Module 6 Data Gathering Research Ethics

Republic of the Philippines
CAMARINES NORTE STATE COLLEGE

F. Pimentel Avenue, Brgy. 2, Daet, Camarines Norte – 4600, Philippines
Research in Social Studies
Learning Module : Data Gathering Procedure

Asso. Prof. 1 Eduardo M. Abad , EdD
TOPICS: V. Data Gathering Procedure

1. Administering Survey Questionnaire
2. Conducting the Interview
3. Analysis of Data
VI. Ethics and Research
VII. Ensuring Confidentiality of data (https://www.privacy.gov.ph/data-privacy-act/)
VIII. Academic Cheating and Plagiarism Protecting the research Participants
IX. Qualitative Research and its Features
OBJECTIVES: At the end of these lessons, students are expected to have:

▪ Demonstrated understanding of the components , rigor and collection
of data by sharing their insights and realizations
▪ Produced a full research proposal
▪ Gathered the data needed to address the research questions
TIME FRAME: Week 10-12
DISCUSSION:
V. Data Gathering Procedure
Data collection is a systematic process of gathering observations or measurements. Whether

you are performing research for business, governmental or academic purposes, data
collection allows you to gain first-hand knowledge and original insights into your research
problem.
While methods and aims may differ between fields, the overall process of data collection
remains largely the same. Before you begin collecting data, you need to consider:
• The aim of the research

• The type of data that you will collect
• The methods and procedures you will use to collect, store, and process the data
To collect high-quality data that is relevant to your purposes, follow these four steps.
Step 1: Define the aim of your research

Before you start the process of data collection, you need to identify exactly what you want to
achieve. You can start by writing a problem statement: what is the practical or scientific issue
that you want to address and why does it matter?
Next, formulate one or more research questions that precisely define what you want to find
out. Depending on your research questions, you might need to collect quantitative or
qualitative data:
• Quantitative data is expressed in numbers and graphs and is analyzed

through statistical methods.
• Qualitative data is expressed in words and analyzed through interpretations and
categorizations.
Step 2: Choose your data collection method

Based on the data you want to collect, decide which method is best suited for your research.
• Experimental research is primarily a quantitative method.

• Interviews/focus groups and ethnography are qualitative methods.
• Surveys, observations, archival research and secondary data collection can be
quantitative or qualitative methods.
Carefully consider what method you will use to gather data that helps you directly answer your
research questions.
Step 3: Plan your data collection procedures

When you know which method(s) you are using, you need to plan exactly how you will
implement them. What procedures will you follow to make accurate observations or
measurements of the variables you are interested in?
For instance, if you’re conducting surveys or interviews, decide what form the questions will
take; if you’re conducting an experiment, make decisions about your experimental design.
Operationalization
Sometimes your variables can be measured directly: for example, you can collect data on the
average age of employees simply by asking for dates of birth. However, often you’ll be
interested in collecting data on more abstract concepts or variables that can’t be directly
observed.
Operationalization means turning abstract conceptual ideas into measurable observations.

When planning how you will collect data, you need to translate the conceptual definition of
what you want to study into the operational definition of what you will actually measure.
Example of operationalizationYou have decided to use surveys to collect quantitative data.

The concept you want to measure is the leadership of managers. You operationalize this
concept in two ways:
• You ask managers to rate their own leadership skills on 5-point scales assessing the
ability to delegate, decisiveness and dependability.
• You ask their direct employees to provide anonymous feedback on the managers
regarding the same topics.
Using multiple ratings of a single concept can help you cross-check your data and assess
the test validity of your measures.
Sampling
You may need to develop a sampling plan to obtain data systematically. This involves defining
a population, the group you want to draw conclusions about, and a sample, the group you will
actually collect data from.
Your sampling method will determine how you recruit participants or obtain measurements for
your study. To decide on a sampling method you will need to consider factors like the required
sample size, accessibility of the sample, and timeframe of the data collection.
Standardizing procedures
If multiple researchers are involved, write a detailed manual to standardize data collection
procedures in your study.
This means laying out specific step-by-step instructions so that everyone in your research
team collects data in a consistent way – for example, by conducting experiments under the
same conditions and using objective criteria to record and categorize observations.
This helps ensure the reliability of your data, and you can also use it to replicate the study in
the future.
Creating a data management plan

