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Life In Extreme Environment

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Abstract
Microbiology and geology make up interdisciplinary field which is geomicrobiology,
that has seen very intense growth. Studies on microorganisms have been carried out in
several environments which are extreme on Earth. Life in extreme environment
encompasses the habitats that are at the edge of survival ranging from marine, terrestrial
environments from subsurface to deep ecosystems, extremely cold, alkaline, acidic and very
dry conditions. The review looks at the three domains of life, Archaea, bacteria, and
archaea. Special emphasis is directed at the structure and function of microbial organisms
as well as functions of microbial microorganisms in the extreme environment and the
reaction to the changes in the extreme environment. The surroundings vary from one region
to another: subsurface that is deep and hypersaline lakes provide crystalline rocks with
deserts that are dry and vent systems from hydrothermal in the deep ocean. Various research
frontiers that are active in geomicrobiology that signify the necessity for bringing processes
that are microbiological and geological are reviewed in the literature. The studies may be
geomicrobiology in deserts, microbial ecology in saline lakes, microbial weathering of
oceanic crust, and deep continental subsurface microbiology. The literature review has no
impact on studying the many areas in geomicrobiology comprehensively.
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Introduction
In recent decades, geomicrobiology has had significant growth with microorganisms
being studied in various environments. Signs show that there might have been the existence
of life on other planets such as mars. Interaction of life with geologically made media such
as minerals, rocks, water, and gases is given emphasis during the study by the scientists who
happen to be experts in the field. Origin and evolution of life is an added area under
investigation. Life in extreme environments is a paper published by Rothschild and
Mancinelli that gives an opportunity for the field under study to expand with the help of
emerging books (Rothschild & Mancinelli, 2001). The topics in the area are very dense and
very diverse at the same time, making it almost impossible to have a detailed review.
Advancement in several pinpointed areas is inevitable and hence has been reviewed. The
paper draws interest in carrying a study on archaea and bacteria, which are classified under
prokaryotes which are taken as the scientific literature because microorganisms classified
under eukaryotes are very few. Extreme environments are outside the range of conditions
that organisms are used to (Oarga, 2009). The extreme means the extreme conditions in
terms of pressure radiation, temperature, PH and geochemical extreme. The review is based
on the ecological relationships that exists between microbial organisms and these extreme
environments. The evolution relationships and the emergence of new species are a way of
allowing microorganisms to compensate for the externalities in the environment (Breakwell,
Harker, & Crandall, 2014). The extreme environments allow for development of metabolic
and metabolite pathways of organisms which are the expectation of such organism (Pikuta,
Hoover, & Tang, 2007). Extreme environments are inhabited by specialized organisms
called extremophiles which bridge the type of stresses that exist in the environment.
Continental deep subsurface research
Many questions still lack satisfying answers, with fifty percent of the Earth's biomass
being composed of microorganisms in the subsurface. Such organisms do not require
sunlight and thrive very well in the dark. Questions with limited answers include: what is
the effect behind the evolvement of life in the subsurface with photosynthetic isolation?
Where does dark life acquire its energy from? What is biosphere limited to slightly (Bose et
al.,2020)? With practical and theoretical motivations driving people towards the study,
investigation of the questions also constitutes a significant part (Dong, 2008). Some
theoretical reasons are acquiring knowledge on how life came to being and having other
planets that support life. Several extreme conditions on Earth are not likely to contribute to
the thriving of life on Earth. Subsurface is speculated to be the source of energy and thus the
place from which life originated. Attaining knowledge from the study of the subsurface
means an understanding of how life began on the planet Earth. Subsurface seems to be
supporting life, with Martian surface diminishing it (Pikuta, Hoover, & Tang, 2007).
