Conducting Materials: Alloys. in The Study of Solid State Materials, The Metals Occupy

1.
Conducting Materials
Introduction - Conduction in metals - mobility and

conductivity - classical free electron theory of metals
merits and demerits - Electrical and thermal conductivity
(derivation) Wiedemann - Franz law - Lorentz number -
Fermi distribution function - Effect of temperature on
Fermi function - Density of energy states - carrier
concentration in metals.
Introduction
Conducting materials are generally metals and their
alloys. In the study of solid state materials, the metals occupy
a special position because of their variety of striking properties
such as high electrical and thermal conductivities.
The conducting materials play an important role in the

field of engineering and technology. While selecting the
conducting material for a particular application, we must know
electrical and thermal properties.
They are mainly used for conducting electricity and heat.

The characteristic property of such materials is high electrical
and thermal conductivities due to the presence of free electrons.
1.1 CONDUCTION IN METALS

The experimental measurements have shown that the
metals and their alloys exhibit large electrical conductivity in
8 1 1
the order of 10  m . Hence, they are known as conductors.
The conductors or conducting materials have high thermal

and electrical conductivities.
The low resistive materials are also generally called

as conducting materials.
1.2 Physics for Information Science
Classification of Conducting materials

The conducting materials are classified into three major
categories based on conductivity. They are as follows
(i) Zero resistivity materials
(ii) Low resistivity materials and
(iii) High resistivity materials.
(i) Zero resistivity materials

The superconducting materials like alloys of aluminium,
zinc, gallium, niobium, etc., are a special class of materials.
These materials conduct electricity almost with zero resistance
below transition temperature. Thus, they are called as zero
resistivity materials.
These materials are used for energy saving in power

systems, super conducting magnets, memory storage devices.
(ii) Low resistivity materials

The metals like silver, aluminium and alloys have very
high electrical conductivity. These materials are called as low
resistivity materials.
They are used as conductors, electrical contact, etc., in

electrical devices and electrical power transmission and
distribution, winding wires in motors and transformers.
Conducting Materials 1.3
(iii) High resistivity materials

The materials like tungsten, platinum, nichrome etc., have
high resistivity and low temperature co-efficient of resistance.
These materials are called as high resistivity materials.
Such metals and their alloys are used in the manufacturing

of resistors, heating elements, resistance thermometers etc.
The conducting property of a solid does not depend on the

total number of electrons available because only the valence
electrons of the atoms take part in conduction. When these
valence electrons detach from the orbit, they are called as free
electrons or conduction electrons.
In a metal, the electrical conductivity is proportional to the

number of free electrons available. Hence, the electronic
structure of a metal determines its electrical conductivity.
Basic definition
It is necessary to know the basic relations in electrical
conductivity to understand its derivation.
Ohm’s Law
When an electrical current flows through a conductor, then

the voltage drop across the conductor is given by the ohm’s law
V ... (1)
V  IR (or) I
R
where I is the current in ampere,
where R is the resistance to the current flow in ohm and
where V is the voltage drop across the conductor in volt.

Resistance R
The resistance R of a conductor is a geometry (length and

area) and property dependent factor of the material used.
l
R 
A
l l
R   ... (2)
A A
 Proportionality constant known as . . 1

resistivity (ohm m)  .   
 
l Length of the conductor (m)
2
A Area of cross section m 
1 1
 Electrical conductivity ohm m 
1 1 1
(or) mho m  (or) siemen m Sm 
Current Density J
It is defined as the current per unit area of cross section

of a current carrying conductor. If I is the current and A is the
area of cross-section, then current density is given by
I
J  ... (3)
A
2
Its unit is Am
Electrical Field (E)
The electrical field E in a conductor of uniform cross section

is defined as the potential drop (voltage) V per unit length.
V
E  ... (4)
l
1
Its unit is Vm
1.2 ELECTRICAL CONDUCTIVITY 
The amount of electrical charges Q conducted per

unit time across unit area A of a conductor per unit
applied electrical field E is defined as electrical
conductivity.
It is denoted by  and it is given by
Q
 