Step 4: Collect the data
Finally, you can implement your chosen methods to measure or observe the variables you are
interested in.
Examples of collecting qualitative and quantitative dataTo collect data about perceptions of
managers, you administer a survey with closed- and open-ended questions to a sample of
300 company employees across different departments and locations.
The closed-ended questions ask participants to rate their manager’s leadership skills on
scales from 1–5. The data produced is numerical and can be statistically analyzed for
averages and patterns.
The open-ended questions ask participants for examples of what the manager is doing well
now and what they can do better in the future. The data produced is qualitative and can be
categorized through content analysis for further insights.
To ensure that high quality data is recorded in a systematic way, here are some best practices:
• Record all relevant information as and when you obtain data. For example, note down
whether or how lab equipment is recalibrated during an experimental study.
• Double-check manual data entry for errors.
• If you collect quantitative data, you can assess the reliability and validity to get an
indication of your data quality.
In gathering data, researchers should ensure reliability and validity of data

gathered.
Reliability and validity are both about how well a method measures something:
• Reliability refers to the consistency of a measure (whether the results can be

reproduced under the same conditions).
• Validity refers to the accuracy of a measure (whether the results really do represent
what they are supposed to measure).
If you are doing experimental research, you also have to consider the internal and external
validity of your experiment.
Methods of Administering The Questionnaire.
The systems analyst has several options for administering the questionnaire, and the choice
of administration method is often determined by the existing business situation. Options for
administering the questionnaire include the following:
1. Convening all concerned respondents together at one time.

2. Personally handing out blank questionnaires and taking back completed ones.
3. Allowing respondents to self-administer the questionnaire at work and drop it in a centrally
located box.
4. Mailing questionnaires to employees at branch sites and supplying a deadline, instructions,
and return postage.
5. Administering the questionnaire electronically either via email or on the
Each of these five methods has advantages and disadvantages. Most commonly,
respondents are allowed to self-administer the questionnaire. Response rates with this
method are a little lower than with the other methods, because people may forget about the
form, lose it, or purposely ignore it. Self-administration, however, allows people to feel that
their anonymity is ensured and may result in less guarded answers from some respondents.
Both email and Web surveys fall into the category of self-administered questionnaires.
Tips For Effective Research Interviews

Maya Thomas* and M.J. Thomas
1. Make sure the research question is clear.

2. Develop a check list of the questions to be asked during the interview.
3. Express clearly the purpose of the interview.
4. Start with a neutral question to facilitate free flow of information.
5. Use open-ended questions so that the respondent can choose his answer.
6. Limit the content of each question with a single idea to avoid confusion.
7. Reduce questions that give responses of `yes' or `no', because they give limited
information.
8. Do not influence the respondent by asking leading questions.
9. If you have not understood the response ask the respondent to repeat and
clarify.
10. Do not assume answers.
11. Do not pass judgements.
12. Avoid irrelevant discussions.
13. When you change the tack, inform the respondent that you are doing so.
14. Keep the interview short.
15. At the end of the interview summarise the points reported and ask the
respondent if the summary is correct.
Analysis of Data
Types of data in research

Every kind of data has a rare quality
of describing things after assigning a
specific value to it. For analysis, you
need to organize these values,
processed and presented in a given
context, to make it useful. Data can
be in different forms; here are the
primary data types.
• Qualitative data: When the data