For practical reasons, microorganisms have adaptive features to survive in the
environment such as oil recovery, which is microbially planet, Earth on biotechnology, and
bioenergy and bioremediation environmentally (Dong, 2008). Environments that happen to
be anaerobic represent the conditions of the deep continental subsurface that occur to be
extreme (Bose et al.,2020). Examples of the requirements include high and low pH,
increased temperatures and pressures, and high salinity and high radiation. Encountering the
above conditions may arise due to the drilling and development of underground
laboratories. Boreholes with varying depths are present in the universe, such as the cero
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negro drilling in Mexico and the Taylorsville basin in Virginia. Scales with high spatial
resolution support establishing profiles in structurally weak shear zones and types of rocks,
permeability, porosity, and gas and fluid composition. Microorganisms of the novel nature
have potential sites where they can be harbored, such as in specific depths where anomalies
of gas and fluid exist.
Laboratories located deep down in the underground are vital in studying the biosphere
in the deep subsurface. Most of these laboratories are meant to study engineering,
astrophysics and physics, and rock mechanics. A great benefit is accrued when the
laboratories are used for investigations on biological matter and questions. For instance, the
deep biosphere laboratory instituted in Sweden shows an example of the type of laboratories
discussed here (Bose et al.,2020). The research carried herein is on life and the activities
reinforced are both applied and fundamental (Dong, 2008). Primary research is on diversity,
distribution, biomass, and movement of microorganisms in the subsurface, radionuclides
being given more weight. Looking at the direction for the applied perspective, the particular
DBL is of great use in the disposal of nuclear fuel water in microbiology and where
contaminants of hydrocarbon are degraded microbially.
South Africa is well known for the presence of gold in the country. Mines for gold
provide sites for investigations based on geomicrobiological studies (Orcutt et al.,2017).
Tunnels of the mine measure up to 5km in-depth, and conditions therein comprise or shift
towards the limiting factors of life (Dong, 2008). The elements are ambient radiation,
salinity, inadequate nutrients, and insufficient water and energy sources. Extremophiles
cannot flourish in the mines, and an example of the same is geobaccilus thermoleovorans.
Outstanding resistance to gamma radiation is evident by the aerobic and chemoorganotroph,
attributed to the presence of a cell wall that is thick (Pikuta, Hoover, & Tang, 2007). Having
looked at various prospects in this information, specific aspects are settled in the study:
energy sources and novel metabolic functions.
Metabolic functions of subsurface microorganisms
Metabolic characteristics ought to be different between organisms living on the
surface and those living in the deep subsurface as they have distinguishing features already
between them (Pikuta, Hoover, & Tang, 2007). Cultivation faces difficulty interrupting
people from understanding the microorganisms and their functions which are of a metabolic
nature. Subsurface microorganisms are taken to be thermophilic chemolithotrophs and
anaerobic, resulting from some hindrances on the knowledge such as geochemistry of
isotopes and metagenomics of the environment. Geochemical and geological factors which
are within a locality of a given subsurface microorganism yield distinguishable
characteristics (Orcutt et al., 2017). The significant subsurface environments in a provided
content are sedimentary basins, subsurface aquifers, and crystalline metamorphic rocks.
Metal reduction by thermophilic microorganisms
Understanding the concept of metal reduction by the thermophilic process is of great
significance, with interest being due to various reasons. The ancient Earth could have been
highly advantageous through metal reduction (Dong, 2008). The named process is
necessary when acquiring knowledge on how life may exist on other planets. The
connection between metal reduction and human life is notable in the bioremediation of
radionuclides and heavy metals abandoned in the facilities supporting nuclear reactions and
various sites. Most possible habitats have metal reducers that are thermophilic, with the
habitats ranging from basins which are sedimentary, and hydrothermal waters in terrestrials
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to crystalline rocks in the deep subsurface. Iron is the most reduced element to iron (iii) in
crystalline oxides of iron and the chelated form of iron.
Particular environmental conditions of the organisms influence the products to be
formed, with the common ones being siderite and magnetite. Few metal reducers may
survive autotrophic growth, with a large number of the microorganisms being heterotrophic.
Dissimilatory iron (iii) reduction is made effective recently with an emerging bacterium that
is anaerobic and thermophilic. The chemicals involved in the growth of thermincola
ferriacetica are carbon (Iv) oxide, which acts as a source for carbon; iron (iii) accepts
electrons, and the only energy substance, which is hydrogen. The thermophilic bacterium
that can undergo growth anaerobically on carbon (ii) oxide associated with hydrogen and
iron reduction dissimilatory formation is called strain Z-00001T (Dong, 2008).