tAE
Q J
  
tAE E
 Q 
where J is the current density and it is given by  
 tA 
A second form of ohm’s law is obtained by combining
equations (1) and (2)
From eqn (1), V  IR
l
From eqn (2), R
A
.. I 
 . A  J
Il  
V   
A
 V 
  E 
I V  l 
Rearranging,  
A l
J  E ... (5)
Relation between Current Density J, Drift Velocity vd

and Mobility 
Let n be the number of charge carriers per unit volume
(also called charge carrier density) in a conductor of length l
with uniform cross sectional area A. The current flow through
the conductor is given by
Total charge Q
I  
Time t
neAl ... (7)

  n e A vd
t
l
where vd  is called the drift velocity. It is the average
t
velocity gained by the charge carriers in the presence of an
electric field.
I
But, we know that J 
A
Using eqn (7), J is written as
n e A vd
J   n e vd
A
J  nevd ... (8)
But J   E.
Therefore, eqn (8) becomes
 E  nevd
vd
  ne
E
Hence,   ne ... (9)
vd
where   is called the mobility of the charge
E
carrier.
1.3 MOBILITY
It is defined as the drift velocity per unit electric field. Its

2 1 1
unit is m V s .
Free Electron theory of solids

It is well known that the electrons in the outermost orbit
of the atom determine the electrical properties of a solid. The
free electron theory of solids explains the structure and properties
of solids through their electronic structures.
This theory is applicable to all solids, both metals and

non-metals. It explains
 The behaviour of conductors, semiconductors and

insulators.
 The electrical, thermal and magnetic properties of solids.
Main Stages of Free Electron theory of solids
(i) Classical free electron theory

(Drude and Lorentz free electron theory)
This theory was proposed by Drude and Lorentz in the
year 1900. According to this theory, the free electrons are mainly
responsible for electrical conduction in a metal. It obeys the laws
of classical mechanics. Here, the free electrons are assumed to
move in a constant potential.
(ii) Quantum free electron theory

(Sommerfeld Quantum theory)
Quantum free electron theory was proposed by
Sommerfeld in the year 1928. According to this theory, the
electrons in a metal move in a constant potential. It obeys
the laws of quantum mechanics. The wave nature of electron is
taken into account to describe the electron.
(iii) Zone theory or band theory of solids

This theory was proposed by Bloch in the year 1928.
According to this theory, free electrons move in a periodic
potential. It explains electrical conductivity based on the
energy bands.
1.4 CLASSICAL FREE ELECTRON (CFE)

THEORY OF METALS
The classical free electron theory of metals was
proposed by P. Drude in the year 1900 to explain the electrical
conduction in metal. This theory was further extended by H. A.
Lorentz in the year 1909.
We know that an atom consists of a central nucleus with

positively charged protons surrounded by the electrons of
negative charge.
The electrons in the inner shells are called core electrons

and those in the outermost shell are called valence electrons
(Fig. 1.1).
Fig. 1.1 Atom (Drude model)
In a metal, when the valence electrons of each atom detach

from the orbit, then move freely throughout the metal. These
electrons are known as free or conduction electrons.
Postulates of classical free electron theory
1. According to this theory, a metal consists of a

very large number of free electrons. These free
electrons move freely throughout the volume of
the metal. The movement of the free electrons is
mainly responsible for the electrical conduction
in the metal.
2. Drude assumed that the free electrons in the metal

form an electron gas. They move randomly in all
possible directions just like the gas molecules move
in a container.
The arrangement of atoms in a metal is viewed as an array
of atoms (ions) surrounded by a gas of free electrons. Here, the
mutual repulsion between the electrons is neglected.
3. In absence of an electrical field, the free electrons

