1 Introduction

CHAPTER MECHANICS OF
1 MATERIALS
Introduction –
Concept of Stress
Dr. Atta ur Rehman Shah

(atta.shah@hitecuni.edu.pk)
Website: https://sites.google.com/view/atta85
Courtesy: © 2002 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved.

MECHANICS OF MATERIALS Beer • Johnston • DeWolf
Contents
Concept of Stress Stress in Two Force Members

Axial Loading: Normal Stress Stress on an Oblique Plane
Centric & Eccentric Loading Maximum Stresses
Shearing Stress Stress Under General Loadings
Shearing Stress Examples State of Stress
Bearing Stress in Connections Factor of Safety
Stress Analysis & Design Example
Rod & Boom Normal Stresses
Pin Shearing Stresses
Pin Bearing Stresses
1-2
Solid Mechanics
Solid Mechanics is a branch of applied Mechanics

that deals with behaviors of solid bodies subjected to
various types of loadings.
Solid Mechanics
Mechanics of
Deformable
Mechanics of Bodies
Rigid Bodies (Mech. of
Materials)
1-3
Loads
The external forces acting on bodies are known as “loads”.
• These external forces can either be tensile or compressive.
Tension force present in Compression occurs in legs of

towing ropes or lifting hoists. chair/bench as one sit on it.
1-4
Loads
The external forces acting on bodies are known as

“loads”.
• These external forces can either be tensile or
compressive.
▪ Tension force present in towing ropes or lifting hoists.
▪ Compression occurs in legs of chair/bench as one sits on
it.
1-5
Types of loads
Different No. of ways in which load(s) can be

applied to a member:
• Static or Dead loads i.e. non fluctuating loads,
those generally caused by gravity.
• Live loads, as lorries crossing a bridge.
• Impact or shock loads caused by sudden blows.
• Fatigue, fluctuating or alternating loads i.e. the
magnitude and sign of the load change with time.
1-6
Loads may be due to any one of the reason as:

• Due to environment in which the component
works.
• Through contact with other members.
• Due to fluid pressures.
• Due to gravity or inertia forces.
We can analyze a body only if it is under static

equilibrium.
1-7
Axial loads
Assumptions:
• Uniform and prismatic (straight) bar, rod, tube etc.
• Homogeneous & Isotropic material.
• Load ‘P’ directed axially along the centroidal axis
of cross section.
1-8
Concept of Stress
• As we know that in mechanics of deformable solids,

externally applied forces act on a body and body suffers
deformation. From equilibrium point of view, this action
would be opposed or reacted by internal forces which are set
up with in the particles of material due to cohesion. These
internal forces give rise to a Concept of Stress.
• Intensity of internal resistive forces is known as stress.

OR
• Internal Resistance (per unit area) to the external forces
is called stress.
1-9
Outline - Stresses
Categories of stresses
• Direct Stresses
• Normal
• Shear
• Torsional Stresses
• Bending stresses
• Thermal Stresses
• Combined Stresses
1 - 10
Normal Stresses
• If the load is perpendicular (normal) to the area concerned.

σave = P/A
Units:
SI Unit: N/m2 (Pa), kPa, MPa, Gpa
English: lb/in2 (psi), ksi
1 - 11
Tensile or Compressive Stresses
The normal stresses can be either tensile or compressive

whether the stresses acts of the area or into the area.
Sign Convention:
Tensile: +ive
Compressive: -ive
1 - 12
Centric & Eccentric Loading

• A uniform distribution of stress in a section
infers that the line of action for the resultant of
the internal forces passes through the centroid
of the section.
• A uniform distribution of stress is only

possible if the concentrated loads on the end
sections of two-force members are applied at
the section centroids. This is referred to as
centric loading.
• If a two-force member is eccentrically loaded,

then the resultant of the stress distribution in a
section must yield an axial force and a
moment.
• The stress distributions in eccentrically loaded

members cannot be uniform or symmetric.
1 - 13
Shear Stresses
• When the cross-sectional area is subjected to a distribution

of forces which are parallel, rather than normal, to the area
concerned.
• Such forces are referred to as shear forces and resulting
stresses are known as shear stresses.
τ = F/A
1 - 14
Shearing Stress
• Forces P and P’ are applied transversely to the

member AB.
• Corresponding internal forces act in the plane of
section C and are called shearing forces.
1 - 15
Shearing Stress Examples