Under distinguishing conditions, some metal reducers that are acidophilic and
thermophilic have the ability for energy conservation from iron (II) and iron(iii). The
growth of such organisms in batch cultures shows the ability to cycle iron redox. A
neutrophilic thermophile is an example of an organism where iron cycling has been
observed. With multiple isolation and transfers, iron cycling persisted in batch culture,
dismissing the fact that its occurrence is in mixed cultures (Dong, 2008). Different pH
conditions favor reduction and oxidation of the iron oxides differently and respectively with
acidic pH that is slightly selecting iron (iii) and basis pH favoring iron (ii). During the
reduction of iron (iii), lactate acts as the donor of electrons and acetate as the acceptor of
electrons during the oxidation of iron (ii). Data yet to be confirmed during an analysis of
molecule, a unit organism appears to take the mandate of both oxidation and reduction in
iron (ii) and iron (III), respectively.
Degradation of organic carbon heterotrophically and fermentatively
The abundance of organic matter in reservoirs associated with petroleum and aquifers
meant for water where sedimentary rocks are result in subsurface organisms having
hyperthermophiles (Dong, 2008). Methanogens, thermophilic and mesophilic fermentative
bacteria, iron-reducing bacteria, and sulfate-reducing bacteria degrade oil components and
sedimentary organic carbon as carbon and energy sources (Qiu et al.,2014). Growth
substrates for the anti-participated sulfate reducers, which are heterotrophic, are enhanced
by adequate organic compounds. Where there are no reservoirs of petroleum and habitat for
microorganisms is in sandstones that are highly absorbent, adjacent shales provide for the
organism’s growth. Sulfate reduction is one of the biogeochemical reactions that happen to
thrive well in the interface between the aquitard and aquifer. The typical capability of
change in autotrophic is evident in working with hydrogen as the donor of electrons and
carbon (iv) oxide as the source of carbon.
Oxidation of sulfur
Some elements are essential when it comes to donating electrons compared to
compounds of carbon. The substances are sulfur compounds that have undergone reduction,
solfataras, and vent-related geothermal (Orcutt et al.,2017). High concentrations of
inorganic compounds, such as sulfur oxide, nitrogen gas, hydrogen gas, and carbon (iv)
oxide, are available in the environment. Biomass production has its source of energy in
reactions of chemolithoautotrophic redox of the stated inorganic substances. Oxidation of
manufactured biomass is enhanced by organisms that are heterotrophic (Dong, 2008).
Isolation of Sulphur compounds oxidizers which are integrated with oxygen and nitrate
reduction, occurs frequently. Elements and compounds of sulfur respectively play the role
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of accepting and donating electrons at the same time, and most microorganisms require
them for growth purposes.
The existence of most of the oxidizers of Sulphur which are archaeal, is mainly in
facultatively anaerobic and aerobic forms. Facultative anaerobes such as sulfolobales grow
through oxidation of hydrogen with sulfur accepting the electrons arriving at hydrogen
sulfide, and when Sulphur oxidizes with oxygen, sulphuric (vi) acid is formed. Cytoplasmic
sulfur oxygen reductase speeds up the conversion reaction of Sulphur with oxygen being
present to yield thiosulfate, sulfite, and hydrogen sulfide. Fields of geothermal have high
concentrations of inorganic reduced sulfur hence suitable for bacteria that are thermophilic
sulfur-oxidizing (Qiu et al.,2014). Major groups have been formulated where the various
bacteria are based on their metabolism. Group one comprises spore-forming facultative
chemolithoautotrophy and obligate chemolithoautotrophic bacteria. Two thermothrix
species are put in group two. the third category contains thermophilic, acidophilic
thiobacillus-like bacteria. The last group has iron-oxidizing bacteria, strongly acidophilic
sulfur, and moderately thermophilic Sulphur (Dong, 2008). Diversity in
chemolithoautotrophic sulfur bacteria is defined in the respective categories that are
acidophilic, alkaliphilic, and neutrophilic.