presented has words and
descriptions, then we call
it qualitative data. Although you can
observe this data, it is subjective and
harder to analyze data in research,
especially for comparison. Example: Quality data represents everything describing taste,
experience, texture, or an opinion that is considered quality data. This type of data is usually
collected through focus groups, personal interviews, or using open-ended questions in
surveys.
• Quantitative data: Any data expressed in numbers of numerical figures are
called quantitative data. This type of data can be distinguished into categories, grouped,
measured, calculated, or ranked. Example: questions such as age, rank, cost, length,
weight, scores, etc. everything comes under this type of data. You can present such data
in graphical format, charts, or apply statistical analysis methods to this data. The
(Outcomes Measurement Systems) OMS questionnaires in surveys are a significant
source of collecting numeric data.
• Categorical data: It is data presented in groups. However, an item included in the
categorical data cannot belong to more than one group. Example: A person responding to
a survey by telling his living style, marital status, smoking habit, or drinking habit comes
under the categorical data. A chi-square test is a standard method used to analyze this
data.
Data analysis in qualitative research
Data analysis and qualitative data research work a little differently from the numerical data
as the quality data is made up of words, descriptions, images, objects, and sometimes
symbols. Getting insight from such complicated information is a complicated process. Hence
it is typically used for exploratory research and data analysis.
Finding patterns in the qualitative data

Although there are several ways to find patterns in the textual information, a word-based
method is the most relied and widely used global technique for research and data analysis.
Notably, the data analysis process in qualitative research is manual. Here the researchers
usually read the available data and find repetitive or commonly used words.
For example, while studying data collected from African countries to understand the most
pressing issues people face, researchers might find “food” and “hunger” are the most
commonly used words and will highlight them for further analysis.
The keyword context is another widely used word-based technique. In this method, the
researcher tries to understand the concept by analyzing the context in which the participants
use a particular keyword.
For example, researchers conducting research and data analysis for studying the concept
of ‘diabetes’ amongst respondents might analyze the context of when and how the respondent
has used or referred to the word ‘diabetes.’
The scrutiny-based technique is also one of the highly recommended text analysis methods
used to identify a quality data pattern. Compare and contrast is the widely used method under
this technique to differentiate how a specific text is similar or different from each other.
For example: To find out the “importance of resident doctor in a company,” the collected data
is divided into people who think it is necessary to hire a resident doctor and those who think it
is unnecessary. Compare and contrast is the best method that can be used to analyze the
polls having single answer questions types.
Metaphors can be used to reduce the data pile and find patterns in it so that it becomes
easier to connect data with theory.
Variable Partitioning is another technique used to split variables so that researchers can find
more coherent descriptions and explanations from the enormous data.
Methods used for data analysis in qualitative research

There are several techniques to analyze the data in qualitative research, but here are some
commonly used methods,
• Content Analysis: It is widely accepted and the most frequently employed technique for
data analysis in research methodology. It can be used to analyze the documented
information from text, images, and sometimes from the physical items. It depends on
the research questions to predict when and where to use this method.
• Narrative Analysis: This method is used to analyze content gathered from various
sources such as personal interviews, field observation, and surveys. The majority of
times, stories, or opinions shared by people are focused on finding answers to the
research questions.
• Discourse Analysis: Similar to narrative analysis, discourse analysis is used to analyze

the interactions with people. Nevertheless, this particular method considers the social
context under which or within which the communication between the researcher and
respondent takes place. In addition to that, discourse analysis also focuses on the lifestyle
and day-to-day environment while deriving any conclusion.
• Grounded Theory: When you want to explain why a particular phenomenon happened,
then using grounded theory for analyzing quality data is the best resort. Grounded theory
is applied to study data about the host of similar cases occurring in different settings.
When researchers are using this method, they might alter explanations or produce new
ones until they arrive at some conclusion.
Data analysis in quantitative research
Preparing data for analysis

The first stage in research and data analysis is to make it for the analysis so that the nominal
data can be converted into something meaningful. Data preparation consists of the below
phases.
Phase I: Data Validation

Data validation is done to understand if the collected data sample is per the pre-set
standards, or it is a biased data sample again divided into four different stages
• Fraud: To ensure an actual human being records each response to the survey or the
questionnaire
• Screening: To make sure each participant or respondent is selected or chosen in
compliance with the research criteria
• Procedure: To ensure ethical standards were maintained while collecting the data sample
• Completeness: To ensure that the respondent has answered all the questions in an
online survey. Else, the interviewer had asked all the questions devised in the
questionnaire.
Phase II: Data Editing