(electron gas) move in all directions in a random
manner. They collide with other free electrons and
positive ion core during the motion. This collision is
known as elastic collision (Fig 1.2).
Fig. 1.2 Random motion of free electrons in the absence of

electric field (+ ve ion cores are not shown).
As the motion is random, the resultant velocity in any
particular direction is zero.
4. When the electrical field is applied the electrons get

some amount of energy. These electrons begin to move
towards the positive potential (in opposite direction to
the applied electrical field). They continue to collide
with positive ion cores fixed in the lattice.
As a result, the free electrons acquire a constant average

velocity known as drift velocity (Fig. 1.3).
Fig. 1.3 Movement free electrons with applied electric field
5. The velocity and the energy distribution of free

electrons are governed by classical Maxwell distribution
function.
6. Since the electrons are assumed to be a perfect gas,

they obey the laws of kinetic theory of gases.
Therefore, the free electrons are assigned with mean free

path, mean collision time and average velocity.
Drift velocity  vd 
It is defined as the average velocity acquired by the

free electrons of a metal in a particular direction by the
application of an electrical field.
It is expressed as

vd 
c
where   mean free path
c  collision time.
Mean free path   

The average distance travelled by a free electron
between any two successive collisions is known as mean
free path. It is represented by .
It is the product of drift velocity of free electrons

vd ) and collision time c .
  vd c
Collision time  c 
The average time taken by a free electron between

any two successive collisions is known as collision time
of the electron.
It means that the electron on the average travels for a

time c before its next collision.

It is given by c 
vd
where  - mean free path
vd - drift velocity
Relaxation time 

The average time taken by a free electron to reach
its equilibrium state from its disturbed state due to the
application of an external electrical field is called
relaxation time.
In other words, it is the measure of time that the electrons

can relax when the electrical field is removed. It is
 14
approximately equal to 10 second.
For isotropic material such as metal

collision time c = relaxation time .
1.5 ELECTRICAL CONDUCTIVITY OF A METAL

(Derivation)
(Based on Drude and Lorentz classical free electron

theory)
When an electric field E is applied to an electron of charge
‘e’ in a metal rod, the electron moves in opposite direction to
the applied field with a velocity vd (Fig. 1.4). This velocity is
known as drift velocity.
Fig. 1.4 Movement of free electrons in a metal rod
Force experienced by the electron F  e E ... (1)
This force accelerates the electron and hence, it gains

acceleration ‘a’,
From, Newton’s second law of motion, the force on the
electron
F  Mass of the electron m  acceleration a
F  ma ...(2)
From the eqns (1) and (2), we have
ma  eE
eE ...(3)
a 
m
From equation (3), it is found that the electron should be

accelerated continuously due to the applied electric field.
But, the accelerated electron collides with positive ion core

and other free electrons. Hence it loses kinetic energy and
velocity. Thus, after each collision, the velocity of electron
increases until the next collision takes place.
Average drift velocity of electron is  vd.
If c is collision time, then acceleration.
vd . .
a   . c  

vd  a  ... (4)
Substituting eqn (3) in (4)
eE
vd  
m
 e 
vd   E ...(5)
m
But, the current density in terms of drift velocity is given
as
J  nevd ...(6)
Substituting eqn (5) in eqn (6), we have
 e 
J  ne  E
m
2
J ne 
or  ...(7)
E m
According to Ohm’s law, current density  J  is expressed as
J ...(8)
J  E or  
E
On comparing the eqns (7) and (8), we have

2
ne 
Electrical conductivity  
m
... (9)
The eqn (9) represents electrical conductivity of the metal
Thermal Conductivity  K 
We know that the amount of heat conducted between the
two ends of a metal rod.
dT
Q  KA t
dx
Q
Thermal conductivity K 
dT
A t
dx
Thermal conductivity is defined as the amount of heat

conducted per unit time through the material having unit
area of cross-section per unit temperature gradient.
2
If area of cross section A is ‘1’ m .
time of flow of heat t is 1 second, then
Q
K 
dT
dx
dT
Also Q  K
dx
Q – Amount of heat flowing per unit time through

unit cross-sectional area.
dT
– Temperature gradient.
dx
1.6 THERMAL CONDUCTIVITY OF A METAL

(Derivation)
Consider two cross-sections A and B of a metal rod

separated by a distance .
Let A be at a high temperature  T  and B at a low

temperature T  dT .
Now, heat flows from A to B by the free electrons

(Fig. 1.5)
Fig. 1.5 Heat conduction in a metal rod
Conduction electron per unit volume  n
Average velocity of the electrons  v
During the movement of the electrons in the metal rod,

the elastic collision takes place. Hence, the electrons near A lose
their kinetic energy while electrons near B gain kinetic energy.
At A, average kinetic energy  3