Sources of energy
For microbial life to be sustainable in the subsurface, minimal metabolism must be
maintained with adequate energy. Dependence on fuels that are geochemical is very high in
chemolithotroph communities for their growth (Dong, 2008). Hydrogen gas is in abundance
in and many organisms can access and make use of it. The reducers may include manganese
(iii), iron (iii), sulfate, nitrates, and methanogens, and oxidation of these substances with
hydrogen combined with acceptors of electrons produce high energy. Fermentation and
decomposition that occurs on the thermal basis of organic matter result in the production of
hydrogen. Other pathways for the production of hydrogen in the subsurface are fluids and
ultramafic rocks reactions in the serpentinization process (Etiope, 2015). Representation of
a widespread and substantial chemical energy source for the fixation of carbon is evident in
hydrogen and other compounds generated in serpentinization energy. Synthesis of methane
abiotically is highly favored by reducing conditions that are very strong and emerge during
the mentioned process (Etiope, 2015). Radiolytic production of hydrogen gas is a pathway
for the production of hydrogen demonstrated in recent studies.
Saline environments
Another environment with extreme conditions for microbial life is the saline
environment which is distributed globally. Environments that are highly concentrated with
salts are said to be hypersaline (Dong, 2008). Diversity in microbial life has been
investigated in various saline environments, which include the solar lake, Mediterranean
Sea, the Great Salt Lake in Utah, and deep-sea brine sediments (Orcutt et al.,2017). The
lakes are classified into two: thalassohaline that is a result of seawater under evaporation,
and athalassohaline, which forms as a result of freshwater evaporation. A plateau by the
name of Tibet happens to be home to many hypersaline and saline lakes and leads to change
in the climate.
Many years saw the desert climate prolonged, resulting in a rise in salinity of many
lakes. Cations and anions present in most of these lakes include Na+, K+, Ca 2+, Mg2+,
CO32- and HCO3-. Halophilic microorganisms have been employable in applications that
are biotechnological. Saline environments and salt deposits are present in mars planet,
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giving the interest to find the possibility of life on Mars. As researchers bring knowledge on
adaptive features for microbial life to thrive in saline environments, learning about the
gradual changes of the biosphere over time is enhanced (Orcutt et al.,2017). A decrease in
diversity in microbial life means increased salinity in the particular environment. Eukaryotic
and prokaryotic microorganisms flourish well in the background. Some halophilic
organisms such as those in Tibetan Lake develop high resistance towards ultraviolet and
gamma radiation.
Salinity impacts on microbial composition
Gammaproteobacterial and alphaproteobacterial do very well in places with high
salinity, while beta proteobacteria do poorly; hence its population is more petite. Some
bacteria take successions of others at estuaries in lakes where the action has been associated
with mixing of water from estuaries and that from river lines. Difficulty in observing and
identifying successions where solid particles are attached to bacteria was highlighted during
the study (Dong, 2008). Where the waters were stable, there lacked series ruling out the
view that mixing of water from different sources dynamically can be a pre-condition (Orcutt
et al.,2017). The fundamental difference is notable when two populations of bacteria vary
such that one is living freely while the other is attached to a particle.
Method of adapting microbial to salinity
Archaeal tend to be in large numbers, with bacteria being low in number in salinity.
Saturated waters support archaeal bacteria but destroy halophilic bacteria, which can only
survive in salt solutions that are very moderate. Suggesting that the two distinguished
bacteria occupy different niches is fully supported (Dong, 2008). One dominates in an
environment with low salinity, and the latter dominates in an environment with high salinity
(Orcutt et al.,2017). Some of the adaptive features to salinity involve the bacteria
accumulating compatible organic solutes such as amino acids and ecotones in the
cytoplasm. Secondly, a strategy known as salt in the cytoplasm that involves adapting
intracellular enzymatic machinery is applicable (Dong, 2008).
