Therefore A \whie this may Took nar to the. lid mosis ponent here isan Inapotant ditence Given the rth @"1fA, then B then ust because B (he consequent) isthe ae t doesnot nesitate that Aste case, For example: 1. Ifyoudiakthe poo, thea youl de 2. Youwil de 5. Therefore, ou wil drink he poise, “Thisallcy shoud be obviow one hi vample le understoas. Hundreds of books have een writen on this topic and this brief guide aploces ony introductory severing and etal thinking, hough with {his beckground you should fave emogh tools to decipher whats being sid {and wiat you ate syin) in an argimen. When engaged in philosophical tlscourse oe key sil soften overeokad ting. Make sure you lay ‘anderstand another’ potions that instead of talking past each othe, Yoo an tacie these direct Iie here hat rea inllectual growth occurs. As Jolin Start Mil wrote in his famous esa, On Liberty Cin defense of tree speech though the theme certain applies here: ‘Ta ear ei of alencing se exe ofan opin ita ing ‘Beaman ce fe pon igh ty a pre of Deepa By of extn ero for wrong oe at ale a ret else theater prep and vee impesion af th rcs by eS wth ero Notes 1, For are comic view ofan argunest read this logue fom the Monty Pylon si the" Aeguent ies ann agen jacana ton ve Wane dee Cite Takings Lae» a Noa. Asset conoetd wri metre ‘sab def ropeiin ‘Lek pw mat he op x come poston. das Bien Nese” AS Ne ee An argent an iat proce Contin ij he ‘sonar oe te on ‘The angen in brie gel ave neo to premies This isda for ‘he of singly An argumentcan ave aay nunbet of pete and many Ive nore than ene atm ‘Whe » poem eqn se sion, aarp ie eguie. A sab gun ia et of pein eo len he prem oferta ‘pls pes tht wily ee. Inthe empl, bene te ond rmbt ot deny cab vil aed tobe tended sab rumen. Samed nota sight eth pray ects ncasdeiy mores feringthan therm ae ech eet wre Ber Cams wrt at or = proper match “the deh gens woul hare opi seminal who ad sere hirvii of he dite kh be wouldnt aarledeah ox Ney nd Sth fom the moment mado ined im at mer or eas Many se the frm “cogent” Instead of Sound 10 rest ali inductive ‘Thiseria gift asomaniting the fille hay generation It cohen hearger male gencston heellXe ei pope) based fn rey smal apes Ts can lo ocerve te generation based on hace! opoty ample pf example fu steve 1400 peopled they all bere a Gd bot he people you interviewed wer all et par hatch yo would be wrongs chim Thee al pape bio ln God™ ‘Anexampl ofthis oeurig shi efor the ery of Asi the nde {re concuion "All vane are white” war igh confined apd consideed very ‘trong.ermany ovantodben sighted adler we Bet pon dcering ‘Assia ack seas wero duced When aloe le tenon nein hedonic tovteu refering Fhe en eee to derive fom a ploy cimins ve ‘ia al epaeA http of i that bene rd when cooked land then ems pegent oder When being tacked y os. mina wool ether erg ort the loodbouns i order © sot deci Iis ‘is purported tht act apposed o ox hating wou eel ergs © Giver dogs veld infor hating cul rove te existence of ning ths nav were pes: 1 Marin ae ey. ~ 2 Forathing tobe cay mast ext 5. Therefore Mares est Acknowledgments tna projets immense as this there are many people to thank and acknowl age, Tonce again found grest comfort the advice and suggestions provided by my then-prfestor (oow colleagues) Al Spangler, Pal Tangand nr Goering L wll alvay consider you professors” must ao thank thse who offered their me and expertise in sharing in my quest to provide both breadth and depth ina book like tis: Jeff Broome, Arapehoe Community Colles; Sharon Crasnow Riverside Commurity College; John Elis, University of Georgit; Richard Field, ‘Northwest Missourt State