  2 kT ... (1)
of an electron 
 .. 1 2 3 
 . K.E.  2 mv  2 kT 
 
where k  Boltzmann’s constant
T  Temperature at A.
At B, average kinetic energy of the electron
3
 k T  dT  ... (2)
2
The excess of kinetic energy carried by the electron

from A to B
3 3
 kT  k T  dT
2 2
3 3 3 3
 kT  kT  kdT  kdT ...(3)
2 2 2 2
Number of electrons crossing per unit area

per unit time from A to B
1
 nv . .. (4)
6
The excess of energy carried from A to B per unit area in

unit time.
1 3
 nv  kdT
6 2
1 ...(5)
 n v k dT
4
Similarly, the deficient of energy carried from B to A per

unit area per unit time
1 ...(6)
  n v k dT
4
Let us assume that there is an equal probability for the

electrons to move in all ‘6’ directions as shown in the fig. 1.6.
Each electron travels with thermal velocity v and n is the

free electron per unit volume (density). Then, on an average
1
nv electrons travel in any one of the directions per unit area
6
per unit time.
Fig. 1.6
Hence, the net amount of energy transferred from A to B

per unit area per unit time
1  1 
Q  n v k dT    nv k dT 
4  4 
1 1
Q  n v k dT  n v k dT
4 4
1 1
Q    n v k dT
4 4 
1
Q  n v k dT
2 ...(7)
But, from the definition of thermal conductivity, the

amount of heat conducted per unit area per unit time
dT . . dT 
Q  K  . Q  K dx 
  
 Here,   dx 
 
Note: The students are not expected to write the part of the
derivation given in the box in the examination.
1 dT
n v k dT  K
2 
1
K  nv k ...(8)
2
We know that for the metals
relaxation time   collision time c

i.e.,   c 
v
v ...(9)
1
K  nvkv
2
1 2
K  nv k
2 ...(10)
The equation (10) is the expression for the thermal
conductivity of a metal.
1.7 WIEDEMANN - FRANZ LAW
Statement
The ratio of thermal conductivity (K) to electrical

conductivity  is directly proportional to the absolute
temperature (T). This ratio is constant for all metals at
a given temperature.
K
 T

K
 LT

where L is a proportionality constant. It is known as Lorentz

8 2
number. Its value is 1.12  10 WK
Derivation
Wiedemann - Franz law is derived from the expressions of

thermal and electrical conductivities of a metal.
We know that
Thermal conductivity of the metal
1 2 ...(1)
K  nv k 
2
Electrical conductivity of the metal
2
ne  ...(2)
 
m
1 2
nv k 
Thermal conductivity K 2
 
Electrical conductivity  2
ne 
m
2
1 nv k 
  m
2 ne2 
2
K 1 mv k ...(3)

 2 e2
The kinetic energy of the electron is given by
1 2 3
mv  kT ...(4)
2 2
2
K 3 kT  k 3kT
 
 2 e 2 2 e2
2
K 3k
 T
 2  e 
K
 LT
 ...(5)
2
3k
where L  is a constant and it is known as Lorentz
2  e 
number.
K
 T
 ...(6)
Thus, it is proved that the ratio of thermal

conductivity to electrical conductivity of the metal is
directly proportional to the absolute temperature of the
metal.
This law is verified experimentally and it is found to hold

good at normal temperature. But, this law is not applicable at
very low temperature.
Conclusion
Wiedemann - Franz law clearly shows that if a metal
has high thermal conductivity, it should also have high
electrical conductivity.
Among the metals, the best electrical conductors

(silver, copper, aluminium) are also the best conductors
of heat.
1.8 LORENTZ NUMBER

The ratio of thermal conductivity (K) to the product
of electrical conductivity  and absolute temperature
T of the metal is a constant. It is known as Lorentz
number and it is given by
K
L 
T
2
3k
Consider the expression L  .
2  e 
 23 1
Substituting for Boltzmann’s constant k  1.38  10 JK and
 19
the charge of the electron e  1.602  10 coulomb, we get
Lorentz number as
2
3  1.38  10
 23 
L   
2 1.6021  10 19
 