Processes of metabolism in environments with salinity
The various activities include oxidation of ammonia, reduction in sulfur, and sulfur
compounds chemolithotroph oxidation. Carbon dioxide is the source of carbon, and
ammonia provides all the energy required by bacteria which are ammonia-oxidizing. The
process helps in the nitrogen cycle and can occur either aerobically or anaerobically.
Different bacteria show a difference when responding to changes in the environment which
are salinity, ammonia concentration, and the redox state. Demonstrations of response to
changes in estuaries and coastal environments are through the composition in bacteria
communities and their abundance (Orcutt et al.,2017). Nitrifying bacteria acquire less
energy from oxidation as most energy yielded is used in the production of NADPH.
Discovery that oxidation can be formulated through nonthermophilic crenarchaeote has
been established. Particular oceans and soils contain more archaea that oxidize ammonia
compared to bacteria. Questions that emerge from the ammonia-oxidizing archaea and
bacteria can be answered using the plateau of Tibetan.
Some of the perturbing questions are on the most abundant ammonia-oxidizing
agents, how they show response to changes in the surroundings and the contributions of
each on the rates of nitrification. The lakes in the plateau experience climate that is dry, and
the elevations are high, which contributes to the advancement of the communities that are
microbial (Orcutt et al.,2017). environmental gradients are several in the lakes, which gives
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room for studies to be employed on nitrifiers that are aerobic. Activities of human beings
are less carried on the lakes, which have pristine environments giving an opportunity to
have focused studies on the oxidation processes of ammonia that occur naturally (Dong,
2008).
The phenomenon behind the presence of chemolithotroph sulfur-oxidizing bacteria in
environments that are neutral and saline is yet to be revealed. Most species in the genera
described by Sorokin and Kuenen keep up with a pH optimal and contractions of sodium
chloride that contain molarity of 4.5M. Compounds of sulfur that are oxidized are
polysulfide, sulfite, and sulfur elements. Other conditions that complement obligate aerobic
processes are denitrifying and microaerophilic conditions. More agents have been isolated
using the cultivation-based methods by the authors, who have also implemented a genus in
the fourth position (Ilabac et al.,2014). recommendation on incorporating the study of the
rate of oxidation of sulfur and their measurements has been affected for future studies for
better understanding of the agents in saline environments (Dong, 2008).
Bacteria meant for the reduction in sulfur provide a balance that is osmotic in regions
that are saline and salts that are organic to do so. The use of energy in the process is very
expensive. During the coupling of acetate, which donates the electrons with sulfate
reduction, the energy released is very little. Energy is produced in large volumes when
lactate and hydrogen gas are used in place of the acetate. The optimal salinity for many of
the bacteria is therefore having a salinity that is optimal and does not go beyond 100g/L
whether the upper limit is high or not (Qiu et al.,2014). There is a correlation between the
rate of reduction of sulfur and the salinity in the environment. Activities of sulfur reduction
become retarded when the salinity is 25%, and after reaching 35%, it becomes minimal.
Formation of dolomite biogenically
The many positive impacts of dolomite on the economic and scientific world cannot
be ignored. The quality and size of reservoirs containing oil are determined by the chemical
and physical characteristics of dolomite rocks (Kaczmarek et al.,2017). Some of the
importance is that during the formation of the dolomite, cycling of carbon in the world is
contributed into. The extent of life becoming possible on Earth is as a result of cooling of
the Earth gradually partially helped by the sequestration of carbon iv oxide. Manufacturing
dolomite in the laboratory has proven to be very difficult, even with a few conditions being
simulated. When viewed from the point of kinetic mechanics, the formation of dolomite
appears to be a very slow process, though at the same time is favored thermodynamically.