More often, an extensive research data sample comes loaded with errors. Respondents
sometimes fill in some fields incorrectly or sometimes skip them accidentally. Data editing is
a process wherein the researchers have to confirm that the provided data is free of such
errors. They need to conduct necessary checks and outlier checks to edit the raw edit and
make it ready for analysis.
Phase III: Data Coding

Out of all three, this is the most critical phase of data preparation associated with grouping
and assigning values to the survey responses. If a survey is completed with a 1000 sample
size, the researcher will create an age bracket to distinguish the respondents based on their
age. Thus, it becomes easier to analyze small data buckets rather than deal with the
massive data pile.
Methods used for data analysis in quantitative research

After the data is prepared for analysis, researchers are open to using different research and
data analysis methods to derive meaningful insights. For sure, statistical techniques are the
most favored to analyze numerical data. The method is again classified into two groups.
First, ‘Descriptive Statistics’ used to describe data. Second, ‘Inferential statistics’ that helps
in comparing the data.
Descriptive statistics
This method is used to describe the basic features of versatile types of data in research. It
presents the data in such a meaningful way that pattern in the data starts making sense.
Nevertheless, the descriptive analysis does not go beyond making conclusions. The
conclusions are again based on the hypothesis researchers have formulated so far. Here are
a few major types of descriptive analysis methods.
Measures of Frequency
• Count, Percent, Frequency
• It is used to denote home often a particular event occurs.
• Researchers use it when they want to showcase how often a response is given.
Measures of Central Tendency

• Mean, Median, Mode
• The method is widely used to demonstrate distribution by various points.
• Researchers use this method when they want to showcase the most commonly or
averagely indicated response.
Measures of Dispersion or Variation

• Range, Variance, Standard deviation
• Here the field equals high/low points.
• Variance standard deviation = difference between the observed score and mean
• It is used to identify the spread of scores by stating intervals.
• Researchers use this method to showcase data spread out. It helps them identify the
depth until which the data is spread out that it directly affects the mean.
Measures of Position
• Percentile ranks, Quartile ranks
• It relies on standardized scores helping researchers to identify the relationship between
different scores.
• It is often used when researchers want to compare scores with the average count.
For quantitative market research use of descriptive analysis often give absolute numbers,
but the analysis is never sufficient to demonstrate the rationale behind those numbers.
Nevertheless, it is necessary to think of the best method for research and data analysis
suiting your survey questionnaire and what story researchers want to tell. For example, the
mean is the best way to demonstrate the students’ average scores in schools. It is better to
rely on the descriptive statistics when the researchers intend to keep the research or
outcome limited to the provided sample without generalizing it. For example, when you want
to compare average voting done in two different cities, differential statistics are enough.
Descriptive analysis is also called a ‘univariate analysis’ since it is commonly used to

analyze a single variable.
Inferential statistics
Inferential statistics are used to make predictions about a larger population after research
and data analysis of the representing population’s collected sample. For example, you can
ask some odd 100 audiences at a movie theater if they like the movie they are
watching. Researchers then use inferential statistics on the collected sample to reason that
about 80-90% of people like the movie.
Here are two significant areas of inferential statistics.
• Estimating parameters: It takes statistics from the sample research data and
demonstrates something about the population parameter.
• Hypothesis test: It’s about sampling research data to answer the survey
research questions. For example, researchers might be interested to understand if the
new shade of lipstick recently launched is good or not, or if the multivitamin capsules help
children to perform better at games.
These are sophisticated analysis methods used to showcase the relationship between
different variables instead of describing a single variable. It is often used when researchers
want something beyond absolute numbers to understand the relationship between variables.
Here are some of the commonly used methods for data analysis in research.
• Correlation: When researchers are not conducting experimental research wherein the
researchers are interested to understand the relationship between two or more variables,
they opt for correlational research methods.
• Cross-tabulation: Also called contingency tables, cross-tabulation is used to analyze the