8 2
L  1.12  10 W K
It is found that the value of Lorentz number determined using

classical free electron theory is only half of the experimental
8 2
value i.e., 2.44  10 W  K . This discrepancy in
experimental and theoretical values of Lorentz number is one
of the failures of the classical theory. It is rectified in quantum
theory.
ANNA UNIVERSITY SOLVED PROBLEMS
Problem 1.1
The electrical resistivity of copper at 27 C is

8
1.72  10  m. Compute its thermal conductivity if the
8 2
Lorentz number is 2.26  10 WK . (A.U. April 2018)
Given data
8
Electrical resistivity   1.72  10 m
Temperature T  27 C  27  273  300 K
8 2
Lorentz number L  2.26  10 WK
Solution
We know that Wiedemann - Franz law
K
 LT

K   LT
LT . . 1
K 
  .   
 
Substituting the given values, we have
8
2.26  10  300
K  8
1.72  10
1 1
K  394 W m K
Problem 1.2
The thermal and electrical conductivities of copper at

1 1 7 1 1
20 C are 390 W m K and 5.87  10  m
respectively. Calculate Lorentz number. (A.U. May 2012)
Given data
1 1
Thermal conductivity of copper K  390 Wm K
7 1 1
Electrical conductivity of copper   5.87  10  m
Temperature T  20 C  20  273  293 K

Solution
K
We know that Lorentz number L 
T
390
L  7
5.87  10  293
390
 7
1719.9  10
7
 0.227  10
8 2
L  2.27  10 WK
1.9 MERITS OF CLASSICAL FREE ELECTRON THEORY

1. It is used to verify Ohm’s law.
2. It is used to explain electrical and thermal conductivities
of metals.
3. It is used to derive Wiedemann-Franz law.
4. It is used to explain the optical properties of metals.
1.10 DEMERITS OF CLASSICAL FREE

ELECTRON (CFE) THEORY
1. Classical theory states that all the free electrons absorb
the supplied energy. But, the quantum theory states
that only a few electrons absorb the supplied energy.
2. The electrical conductivity of semiconductors and
insulators cannot be explained by this theory.
3. The photo-electric effect, Compton effect and black body
radiation cannot be explained on the basis of classical
free electron theory.
4. According to the classical free electron theory, the ratio

K
is constant at all temperatures. But, it is found
T
that it is not constant at low temperature.
5. According to this theory, the value of specific heat
capacity of a metal is 4.5R. But, the experimental value
is given by 3R. (Here R is the universal gas constant.)
6. The susceptibility of paramagnetic material is inversely
proportional to temperature. But, the experimental
result shows that paramagnetism of metal is
independent of temperature. Moreover, ferro-magnetism
cannot be explained by this theory.
Quantum Free Electron (QFE) Theory
The failures of classical free electron theory were rectified

in quantum theory given by Sommerfeld in the year 1928. This
theory uses quantum concepts and hence it is known as
quantum free electron theory.
Sommerfeld used Schrodinger’s wave equation and

de-Broglie’s concept of matter waves to obtain the expression
for electron energies. He approached the problem quantum
mechanically using Fermi - Dirac statistics instead of classical
Maxwell – Boltzmann statistics.
Postulates of Quantum free electron theory

 The potential energy of an electron is uniform or
constant within the metal.
 The electrons have wave nature.
 The allowed energy levels of an electron are quantized.
 The electrons move freely within the metal and they are
not allowed to leave the metal due to existance of
potential barrier at its surfaces.
 The free electrons obey Fermi - Dirac statistics.

Merits of Quantum free electron theory
 This theory treats the electron quantum mechanically

rather than classically.
 It explains the electrical conductivity, thermal conductivity,

specific heat capacity of metals, photoelectric effect and
Compton effect, etc.
Demerits of Quantum free electron theory
 Even though it explains most of the physical properties

of the metals, it fails to state the difference between
conductor, semiconductor and insulator.
 It also fails to explain the positive value of Hall

coefficient and some of the transport properties of the
metals.
1.11 FERMI DISTRIBUTION FUNCTION
Fermi - Dirac statistics deals with the particles having half

integral spin like electrons. They are known as Fermi particles
or Fermions.
Definition
Fermi distribution function gives the distribution of