Various conditions of salinity and pH that are very high and which take place for long
durations of time cause rocks of dolomite to form from calcite. Another way in which
dolomite comes to be is through precipitation resulting from solutions that occur in aqueous
states. Both methods have not been carried in the laboratory with the absence of activities
that are microbial. With increased ph. and alkalinity of carbonates, the inhibiting factor,
which is the kinetic energy, can be dealt with by bacteria resulting in the formation of
dolomite (Kaczmarek et al.,2017). Studies carried out in various areas, which are inclusive
of isotopic, geochemical, and mineralogical, show the role of the bacteria in dolomite
formation in lakes as demonstrated in the fields and laboratories. High levels of competition
in methanogenesis and oxidation of methane control the building up of groups of dolomites
found in segments of marine which are rich organically (Dong, 2008).
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Aries experiencing dryness

Rainfall received in arid areas is averagely less than 200 mm every single year. Only
two-thirds of the surface of the Earth are not covered by deserts; hence they constitute
ecosystems that must be studied. Areas that are arid could be both polar and arid, an
example being western China, Antarctica, and Chile, popularly known as the Atacama
Desert (Ilabaca et al.,2014). Cyanobacteria are photosynthetic makeup for the inhabitants in
the particular environment and are located under the surface of rocks that possess the
translucent character. The existence of adequately supplied light, nitrogen gas, and carbon
dioxide, which are also well balanced, enhances the microorganisms' habitat. Protection
against increased temperatures and irradiation that is in high levels, which may be
intolerable, is guaranteed. There is a different range of colors that are in a systematic order
which signifies a difference in need of moisture by the varying communities of
cyanobacteria.
The distribution of the communities is in patches. The spatial distribution in the
pattern is associated with the annual mean of temperatures and rainfall. The correlation of
the communities with geology that is local brings about the patchiness. Control of the
designs is ensured by isolation that is said to be geographic (Orcutt et al.,2017). Another
significant bacterium in the deserts is the heterotrophic one which are in large numbers. The
vastness in the composition of bacteria is attributed to the mean of precipitation calculated
annually. Some of the members of a given component of the bacteria can carry on with
photosynthesis that is aerobic anoxygenic (Dong, 2008). Environments in mars and the
deserts have many features in common; thus, the study of deserts represents the studies that
would be employed in mars. Some of the similar characteristics are possession of deposits
made of sulfur refractory organic materials are at low levels, bacteria that are detectable are
very few, and amino acids comprise L and D and are equally oxidized. Resistance to
desiccation and radiation is well ensured by the organisms as their colonization to the rock's
subsurface occurs.
Fossil microbial DNA in ancient sedimentary rocks
Investigations on the identity of microorganisms and how they are distributed in the
many environments with extreme factors have been made successful by the many
advancements taking place. Research on the organisms has been carried out on both olden
times rocks and the current rocks, which has yielded much information. The fossil DNA
found in the stones that are sedimentary and, in the sediments, gives space for the rebuilding
of microbial communities, which are paleo, and the conditions in them known as
paleoenvironmental (Armbrecht et al.,2019). Sulfur survival nature in sediments of sulfur
and anoxic with rich organ carbon has been verified. Quantities acquired of DNA through
the measuring techniques found in deposits that are Holocene get good preservation the
same way as sulfur bacteria which is carotenoids.
The concept and utility of DNA fossils were well explored by a Japanese group
(Armbrecht et al.,2019). Archaea community structures that see authors discovered vertical
shifting, and a report on the exact sent. Extreme hyperthermophiles and halophiles have
their location established under the surface in which the community of archaea in the deep-
sea is. The mentioned organisms were dated to have been in existence for two million years
and were viewed as microbial relics (Dong, 2008). Such discoveries necessitated inference
for reflection of hydrothermal activities in the submarine and volcanic activities that
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occurred in the past. Data established by colleagues of coolean get more additional
materials from the group that happened to emerge in Japan with similar interests.
A strategy to use the microbes and DNA materials that were in preservation was
suggested. Successful implications and extractions of the DNA were enhanced by the
authors, with it being acquired from the black shale core sample (Armbrecht et al.,2019).
Attempts for the cultivation of bacteria were carried by the authors with the application of
tracer beads that fluoresce particulate (Dong, 2008). Viable cells and fluorene particles
remained undetected with the core material on the outside, and the fluid used in drilling had
many viable cells that were detected. With the observations, a conclusion was made that
stated that contamination in the cores is absent, and the species under detection are indigenous.
