Genetics is the study of the function and behavior of genes,

Genes,the basic units of heredity, which are made up of DNA, act as instructions to make molecules called
proteins.Found inside the cells of every organism,from bacteria to humans.

A chromosome consists of a long strand of DNA containing many genes. A human chromosome can have up
to 500 million base pairs of DNA with thousands of genes.

Deoxyribonucleic acid is a molecule that carries most of the genetic instructions used in the development,functioning
and reproduction of all known living organisms and many viruses.

The sum of all an organism's genes is called its gesome. In other words,the genome is divided into
chromosomes,chromosomes contan genes,and genes are made of DNA.

Geneticists seek to understand hov the information encoded in genes is used and controlled by cells and how it is
transmitted from one generation to the next. They also study how tiny variations in genes can disrupt an organism's
development or cause disease.

Classical genetics,which remains a basis for all other topics in genetics,primarily is concerned with the method by which
genetic traits are transmitted from parents to their offspring.

In an organism having two difterent genes for a trait, the recessive form is overpowered by its counterpart, or
dominant, form located on the other of a pair of chromosomes.

These traits are classified as dominant (always expressed), recessive (subordinate to a dominant trait-In humans,
dark hair is a dominant trait; ifone parent contributes a gene for dark hair and the other contributes a gene for light hair,
the child will have dark hair polygenic (due to multiple genes).
Hercdity is the passing of phenotypic traits from parents to their offspring

Griffith's experiment,

reported in 1928 by Frederick Griffith, was the first experiment suggesting that bacteria are capable of
transferring genetic information through a process known as transformation.
In his first experiment,Griffith wished to determine the pathogenicity(disease-causing capability) of his rough strain
(Type IIR) of Streptocoecus bacteria.To begin,Griffith
 injected cultures of his rough strain into mice. Two weeks after injection,Griffith found
that the mice survived the introduction of the rough strain into their systems.
In the second experiment,Griffith wished to determine the pathogenicity (disease- causing capability) of his smooth (Type IIS)
strain of Streptococcus bacteria.
To begin. Griffith injected living cultures of his smooth strain into mice.Two weeks after injection,Griffith found that the mice
were killed as a result of the introduction of the smooth bacteria into their systems.
In his third experiment, Griffith wished to determine whether the viability of the smooth strain was required for
pathogenicity (disease-causing capability). To do this he first needed to kill these bacteria by boiling them for a short period of
time. Now that the smooth bacteria were dead, Griffith could test whether or not they could cause disease in that
state,Griffith injected the heat killed bacteria into the mouse.Two weeks after injection.Griffith found that the mice survived
the introduction of the heat-killed,smooth bacteria.
In his final experiment,Griffith wished to determine whether the factor present in the living smooth bacteria that causes
disease could be transferred to nonpathogenic material. Griftith first boiled pathogenic,smooth bacteria,heat killing them. In
the next step. Griffith needed to mix his heat-killed,smooth bacteria,with living.rough bacteria.
After mixing the two strains,Grilfith injected a mouse with the mixture.Neither the rough bacteria nor the heat-killed smooth
bacteria were capable of causing disease on their own. The mixture was injecied into mice,and the mice were incubated for
two weeks.After two weeks,Griffith found that the mice died.
When bacteria were recovered from the dead mice,Griftith cultured them and found living,smooth bacteria.Griffith reasoned
that the only way for this to have occurred was if living bacteria (rough,in this case) were instructed to become smooth.
Griffith proposed the following explanation.
Griffith proposed that when the smooth bacterial culture was heat killed...components present inside the smooth bacteria
that caused the bacteria to be pathogenic might have been released into the media after death of the
bacteria.Therefore,when nonpathogenic, rough bacteria were introduced into the culture....the cellular components from the
killed,smooth bacteria were able to enter the living,rough bacterial cells.
Once inside,the cellular components then transformed the living rough bacteria cells into living,smooth cells.Griffith
therefore determined the cellular components transforming Tactors.At that time,the exact molecule,(or molecules) that make
up the transforming factor were not known.
Called this process transformation.The unknown substance was termed the transforming principle
“transforming principle" demonstrated with Streptococcus pneumoniae

Griffith hypothesized that the transforming ageni was a “HIS" protein. But this was only a guess, and Griffith turned oet to be wrong.
Avery worked with MacLeod and McCarty:

Oswald Avery(with his co-workers MacLeod and McCarty)characterized what they called the "transforming principle" from Griffith's

experiment in 1944.

They prepared a mixture of dead S Srreptococcus and live R Streptococcus.(That Griffith had used)S.Then they

were treated with protease enzymes,which removed the proteins from the cells.The R strain bacteria

transformed,meaning that proteins did not carry the genes causing the disease.

Then mixture was treated with a deoxyribonuclease enzyme which removed the DNA. After this treatment,the R strain

bacteria no longer transformed.This indicated that DNA was the carrier of genes in cells.

The researchers concluded that "DNA is the fundamental onit of thc transforming principle of Type IIIS"

Hershey.Chase Bacteriophage Experiment-195L

Bacteriophage=Virus that attacke hacteria and replicates by invadiug a living cell and using the cell's molecular machinery.

o In the Hershey-Chase experiment, bacterial viruses called phage were used to demonstrate that DNA is the genetic

material.
The phage used in this experiment consisted of a DNA molecule surrounded by a protcin coat.

When phage infects bacteria,they attach to the surface of the bacterium and inject the DNA into the cell.The protein coat remains on

the outside of the cell.

In the first part of the experiment, phage was produced in a medium containing S-35 radioactively labeled amino acids.This resulted

in a phage population with S-35 labeled proteins but no radioactive label in the DNA

The phage was then allowed to infect the bacteria.

They nttached to the bacterial cell and injected their DNA,but the radioactively-labeled protein coat remained on the outside of the

cell.

·The phage produced in these cells contained no radioactivity.

In the second part, phage was produced in a medium containing P-32 labeled deoxyribonueleotides.This resulted in phage

population with P-32 labeled DNA

·When the phage infected the bacteria,the P-32 labeled DNA entered the cell
 This demonstrated that the DNA.but not the protein,carries the genetic information for a new generation of phage!

A RADIOACTIVE ELEMENT USED TO LABEL A COMPOUND TO FOLLOW THE COURSE OF LABELED COMPOUND IN A
BIOLOGICAL SYSTEM
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In his final experiment,Griffith wished to determine

whether the factor present in the living smooth bacteria

that causes disease could be transferred to nonpathogenic

material
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