electrons among the various energy levels as a function
of temperature.
It is a probability function F E of an electron

occupancy for a given energy level at absolute
temperature.
It is given by
1
FE  E  EF  / kT
1e
where
E – Energy of the level whose occupancy is being considered
EF – Fermi energy level
k – Boltzmann’s constant
T – Absolute temperature
The probability value FE lies between 0 and 1.
 If F E  1, the energy level is occupied by an electron.
 If F E  0, the energy level is vacant ie., it is not

occupied by the electron.
1
 If F E  0.5 or , then there is a 50% chance for the
2
electron occupying in that energy level.
ANNA UNIVERSITY SOLVED PROBLEM
Problem 1.3
Use Fermi distribution function to obtain the value of

F E for E  EF  0.01 eV at 200 K. (A.U. May 2010)
Given data
 19  21
E  EF  0.01 eV  0.01  1.6  10 J  1.6  10 J
Temperature T  200 K
 23 1
Boltzmann’s constant k  1.38  10 JK
Solution
1
We know that F E  E  EF/kT
1e
1
F E   21  23
1.6  10 /1.38  10  200
1e
1
 0.5797
1e
1

1  1.7855
1

2.7855
F E  0.359
1.12 EFFECT OF TEMPERATURE ON FERMI

FUNCTION
The dependence of Fermi distribution function on

temperature and its effect on the occupancy of energy level is
shown in fig. 1.7 (a) and (b).
Case (i) Probability of occupation for E  EF

at T  0 K
When T  0 K and E  EF then applying the values

in the expression, we have
1
F E  E  EF/kT
1e
1
F E   ve/0
1e
1
FE  
1e
1 1 . . 
  [ . e  0]
1  0 1
F E  1
Thus at T  0 K, there is 100% chance for the electrons to

occupy the energy levels below Fermi energy level ie., all the
energy levels are occupied by the electrons.
Fig. 1.7 Variation of Fermi distribution function with E at

different temperatures
Case (ii) Probability of occupation for E  EF at T  0 K
When T  0 K and E  EF , then applying the values in

1
the expression F E  E  EF/kT
we have
1e
1 1
F E   ve/0
 
1e 1e
1
 . .
1 [ . e  ]
1
  0

F E  0
Thus, there is 0% chance for the electrons to occupy the

energy level above Fermi energy level ie., all the energy levels
above Fermi energy level are not occupied by the electrons
(empty).
From the above two cases, at T  0 K the variation of

F E for different energy values become a step function as shown
in fig 1.7 (a).
Case (iii) Probability of occupation at ordinary

temperature
At ordinary temperature, the value of the probability
function starts reducing from 1 for energy values E slightly less
than EF.
With the increase of temperature, i.e., T  0 K, Fermi

function F E varies with E as shown in fig. 1.7(b).
At any temperature other than 0K and E  EF
1
F E  0
1e
1 1 [... e0  1]
F E    0.5
11 2
% of FE  0.5  100
 50%
Hence, there is 50% chance for the electrons to occupy

1
Fermi energy level ie., the value of F E becomes at E  EF
2
This result is used to define Fermi energy level.

Fermi energy level

 It is the energy level at any finite temperature
above 0 K at which the probability of electron
1
occupation is or 50%.
2
 It is also the energy level of maximum energy of

the filled states at 0 K.
Further for E  EF, the probability value falls off rapidly

to zero (Fig 1.7 (b).
Case (iv) At high temperature
When kT  EF or T  , the electrons lose their

quantum mechanical character. Now, Fermi distribution
function reduces to classical Boltzmann distribution.
Uses of Fermi distribution function

1. It gives the probability of an electron occupancy for a
given energy level at a given temperature.
2. It is very useful to find the number of free electrons
per unit volume at a given temperature.
3. It is used to find Fermi energy of the metal.
1.13 DENSITY OF ENERGY STATES