Single Shear Double Shear
P F P F
 ave = =  ave = =
A A A 2A
1 - 16
Two Components of stress
• The stress (resulting stress) at any point in a body

is basically resolved into two components σ and τ.
• One act perpendicular and other parallel to the
area concerned, as it is clearly defined in the
following figure.
1 - 17
Bearing Stress in Connections
• Bolts, rivets, and pins create

stresses on the points of contact
or bearing surfaces of the
members they connect.
• The resultant of the force

distribution on the surface is
equal and opposite to the force
exerted on the pin.
• Corresponding average force

intensity is called the bearing
stress,
P P
b = =
A td
1 - 18
Concept Application 1.3: Stress Analysis & Design Example
• Would like to determine the

stresses in the members and
connections of the structure
shown.
• From a statics analysis:

FAB = 40 kN (compression)
FBC = 50 kN (tension)
• Must consider maximum

normal stresses in AB and
BC, and the shearing stress
and bearing stress at each
pinned connection
1 - 19
Rod & Boom Normal Stresses

• The rod is in tension with an axial force of 50 kN.
• At the rod center, the average normal stress in the

circular cross-section (A = 314x10-6m2) is BC = +159
MPa.
• At the flattened rod ends, the smallest cross-sectional

area occurs at the pin centerline,
A = (20 mm )(40 mm − 25 mm ) = 300 10−6 m 2
P 50 103 N
 BC ,end = = = 167 MPa
A 300 10−6 m 2
• The boom is in compression with an axial force of 40

kN and average normal stress of –26.7 MPa.
• The minimum area sections at the boom ends are

unstressed since the boom is in compression.
1 - 20

• The cross-sectional area for pins at A, B,
and C,
2
 25 mm  −6 2
A = r = 
2
 = 49110 m
 2 
• The force on the pin at C is equal to the

force exerted by the rod BC,
P 50 103 N
 C , ave = = − 6 2
= 102 MPa
A 49110 m
• The pin at A is in double shear with a

total force equal to the force exerted by
the boom AB,
P 20 kN
 A, ave = = = 40.7 MPa
A 49110− 6 m 2
1 - 21

• Divide the pin at B into sections to determine
the section with the largest shear force,
PE = 15 kN
PG = 25 kN (largest)
• Evaluate the corresponding average

shearing stress,
PG 25 kN
 B, ave = = = 50.9 MPa
A 49110− 6 m 2
1 - 22
Pin Bearing Stresses
• To determine the bearing stress at A in the boom AB,

we have t = 30 mm and d = 25 mm,
P 40 kN
b = = = 53.3 MPa
td (30 mm )(25 mm )
• To determine the bearing stress at A in the bracket,

we have t = 2(25 mm) = 50 mm and d = 25 mm,
P 40 kN
b = = = 32.0 MPa
td (50 mm )(25 mm )
1 - 23
Sample Problem 1.1
In the hanger shown, the upper portion

of link ABC is 3/8 in. thick and the
lower portions are each 1/4 in. thick.
Epoxy resin is used to bond the upper
and lower portions together at B. The
pin at A has a 3/8-in. diameter, while a
1/4-in.-diameter pin is used at C.
Determine (a) the shearing stress in pin
A, (b) the shearing stress in pin C, (c)
the largest normal stress in link ABC,
(d) the average shearing stress on the
bonded surfaces at B, and (e) the
bearing stress in the link at C
1 - 24
Sample Problem 1.1
b. Shearing Stress in Pin C.

Solution
MD = 0 This pin is in double shear
(500 lb)(15 in.) − FAC (10 in.) = 0 FAC 750
C = = = 7640 psi
FAC = 750 lb (tension) 2 A 2  4 ( 14 )2
c. Largest Normal Stress in Link ABC.
a. Shearing Stress in Pin A. The largest stress is found

where the area is smallest;
Since this pin is in single shear this occurs at the cross
section at A where the hole is
FAC 750
located.
A = = = 6790 psi
A ( )
 3 2
4 8
FAC 750
A = = = 2290 psi
Anet ( 83 )(1.25 − 83 )2
1 - 25
Sample Problem 1.1
d. Average Shearing Stress at B.

