Introduction of the topic

1 a) Describe cross-cultural psychology

Culture define as a set of attitudes, behaviours and symbols shared by a large group of people and
usually communicated from one generation to the next. Attitudes include beliefs (political,
ideological, religious, moral etc), values, general knowledge (empirical and theoretical), opinions,
superstitions, and stereotypes. Behaviour include a wide variety of norms, roles, customs, traditions,
habits, practises and fashions. Symbols represent things or ideas the meaning of which is bestowed on
them by people. A symbol may have the form of a material object, a colour, a sound, a slogan, a
building, or anything else. For the cross cultural psychologist, human behaviour is not only a results
or products of cultural influences; people are also free, active and rational individuals who are capable
of exercising their own will. Cultures differ in the meaning and occurrence of different types of non
verbal behaviour.

Next point of view regarding the cross cultural psychology is the critical and comparative study of
cultural effects on human psychology. As a comparative field, cross cultural psychology draws its
conclusions from at least two samples that represent at least two cultural groups. Cross cultural
psychology also examines psychological diversity and the underlying reasons for such diversity.

Culture can be described as having both explicit and implicit characteristics. Explicit characteristics of
culture are the set of observable practices, and typical behavioural responses such as saying “hello” to
a stranger. Implicit characteristics refer to the organizing principles that are inferred to lie behind
these regularities on the basis of consistent patterns of explicit culture. For example, grammar that
control speech, rules of address, hidden norms of bargaining or particular behavioural expectations in
a standard situation may be viewed as examples of implicit culture.

Cross cultural psychology should be elaborate through two elements. Culture and psychology. Culture
is defining as a group that shared a unique meaning and an information system and transfer across
generations and allows the group to meet basic needs of survival together, extend the happiness and
well-being and continue the life that they wanted.

Hence, there are so many definition regarding the topic, cross-cultural psychology is defining as
(Berry et al 2011) ongoing changes in variable reflecting towards the similarities and differences in
individual psychological functioning in various cultural and ethnocultural groups and the relationship
of psychological variables with sociocultural, ecological and biological variables.

Matsumoto’s (2009) definition shares key characteristics with that of Triandis,Kurowski, Tecktiel,
and Chan (1993) who defined culture in terms of objectives and subjective characteristics that
increase the odds of survival, provide satisfaction for people sharing an environmental context and are
shared via language. Objective elements of culture as identified by Triandis et al., are the tangible
objects of culture (architecture, food, manufactured products) whereas subjective culture comprises
such human elements as social, economic, political, and religious practice. Cohen (2009) advocated
extension of the notion of culture to a variety of constellation of human groups including religion,
socioeconomic status and region (within a country). Finally, Berry, Poortinga, Segall and Dasen
(2002) perhaps put it most succinctly , when they called culture simply “the shared way of life of a
group of people”

Thus, cross cultural was seen as a complex through both population level and individual level
analysis, these indicates an active participation in physical and cultural relationship. The relationship
between culture and psychology.

Cultural psychology is not a single discipline or approach. Diverse approaches compete within the
rubric of cultural psychology. As stated by Kalmar 1987 & Ratner 2006, definition of culture which
cultural factor are central to cultural systems and to psychological phenomena, the origins and nature
of psychology, the origins and nature of agency, and the relation between cultural factors and
psychological factors whether culture and psychological phenomena can be objectively described and
explained. Gudykunst & Bond in 1997 explained cross cultural as conditions in which people live
vary from place to place. Human actions and mental sets been formed and developed in various
environments also may fluctuate from group to group. Thus these kind of differences may and of
course same goes the similarities are studied.

Cross cultural psychology is the critical and comparative study of cultural effects on human
psychology. Cross cultural psychology examines psychological diversity and the underlying reasons
for such diversity. There also links between cultural norms and behaviour and the wats in which
particular human activities are influenced by different, sometimes dissimilar social and cultural forces
(Segall et al.,1990) For example,