relationship between multiple variables. Suppose provided data has age and gender
categories presented in rows and columns. A two-dimensional cross-tabulation helps for
seamless data analysis and research by showing the number of males and females in
each age category.
• Regression analysis: For understanding the strong relationship between two variables,
researchers do not look beyond the primary and commonly used regression
analysis method, which is also a type of predictive analysis used. In this method, you have
an essential factor called the dependent variable. You also have multiple independent
variables in regression analysis. You undertake efforts to find out the impact of
independent variables on the dependent variable. The values of both independent and
dependent variables are assumed as being ascertained in an error-free random manner.
• Frequency tables: The statistical procedure is used for testing the degree to which two or
more vary or differ in an experiment. A considerable degree of variation means research
findings were significant. In many contexts, ANOVA testing and variance analysis are
similar.
• Analysis of variance: The statistical procedure is used for testing the degree to which
two or more vary or differ in an experiment. A considerable degree of variation means
research findings were significant. In many contexts, ANOVA testing and variance
analysis are similar.
Considerations in research data analysis

• Researchers must have the necessary skills to analyze the data, Getting trained to
demonstrate a high standard of research practice. Ideally, researchers must possess
more than a basic understanding of the rationale of selecting one statistical method over
the other to obtain better data insights.
• Usually, research and data analytics methods differ by scientific discipline; therefore,
getting statistical advice at the beginning of analysis helps design a survey questionnaire,
select data collection methods, and choose samples.
• The primary aim of data research and analysis is to derive ultimate insights that are
unbiased. Any mistake in or keeping a biased mind to collect data, selecting an analysis
method, or choosing audience sample il to draw a biased inference.
• Irrelevant to the sophistication used in research data and analysis is enough to rectify the
poorly defined objective outcome measurements. It does not matter if the design is at fault
or intentions are not clear, but lack of clarity might mislead readers, so avoid the practice.
• The motive behind data analysis in research is to present accurate and reliable data. As
far as possible, avoid statistical errors, and find a way to deal with everyday challenges
like outliers, missing data, data altering, data mining, or developing graphical
representation.
VI. Ethics and Research
Another way of defining 'ethics' focuses on the disciplines that study standards of
conduct, such as philosophy, theology, law, psychology, or sociology. For example,
a "medical ethicist" is someone who studies ethical standards in medicine. One may
also define ethics as a method, procedure, or perspective for deciding how to act
and for analyzing complex problems and issues. For instance, in considering a
complex issue like global warming, one may take an economic, ecological, political, or
ethical perspective on the problem. While an economist might examine the cost and
benefits of various policies related to global warming, an environmental ethicist could
examine the ethical values and principles at stake.
There are several reasons why it is important to adhere to ethical norms in research.
A. First, norms promote the aims of research, such as knowledge, truth, and
avoidance of error. For example, prohibitions against fabricating, falsifying, or
misrepresenting research data promote the truth and minimize error.
B. Second, since research often involves a great deal of cooperation and
coordination among many different people in different disciplines and
institutions, ethical standards promote the values that are essential to
collaborative work, such as trust, accountability, mutual respect, and fairness.
For example, many ethical norms in research, such as guidelines for
authorship, copyright and patenting policies, data sharing policies, and
confidentiality rules in peer review, are designed to protect intellectual property
interests while encouraging collaboration. Most researchers want to receive
credit for their contributions and do not want to have their ideas stolen or
disclosed prematurely.
C. Third, many of the ethical norms help to ensure that researchers can be
held accountable to the public. For instance, federal policies on research
misconduct, conflicts of interest, the human subjects protections, and animal
care and use are necessary in order to make sure that researchers who are
funded by public money can be held accountable to the public.
D. Fourth, ethical norms in research also help to build public support for
research. People are more likely to fund a research project if they can trust the
quality and integrity of research.
E. Finally, many of the norms of research promote a variety of other
important moral and social values, such as social responsibility, human
rights, animal welfare, compliance with the law, and public health and safety.
Ethical lapses in research can significantly harm human and animal subjects,
students, and the public. For example, a researcher who fabricates data in a
clinical trial may harm or even kill patients, and a researcher who fails to abide
by regulations and guidelines relating to radiation or biological safety may
jeopardize his health and safety or the health and safety of staff and students.
VII. Ensuring Confidentiality of Data