Since the bonding exists on both sides of the upper portion of the link at B, and that
the shear force on each side is F1 = F2 = (750 lb)/2 = 375 lb. The average shearing
stress on each surface is
F1 375
B = = = 171.4 psi
A (1.25 1.75)
Bearing Stress in Link at C.

For each portion of the link , F1 = 375 lb, and the nominal bearing area
is (1/4 in.)(1/4 in.) = 0.0625 in2.
F1 375
b = = = 6000 psi
A 0.0625
1 - 26
Stress in Two Force Members
• Axial forces on a two force

member result in only normal
stresses on a plane cut
perpendicular to the member axis.
• Transverse forces on bolts and

pins result in only shear stresses
on the plane perpendicular to bolt
or pin axis.
• Will show that either axial or

transverse forces may produce both
normal and shear stresses with respect
to a plane other than one cut
perpendicular to the member axis.
1 - 27
Stress on an Oblique Plane

• Pass a section through the member forming
an angle q with the normal plane.
• From equilibrium conditions, the

distributed forces (stresses) on the plane
must be equivalent to the force P.
• Resolve P into components normal and

tangential to the oblique section,
F = P cosq V = P sin q
• The average normal and shear stresses on
the oblique plane are
F P cosq P
= = = cos2 q
Aq A0 A0
cosq
V P sin q P
= = = sin q cosq
Aq A0 A0
cosq
1 - 28
Maximum Stresses
• Normal and shearing stresses on an oblique
plane
P P
= cos2 q  = sin q cosq
A0 A0
• The maximum normal stress occurs when the

reference plane is perpendicular to the member
axis,
P
m =  = 0
A0
• The maximum shear stress occurs for a plane at

+ 45o with respect to the axis,
P P
m = sin 45 cos 45 = = 
A0 2 A0
1 - 29
Stress Under General Loadings

• A member subjected to a general
combination of loads is cut into
two segments by a plane passing
through Q
• The distribution of internal stress

components may be defined as,
F x
 x = lim
A→0 A
V yx Vzx
 xy = lim  xz = lim
A→0 A A→0 A
• For equilibrium, an equal and

opposite internal force and stress
distribution must be exerted on
the other segment of the member.
1 - 30
State of Stress
• Stress components are defined for the planes
cut parallel to the x, y and z axes. For
equilibrium, equal and opposite stresses are
exerted on the hidden planes.
• The combination of forces generated by the
stresses must satisfy the conditions for
equilibrium:
 Fx =  Fy =  Fz = 0
Mx = My = Mz = 0
• Consider the moments about the z axis:
 M z = 0 = ( xy A)a − ( yxA)a
 xy =  yx
similarly,  yz =  zy and  xz =  zx
• It follows that only 6 components of stress are

required to define the complete state of stress
1 - 31
Factor of Safety
Structural members or machines Factor of safety considerations:

must be designed such that the • uncertainty in material properties
working stresses are less than the • uncertainty of loadings
ultimate strength of the material. • uncertainty of analyses
• number of loading cycles
FS = Factor of safety
• types of failure
u ultimate stress
FS = = • maintenance requirements and
 all allowable stress
deterioration effects
• risk to life and property
• influence on machine function
1 - 32
Sample Problem 1.3
Two loads are applied to the bracket BCD as

shown. (a) Knowing that the control rod AB is to
be made of a steel having an ultimate normal
stress of 600 MPa, determine the diameter of the
rod for which the factor of safety with respect to
failure will be 3.3. (b) The pin at C is to be made
of a steel having an ultimate shearing stress of
350 MPa. Determine the diameter of the pin C
for which the factor of safety with respect to
shear will also be 3.3. (c) Determine the required
thickness of the bracket supports at C, knowing
that the allowable bearing stress of the steel used
is 300 MPa
1 - 33
Sample Problem 1.3
Solution U 600
a. Control Rod AB.  all = = = 181.8 MPa
F .S . 3.3
P 40 103
Since  all = 181.8 10 = 6
=
 2
AAB 4 d AB
d AB = 16.74 10−3 m = 16.74 mm
U 350
b. Shear in Pin C.  all = = = 106.1 MPa
F .S . 3.3
As shown in Fig. 2 the pin is in double