Cross cultural psychology studies cross cultural interactions. For example, during several centuries,
Malaysia was under British and Japan. How did British and Japan in general influence the culture and
subsequent behaviour, tradition and values of Malaysian? Yes, definitely. We can see through the
perception towards the medicine. They said that the Malaysian believe to the Shaman than the
hospital medicines. Culture is not a sum of individuals nor not spring from individual behaviour or
motives. On the other hand, individuals postulate common purposed and then adjust their behaviour to
fulfils this collective transcendent objective. This is how culture is a unification of individuals that
enables them to outperform separate individuals. Based on Sinha (2002) cross cultural psychologist
originally set out to seek universal principles that would apply across cultures. Hence, cross cultural
psychology traditionally involved testing Western theories in other cultures (Laungani,2002; Yang
2000) with the notion that culture was independent of the individual and separable from psychological
activities and principle (Greenfiels,2000).
Above all that, cross cultural psychology seeks to discover meaningful links between a culture and the
psychology of individuals living in this culture. The main massage of cultural psychology is that
human behaviour is meaningful only when viewed in the sociocultural context in which it occurs
(Segall etal.,1999). For instance, a cultural psychologist may be interested in describing how
particular religious’ views on divorce affect both behaviour and attitudes of young parents in a
country. Or a scientist may be interested in investigating how fundamental principles of Islam are
incorporated into an individual’s consciousness and personality traits (Monroe & Kreidie,1997).
Overall the main focus of cultural psychology is to study whether, when, and how individuals
growing up in a particular culture tend to internalize that culture’s qualities (Cole,1996). Cultural
psychology advocates the idea that mental processes are essentially the products of an interaction
between culture and the individual.

In conclusions, psychological knowledge of culture has improved substantially since the early work of
Rivers (1905) and Summer (1906). Cross cultural psychology promises to aid understanding of our
differences and clarification of our similarities but understanding will come only on the strength of
sound methodology and accurate data.

1 b) Describe how cultural Influences on attitudes and beliefs related to health and disease with ONE
specific example.

Malaysia is a multi-ethnic, multicultural and multilingual society with a population of about 28.3
million people. The majority of its population in 2004 consisted of Malays (50.4%), Chinese
(23.7%) , indigenous group (11%), Indians (7.1%) and other races (7.8%). Each ethnic group in
Malaysia is rich in its own culture and traditions. Culture is define as integrated shared pattern of
learned convictions and behaviours, has permeated and influenced health seeking decisions among the
various Malaysian ethnic groups. The cultural beliefs and practices are often heavily coloured towards
the perception of health and illnesses, healthcare expectations as well as a choices of treatment. It is
not uncommon for physicians to encounter patients from different cultural backgrounds, be it in the
emergency department, outpatient clinics or wards. Within their local practice context, doctors should
possess knowledge of some of these cultural beliefs that may influences their patient’s decisions.
Furthermore, potential of drug interactions when the patients uses both traditional and modern
medicine together usually have side effects. Although cultural influence on health and the practice of
traditional medicine are not one and the entity, they are intrinsically linked.

Example :

According to Lim TC in Understanding traditional Chinese medicine (2002) said body, soul and spirit
as an integrated whole with well-balanced yin-yang forces, considers man and his environment to be
linked as one entity. Yin and Yang is a dialectical Taoist concept that is deeply embedded in the
Chinese culture. According to this philosophy, the yin and yang are complementary opposite forces
that are interconnected and interdependent. Everything has both the yin and yang aspects, and
together with the “Qi” energy, these complementary forces control the multifaceted relationship
between humans and their surroundings. Many patients who use TCM, therefore, believe that modern
medicine is not holistic enough as it disregards the interaction between the individual and his
environment. Hence that numerous Malaysian believe that traditional medicine is more effective and
less detrimental to the quality of life compared with modern medicine. Influence may come from
relatives or friends who persuade patients to option for alternative medicine, believing that it would
affect the quality of life less negatively and may be more effective compared with modern medicine.

In terms of pregnancy and the postpartum confinement period an overwhelming majority of

respondents from the general public (96%) interviewed believed unequivocally that all mothers
should observe a period of confinement. This period of confinement is also known as “zuo yuezi” in
Chinese or translated as “sitting mouth” as the women literally sit or stay in bed for many hours and
are not allowed to leave the home.

Many commonly held Chinese cultural health beliefs among Malaysian Chinese have been elucidated
in length in previous article by Ariff and Beng in 2006, but the extent to which these beliefs affect the
attitude and behaviour of Chinese patients has not been well studied. Furthermore, with regard to the
preference for the place of death, Chinese people prefer to die in hospital because of their belief that a
death in a house can make the house dirty at an energy (chi) level. Prior to death, mantras are chanted
for the patient so that the final thought of the dying person are wholesome (Ariff & Beng 2006;
Taylor & Box 1999). Meanwhile, in the Malay culture the preference is for the patient to diet at home
enabling family members to be around the patient reciting the Quran and helping the patient proclaim
the “Kalimah Syahadah” the last words as a Muslim should say before death.