(Kindly Check this Site: Https://Www.Privacy.Gov.Ph/Data-Privacy-Act/)
VIII. Plagiarism and Cheating in Research

"Plagiarism: presenting others' work without adequate acknowledgement of its source, as
though it were one’s own. Plagiarism is a form of fraud. We all stand on the shoulders of
others, and we must give credit to the creators of the works that we incorporate into products
that we call our own.
Some examples of plagiarism:
• a sequence of words incorporated without quotation marks
• an unacknowledged passage paraphrased from another's work
• the use of ideas, sound recordings, computer data or images created by others as though it
were one’s own"
Frequently ask questions on Plagiarism:
Q: What are some tips to avoid plagiarism?

"Understand the content and write it down using your own words (still need to put the
article in Reference List)"
"Cite all figures, tables and images that are not produced by yourself"
"Not directly copy anything from the paper. If needed, rewrite in my own way. When
citing papers, give enough acknowledgement"
"Paraphrase without looking at the original paper"
"Do enough citation"
"Just try not to do it. I jot down my idea first and if I don't have the idea or don't know
how to express it, I'll find some articles and try to recap or comment with my own
words."
Q: Which online writing resources do you find useful?
"Google Scholar and well-written papers in my field"
Q: Which online writing resources do you find useful?
"The Online Writing Lab at Purdue https://owl.english.purdue.edu/owl/"
How to Avoid Plagiarism
The key to avoiding plagiarism is give credit where credit is due. Some ways to not
plagiarize include:
• Take good notes as you read. Note the author and page number of where you read
ideas and/or facts.
• Create a good system of organizing your research notes. Make time to provide
citations in your paper.
• Make sure to use in-text citations to give authors credit for their ideas.
• Not sure if something is common knowledge and doesn't need a citation? Ask your
professor, GSI, or a librarian.
• You may use the tools found in these websites to recognize plagiarism :
o VAIL Tutor - Virtual Academic Integrity Laboratory (Tutorial and Quiz)
o Plagiarism test - How to Recognize Plagiarism from Indiana University
o Pen and Paper Plagiarism Knowledge Test - from The Center for Research
on Learning & Teaching at the University of Michigan
o Turnitin Check (app)
This definition is from NYU's Academic Integrity Website/

https://guides.lib.umich.edu/c.php?g=283392&p=1887232
Is it Counted as Plagiarism if I didn't realize I was Plagiarizing?

Intentionally or unintentionally using someone else's ideas or writing in part or
plagiarism:
whole in your own paper without proper attribution.
When a writer attempts or intends to write in his/her own words but --
"accidental" plagiarism:
out of ignorance, sloppiness, or carelessness -- fails to distinguish quote from
paraphrase or fails to cite and document properly.
Patch-writing: Students often use patch-writing, (pasting the student's own words into an
author's sentence frame), as a fall-back technique when they are stuck at some point in
their writing. As students become more experienced in writing they rely on this technique
less and less.
Most common plagiarism problems, mistakes, and misconceptions
"I didn't know I had to cite that, too!"
Some students think they only need to cite direct quotes and statistics. While this is true,
writers also need to cite unique ideas and unique phrasing belonging to someone else.
Summaries and paraphrases of books, essays, and other sources of information also
need to be fully cited.
"But I included a bibliography . . ."

A bibliography is not enough! Careful documentation of your sources at the level of the
sentence is also extremely important because it is at the level of the sentence that you
distinguish your ideas and words from someone else's.
Copy-cat paraphrasing
This is when a student attempts to summarize or paraphrase an idea or some research
made by someone else, but adheres too closely to the other writer's phrasing and
sentence structure. Even if there is a footnote or citation attached to the copy-cat
sentence, it is still plagiarism if another writer's words are not enclosed in quotation
marks.
This material is from Tufts University's Preventing Plagiarism: Different Forms of Plagiarism page, except the
definition of patch-writing which is from Judy Dyer, lecturer at the English Language Insitute.
Kindly check this link for further samples of this topic on Plagiarism:
https://guides.lib.umich.edu/ld.php?content_id=11412442
. IX. Qualitative Research and Its topic
Qualitative Research Methods –