Universiys Christine James, Valdosta State Gniverstey Nichola Jones, Ohia State University: Hey-Xvung Kim, ninety of Wisconsin-Gresn Bays Blanche Premo-Hopkins, University of, South CarlinaAiken; Ywonne Raley Felician College Rob Reich, Stanford University, Mary Schate, Palomar Colleges Edward Schoen, Westérn Kentucky Univerigs Roben Torosyen, Fueled Univeristy; Kathryn Viva, Cayamaca College. would ls ike to thank De Anza College and Menlo School, not st for ‘heir support of me a a writer and educator, bt also fr their commitment toeduetion. “And tothe tam at Longman Publishers who helped withthe multede ofbehind-the scenes deta Donna Gunier, Deborah Bergeson, Brie tno, indir Hoens. And to Kay Lele and Rebecca Coleman at EPS. And of uci, my editor (times two) Pricla McGechon-—it's been an amazing “Gvenrre and I ave you to thank for it Thank yoa to Michael Shermer at ‘Stars mapsne for sharing your advice and to Rickard Dain for his ad i seering copyrights. Prologue Philosophy ‘Ashe introduction totic book tates the best ay to anaver the question"What Ss Phesophy” sto read and dy plop Thi section, hog provide {00d overview and intoducsion by painting «broad pietre of philosophy. The ‘Sls in his captr wil ao serve agen imllctal qu to revi ater ‘reing your way trough the ene boo. tox likly have come diferent ‘esctins to the ses posed in the ales in thi ection, or lest wil ave ‘he peright on your nial views ‘Tis eminem rancho ye pionology— Stay of knowledge ‘Merophyse—Stutyof eat and issues that ore “beyond phys" (Le, tine, ‘these gad mind, number fe wily et) Phish of Reltan--Sty of God and religion [hier Stadyof how we shoe live and whet we ough edo morally (io ‘nes "Applied Eber in which we apply el and moral prices a Pees a cen) Plea and Socal Philsoply—Study of soclety and government andthe ‘ues tat late them sch at economic tration of pods ue fan of punishment rights me Laie Stay of rearing and application of rls in determining the vali ryan soundnes of rpumens, both inductive and dedictive ‘Ashcroft and bensty ‘hisseton of eding not on hls highlight philosophic sues bt sates pain cami tem exe one nee rete vies fying phloophy ering forts own sake. And as “slab side prod othr emer on cn Seer apple with he major as eth sear in society sd inary on pron ee 2 gee ony The Allegory of the Cave Plato sar pp ett ni ec eee ee tenis Sesto oat soc aearecaee cote heen et etn Seeman nmectuecnnneetere ne Te ra mieten ae ceca ire cencen i cenranerntte reeciog seater aena sch ten ean hee er rtnumetnn hepsi eon memati tc eet eter ea aches coer an Alattel meee Epietienetomrenereiasts Ebr eae metro canal Rac ones case ahaa sg ca oa eetanartare sea a geet ates a acer cat Seo ey abig mee ids he wa et nt on Ese ae aaron eerie ns nee oas tna apna tacoma sere sien thobapemnie iene Sar erate ine mortar ore seat herent nina eames Benes gaeninomonaran nn eager enteatoercina se era eae ere cane Sicqmowine ~ "cyan cee om hanes cla thei econ swkao hee Fores: Te tn ot fe ord "oe" toed ot Fao tk Save el ede forthe epbe would be PasopberKigs—thve who tmuspd fon oe ands hte of aoldg. enfin pine. iy ay CC Mh SSUES Sepa Re coome Score Reading Questions 1, How does Socrates imagine the poner would fel once his yes became ‘customed fo the sunlight? Wht point eh aking ete! 2 What woud happen if the prisoner retirned fon the outside bic into theca? 5. Wat does Socrates sy abou the sul and how this knowledge should relate vo edvextion? Compare the eect of edvetion sud ofthe lack of it on our nate to an experienc ke this: maine hum begs ving inn andergroun elite S1¢

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