Sequences of DNA are similar to those of sedimentary environments in the deep sea
and the Cretaceous rocks was enhanced. The difference was communicated between the two
and those in the drill core of the current terrestrial environment. Some reasons support that
the discoveries made in the study have positive impacts, as outlined here. DNA from the
fossils is essential in finding more knowledge on community structure microbially, habitats
in which the organisms thrive, and the role they play during the cycling of elements in the
universe (Armbrecht et al.,2019). Reconstruction of environments in the world can be
enhanced by finding rocks containing the fossils of DNA to use in cretaceous (Dong, 2008).
Evolution in biology can be effectively studied using information from the fossils acquired
of DNA.
Challenges facing the concept of paleome are several, which include emerging
questions on the duration of DNA in preservation. Microbes that are living have a tendency
to repair DNA material whenever it is retarded. The possibility of the availability of
microorganisms in the olden times appears to receive more support compared to the
existence of DNA molecules in the olden past. More contradictions and arguments on the
microorganisms cultivated when live being indigenous are at high levels. DNA isolated is
likely to be exposed to damage by the oxidizing environment, aqueous solution, and
radiation (Armbrecht et al.,2019). Preservation of DNA can only take place for less than a
thousand years, as demonstrated in experiments that employed temperatures that are
moderate and availability of water. Favorable conditions such as temperatures being low
and salinities being high are necessary when storing DNA.
According to (Armbrecht et al.,2019 Solutions to whether microorganisms detected
are represented by the black shale’s age and the time in which the microorganisms became
isolated through entry into the black shale (Dong, 2008). A comment paper is published to
comment on the Inagaki paper and outlined some weaknesses. Biomarker work lacks in
Inagaki; the relationship between modern organisms and sequences of DNA is exhibited in
Inagaki, and measurements of isotopes of carbon are left undetermined (Armbrecht et
al.,2019). further testings on the concepts need to be carried out for validation purposes to
take place.
Carbon sources fueling Marine subsurface organisms.
Both in ocean surfaces and terrestrial surfaces all life forms depend directly or
indirectly on the energy that is supplied be sun which is incorporated into the biomass by
the process of photosynthesis (Dong, 2008). The organisms in the marine subsurface
initially depend on the dark energy derived from the oceanic crust for their source of
energy. Lith autotrophic organisms remain alive by using chemical energy. According to
Schippers et al. (2005) he identified a fraction of the sub-seafloor prokaryotes identified
 11

using catalyzed reporter deposition -fluorescence in situ hybridization. Organisms derive

oxygen from oxidation of sulfides, manganese, H2, manganese, ferrous iron, methane and
reduction of ferric iron. Microorganism have tabular structures these structures have
characteristic enrichments which sense isotope variations (Dong, 2008). The structures
have historically been used to test for biogenicity of rocks.

Conclusion

The discoveries and the perspectives in studying the extreme environments are
important for future research especially in finding the existence of life outside the earth. The
discoveries of life in extreme conditions especially for extremophiles makes this possibility.
The study of life in extreme environments is promising with the potential that exists in
terms of their economic potential and the pathways in the field of biology and
biotechnology. The microorganism in surface and subsurface rocks, the ocean floor and
beneath the ocean are playing very special roles in isotopic and chemical exchanges
between the seat water and the oceanic crust. The importance of microorganisms in
biogeochemical cycles and weathering of basalt is demonstrated in the study. There are
various factors that contribute to the survival of organism in extreme environments. The
factors include; Degradation of organic carbon heterotrophically and fermentatively, Metal
reduction by thermophilic microorganisms and oxidation of Sulphur are important for
survival of microbial species.The unique textures such as the tubular structures are typically
for accompanied characteristics and enrichment of certain elements. The demonstration of
abiotically degradation of marine rudimentary organic matter provides the substrates needed
for activity of microbials. This literature review is very important in showing the activity
and biochemical process of microorganisms in extreme environments.
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