Qualitative research is a research
method to explore and understand the
meaning that some individuals or
groups of people think come from
social or human problems (Creswell,
2013). The final report of a qualitative
study has a flexible structure or
framework. The perspective used in
this study is inductive style, focuses on
individual meanings, and translates the
complexity of a problem.
Qualitative research objectives

In general, this type of research
includes information about the main phenomenon that is being explored in a study, research
participants, and the location of a study. Qualitative research can also state the research
design chosen.
In the world of education, qualitative research has the objective of describing the process of
educational activities based on what is in the field as study material to find shortcomings and
weaknesses so that efforts can be determined to improve them; analyzing a symptom, facts,
and educational events in the field; compile a hypothesis related to the concepts and principles
of education based on information and data that occur in the field.
Qualitative Research Characteristics

The following are some of the characteristics of qualitative research:
1. Natural environment (natural setting). Qualitative researchers collect field data at the
locations where participants experience the problem or issue to be studied. Qualitative
researchers do not change the environmental settings and activities of the participants.
Information is gathered by talking directly to people and seeing them act directly in a natural
context.
2. Researcher as a key instrument (researcher as key instrument). Qualitative
researchers generally collect their own research data through participant observation,
documentation, or direct interviews with participants. These researchers generally do not use
instruments or questionnaires made by other researchers, because they are the only key to
the study.
3. Multiple sources of data. Qualitative researchers generally choose to collect the required
data from various sources such as interviews, documentation, and observations, rather than
relying only on one source data.
4. Inductive data analysis. Qualitative researchers build categories, patterns and themes from
the ground up (inductive) or from separate data into a complete conclusion.
5. The meaning of the participants (participant’s meaning). In the entire research process,
the researcher must focus on studying the meaning obtained from the participants about the
issue or research problem, not the meaning conveyed by other authors or researchers in
certain literatures.
6. Design that develops (emergent design). Qualitative researchers argue that qualitative
research is always evolving and dynamic. This can mean that the initial plan is not a standard
that must be adhered to, all stages of research may change after the researcher goes into the
field and collects data. Provided that these changes are still in line in achieving the research
objectives, namely obtaining information about the problem or research issue.
7. Theoretical perspective (theoritical lens). Qualitative researchers often use certain
perspectives in conducting research such as ethnography, cultural concepts, gender
differences, race and others.
8. Interpretive. Qualitative researchers make an interpretation of what they see, hear and
what they understand. Usually there are differences in interpretation between researchers
and readers and participants, so it appears that qualitative research offers different views on
a content or problem.
9. A holistic account. Qualitative researchers usually try to make a complex picture of a
research issue or problem. Researchers describe the perspectives and factors associated with
the problem as a whole.
The following are the strategies in qualitative research:
1. Ethnography
• Ethnography is a branch of anthropology to analyze the culture of a nation or society in its
natural environment over a long period of time in collecting main data, observational data
and interviews.
• The purpose of the analysis is to understand a view of life from the perspective of the
indigenous people.
• This research was conducted with observation, long enough observations of a group, tribe /
community, to find the meaning of each behavior, the language of interaction / something
related to the community itself.
2. Case studies
• Researchers carefully investigate a program, event, activity, process, or group of
individuals.
• Cases are limited by time and activity, and researchers collect complete information using
time-based procedures.
3. Phenomenology
• Researchers identify the nature of human experience about a particular phenomenon.
• Understanding the experience of human life makes phenomenological philosophy a
research method whose procedures require the researcher to study a number of subjects
with a relatively long and direct involvement in it to develop patterns and meaning relations.
4. Grounded Theory
• Researchers produce a general and abstract theory of a particular action, process, or
interaction that comes from the views of participants.
• Researchers must go through a number of stages of data collection and filtering categories
for the information that has been obtained.
• It has main characteristics, namely: (1) constant comparison between data and emerging
categories and (2) theoretical sampling of different groups to maximize information similarity
and difference.
5. Narrative
• Researchers investigate the lives of individuals and ask a person or group of individuals to
tell their life.
• This information is retold by the researcher in a narrative chronology.
• In the final stage of the research, the researcher must combine with a narrative style his
views on the participant’s life with the views held by the researcher himself.
Data collection strategy