shear.
 M C = 0 : P(0.6) − (50  0.3) − (15  0.6 ) = 0 C 76.3 103

 all = 106.1 10 =
6
=
P = 40 kN 2 AC 2  4 d C 2
 Fx = 0 : C x = 40 kN
d C = 21.4 10−3 m = 21.4 mm
 Fy = 0 : C y = 65 kN C = C + C = 76.3 kN
2
x
2
y
Use dC = 22 mm
1 - 34
Sample Problem 1.3
c. Bearing at C.
The force carried by each bracket is C/2 and
allowable bearing stress is 300 MPa
C C
b = =
2 A 2tdC
C 76.3 103
t= = = 5.78 mm
2 b d C 2  300 22
Use t = 6 mm
1 - 35
Problem 1.1
Two solid cylindrical rods AB and BC are welded together at B and loaded as shown.
Knowing that d1 = 30 mm and d2 = 50 mm, find the average normal stress at the
midsection of (a) rod AB, (b) rod BC.
1 - 36
Problem 1.7
Each of the four vertical links has

an 8 × 36-mm uniform rectangular
cross section, and each of the four
pins has a 16-mm diameter.
Determine the maximum value of
the average normal stress in the
links connecting (a) points B and
D, (b) points C and E.
1 - 37
Problem 1.13
An aircraft tow bar is positioned by means of a single hydraulic cylinder connected by

a 25-mm-diameter steel rod to two identical arm-and-wheel units DEF. The mass of
the entire tow bar is 200 kg, and its center of gravity is located at G. For the position
shown, determine the normal stress in the rod.
1 - 38
Problem 1.36
A steel pipe of 400-mm outer

diameter is fabricated from 10-mm
thick plate by welding along a helix
that forms an angle of 20° with a
plane perpendicular to the axis of
the pipe. Knowing that the
maximum allowable normal and
shearing stresses in the directions
respectively normal and tangential
to the weld are σ = 60 MPa and τ =
36 MPa, determine the magnitude P
of the largest axial force that can be
applied to the pipe.
1 - 39

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CHAPTER MECHANICS OF

Dr. Atta ur Rehman Shah

Courtesy: © 2002 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved.

Concept of Stress Stress in Two Force Members

Solid Mechanics is a branch of applied Mechanics

Tension force present in Compression occurs in legs of

The external forces acting on bodies are known as

Different No. of ways in which load(s) can be

Loads may be due to any one of the reason as:

We can analyze a body only if it is under static

• As we know that in mechanics of deformable solids,

• Intensity of internal resistive forces is known as stress.

• If the load is perpendicular (normal) to the area concerned.

Tensile or Compressive Stresses

The normal stresses can be either tensile or compressive

Centric & Eccentric Loading

• A uniform distribution of stress is only

• If a two-force member is eccentrically loaded,

• The stress distributions in eccentrically loaded

• When the cross-sectional area is subjected to a distribution

• Forces P and P’ are applied transversely to the

Shearing Stress Examples

Two Components of stress

• The stress (resulting stress) at any point in a body

Bearing Stress in Connections

• Bolts, rivets, and pins create

• The resultant of the force

• Corresponding average force

Concept Application 1.3: Stress Analysis & Design Example

• Would like to determine the

• From a statics analysis:

• Must consider maximum

Rod & Boom Normal Stresses

• At the rod center, the average normal stress in the

• At the flattened rod ends, the smallest cross-sectional

• The boom is in compression with an axial force of 40

• The minimum area sections at the boom ends are

Pin Shearing Stresses

• The force on the pin at C is equal to the

• The pin at A is in double shear with a

Pin Shearing Stresses

• Evaluate the corresponding average

Pin Bearing Stresses

• To determine the bearing stress at A in the boom AB,

• To determine the bearing stress at A in the bracket,

Sample Problem 1.1

In the hanger shown, the upper portion

Sample Problem 1.1

b. Shearing Stress in Pin C.

c. Largest Normal Stress in Link ABC.

a. Shearing Stress in Pin A. The largest stress is found

Sample Problem 1.1

d. Average Shearing Stress at B.

Bearing Stress in Link at C.

Stress in Two Force Members

• Axial forces on a two force

• Transverse forces on bolts and

• Will show that either axial or

Stress on an Oblique Plane

• From equilibrium conditions, the

• Resolve P into components normal and

• The maximum normal stress occurs when the

• The maximum shear stress occurs for a plane at

Stress Under General Loadings