Next example of other cultural beliefs from the general public agreed on included the following : joint
pain/rheumatism is due ti excessive ‘wind’ accumulated in that joint; abdominal colic is due to
excessive ‘wind’ in the abdomen; consuming certain food can dispel ‘wind’ from the body; and
observing certain taboos during the confinement period after delivery baby is important. A Chinese
community also believed that consuming certain ‘toxic’ food like crabs and prawns can cause skin
disease and rash. This is not surprising given the fact that medical students learn that food allergy
manifests as rashes and it is also a well known fact that consuming seafood may cause allergy. Hence
there is a discrepancy in the extent which cultural beliefs influence the perception of health and
illnesses among Chinese community.

After all the readings, shown that there is a discrepancy in the extent of influence that cultural health
beliefs. Healthcare providers should be reminded that when patients fall sick, their goal is to recover
quickly,regardless of whether they use TCM or modern medicine, as long as the treatment is affective
and affordable.

c) Describe expression from cultural perspective emotions with ONE specific example

Studies emotional response tend to focus on three components : physiology (eg how fast one’s heart
beats) subjective to experience (eg feeling intensely happy or sad) and facial expressive behaviour (eg
smilling or frowning). Although only a few studies have simultaneously measured these different
aspects of emotional response thosethat to tend to observe moresimiliarities than differences in
physiological responses between cultures. That is regardless of cukture people tend to respond
similarly in terms of physiological (or bodily) expression.

Matsumoto and Juang (2013) defines emotions as ‘a transient neurophysiological reactions to events
that have consequences for our welfare and require an immediate behavioural response. Not only
feelings involved in emotions but also other physiological reactions, expressive behaviors,
behavioural intentions and cognitive changes. Kleinginnas attempted to arrive at a comprehensive
definition of emotions. They stated that emotions should 1) say something about the way we feel
when we are emotional; 2) mention the physiological or bodily basis of emotional feelings 3) include
the effects of emotion on perception, thinking and behaviour 4) point out the driving or motivational
properties of certain emotions such as fear and anger and 5) refer to the ways in which emotions are
expressed in language, facial expressionsand gesture (Kleinginna 1981)

Shirav & Ley (2007) stated that as human feelings are universal expressing our emotions with non
verbal behaviour and physiological responses are ways to deliver our thoughts without the exact
words or more than words can express. Emotions may occur subconsciously and naturally when
triggered by different impulses, realising the emotions related actions might remind us of hoe we truly
felt and generate bodily actions. All emotions have been developed in the course of biological
evolution. And they have been developed to serve the need of survival purposes.

Example :

North American contexts is to express oneself, then suppressing emotions (Not showing how one
feels) should have negative consequences. This is the assumption underlying hydraulic models of
emotions: the idea that emotional suppression and repression impair psychological functioning
(Freud,1910) However, Soto (2011) find that the relationship between suppression and psychological
well-being varies by culture. Meanwhile, European Americans emotional suppression is associated
with higher levels of depression and lower levels of life satisfaction. On the other hand, since for
Hong Kong Chinese, emotional suppression is needed to adjust to others (in this interdependent
community, suppressing emotions is how to appropriately interact with others), it is simply a part of
normal life and therefore not associated with depression or life satisfaction. For instances, European
American and Hmong American participants were asked to relive different emotional episodes in their
lives (eg when they lost something or someone that they loved; when something good happened)
(Tsai, Chentsova-Dutton, Freire-Bebeau & Przymus 2002). At the level of physiological arousal, there
were no differences in how European American and Hmong Americans responded.When reliving
events that elicited happiness, pride and love, European Americans smiled more frequently and more
intensely than did their Hmong counterparts, even though they reported feeling happy, proud and in
love at similar levels of intensity.
Second example, in a classic study (Cousins,1989) American and Japanese students were asked to
complete the sentence stem, “I am ____” twenty times. Whereas US participants were more likely to
complete the stem with psychological attributes (eg friendly, cheerful) than Japanese, Japanese
participants were more likely to complete the stem with references to social roles and responsibilities
(eg daughter , a student ) (Cousins 1989).

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