The following are strategies that need to be carried out in qualitative research:
1. Qualitative observation
Qualitative observation is an observation in which the researcher goes directly to the field to
observe participant behavior and activities at the research location. In this observation, the
researcher can record and record both structured and unstructured notes. Usually
researchers are involved in a variety of roles, it can be as a complete participant or non-
participant.
2. Qualitative interview
In qualitative interviews, qualitative researchers can interview face-to-face or face to face
with participants, by telephone, or can also be involved in focus group interviews or group
interviews. The questions are unstructured and open questions for the purpose of capturing
the opinions and views of participants on a particular issue.
3. Quality documents
Qualitative documents can be public documents such as newspapers, magazines or papers
or in the form of personal documents such as diaries, diaries and e-mails.
4. Audio and visual material

This data can be in the form of recordings of both sound and images and printed results
such as pictures, photographs and paintings.
That was a little explanation about qualitative research methods, hopefully they can provide
benefits.
Source: Creswell, J.W, (2013). Research Design.Thousand Oaks California: SAGE
publications.
REFERENCE list:
https://www.scribbr.com/methodology/data-collection/
https://www.questionpro.com/blog/data-analysis-in-research/
https://www.w3computing.com/systemsanalysis/designing-questionnaires/
https://www.dinf.ne.jp/doc/english/asia/resource/apdrj/z13fm0300/z13fm0313.html
https://www.niehs.nih.gov/research/resources/bioethics/whatis/index.cfm
https://guides.lib.umich.edu/c.php?g=283392&p=1887232
https://lp2m.uma.ac.id/qualitative-research-methods-objectives-characteristics-and-
strategies/

Module 6 Data Gathering Research Ethics

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Republic of the Philippines

CAMARINES NORTE STATE COLLEGE

Research in Social Studies

Learning Module : Data Gathering Procedure

TOPICS: V. Data Gathering Procedure

OBJECTIVES: At the end of these lessons, students are expected to have:

Data collection is a systematic process of gathering observations or measurements. Whether

• The aim of the research

Step 1: Define the aim of your research

• Quantitative data is expressed in numbers and graphs and is analyzed

Step 2: Choose your data collection method

• Experimental research is primarily a quantitative method.

Step 3: Plan your data collection procedures

Operationalization means turning abstract conceptual ideas into measurable observations.

Example of operationalizationYou have decided to use surveys to collect quantitative data.

Creating a data management plan

In gathering data, researchers should ensure reliability and validity of data

• Reliability refers to the consistency of a measure (whether the results can be

Methods of Administering The Questionnaire.

1. Convening all concerned respondents together at one time.

Tips For Effective Research Interviews

1. Make sure the research question is clear.

Types of data in research

• Qualitative data: When the data

Data analysis in qualitative research

Finding patterns in the qualitative data

Methods used for data analysis in qualitative research

• Discourse Analysis: Similar to narrative analysis, discourse analysis is used to analyze

Data analysis in quantitative research

Preparing data for analysis

Phase I: Data Validation

Phase II: Data Editing

Phase III: Data Coding

Methods used for data analysis in quantitative research

Measures of Central Tendency

Measures of Dispersion or Variation

Descriptive analysis is also called a ‘univariate analysis’ since it is commonly used to

Here are two significant areas of inferential statistics.

• Cross-tabulation: Also called contingency tables, cross-tabulation is used to analyze the

Considerations in research data analysis

VI. Ethics and Research

VII. Ensuring Confidentiality of Data

VIII. Plagiarism and Cheating in Research

Q: What are some tips to avoid plagiarism?

How to Avoid Plagiarism

This definition is from NYU's Academic Integrity Website/

Is it Counted as Plagiarism if I didn't realize I was Plagiarizing?

"But I included a bibliography . . ."

. IX. Qualitative Research and Its topic

Qualitative Research Methods –

Qualitative research objectives

Qualitative Research Characteristics

The following are the strategies in qualitative research:

Data collection strategy

4. Audio and visual material

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