The ability of a metal to conduct electricity depends on
the number of quantum states and also the energy levels which
are available for the electrons. Hence, it is essential to find the
energy states which are available for the occupation of the
electrons (charge carriers).
Definition
It is defined as the number of available energy states
per unit volume in an energy interval E and E  dE.
It is denoted by Z E. It is given by
Number of energy states in

between energy E and E  dE
in a metal piece  NE dE 
Z E dE 
Volume of the metal piece  V 
Derivation
Let us consider a cubical metal of side ‘a’. In order to find
the number of energy states available in the metal in between
the energy E and E  dE, a sphere is considered with three
quantum numbers nx , ny , nz as coordinate axes in
three-dimensional space as shown in fig. 1.8.
Fig. 1.8 Representation of energy states in quantum number

space.
A radius vector n is drawn from origin ‘O’ to a point with
co-ordinates nx, ny, nz in this space. All the points on the surface
of the sphere have the same energy E. Thus, n such that
2 2 2 2
n  nx  ny  nz denotes the radius of the sphere corresponding
 2 2
n h 
to energy E.  ... E  2 
 8ma 
This sphere is further divided into many shells. Each shell

represents a particular combination of quantum numbers
nx, ny and nz. Therefore, a shell denotes a particular energy
value E corresponding to a particular radius n. In this space,
unit volume represents one energy state. (Fig. 1.9).
Fig. 1.9
Thus, volume of the sphere of radius n is equal to the

number energy states upto E.
Therefore, the number of energy states within a sphere of radius

‘n’
4 3 ...(1)
  n (Volume of the sphere)
3
Since the quantum numbers nx, ny, nz can have only
positive integer values, only one octant of the sphere, i.e.,
th
1
8 of the spherical volume has to be considered.
 
Only one octant of the sphere has all the quantum numbers
nx, ny and nz as positive.
Therefore, the number of available energy states within one

octant of the sphere of radius ‘n’ corresponding to energy E
14 3
  n  ...(2)
83 
Similarly, the number of available energy states within one

octant of the sphere of radius ‘n  dn’ corresponding to energy
E  dE
14 3
  n  dn  ...(3)
8  3 
The number of available energy states between the shells
of radii n and n  dn ie., between the energy values
E and E  dE is determined by subtracting equation (2) from
equation (3). Thus, we have
14 3 14 3
N E dE   n  dn    3 n 
8  3  8  
1  4   3 3
    n  dn  n 
8 3  
 3 3 2 2 3
NE dE     n  dn  3n dn  3n dn  n 
6 
[ ... a  b  a  b  3a b  3ab ]
3 3 3 2 2
2 3
Since dn is very small, the higher powers dn and dn are
neglected.
 2
N E dE  3n dn
6
 2
NE dE  n dn
2

NE dE  n  n dn ...(4)
2
We know that the energy of an electron in a cubical metal

piece of sides ‘a’ is given by (particle in a three dimensional
box problem).
 n2  n2  n2  h2  . . . n2  n2  n2  n2 
 x y z 
 x y z 
E 2
8ma
2 2
nh ...(5)
E  2
8ma
2
2 8ma E ...(6)
n  2
h
Taking square root of eqn (6), we have

1/2
 8ma2 E  ...(7)
n   2 
 h 
Differentiating the eqn (6), we get

2
8ma dE
2ndn  2
h
2
8ma dE ...(8)
or ndn  2
2h
Substituting eqns (7) and (8) in eqn (4), we have

1/2
2
  8ma E   8ma2 dE 
N  E  dE     
2 h
2
2h
2
   
1/2
2  8ma2 dE 
1   8ma E 
    
2 2 h
2
h
2
   
1/2
2  8ma2 
  8ma  1/2
  2 
E  2 
dE
4
 h   h 
3/2
2
  8ma  1/2 ...(9)
NE dE   2  E dE
4
 h 
Pauli’s exclusion principle states that two electrons

of opposite spins can occupy each state. Hence, the number
of energy states available for electron occupancy is given by
3/2
2
  8ma  1/2
N E dE  2   2 
E dE
4
 h 
3/2
 8m 2 3/2 1/2
 a  E dE
2 h 
2 3/2
3
 3/2  a  1/2
 8m  3E dE
2 h
 
3
a  3/2 1/2
NE dE    8m E dE
2 h3 ... (10)
 
 3/2 1 1/2
8m  8m 8m

1/2
 4  2m 4  2m
1 2 1/2
 4  2m 2  2m
3/2
 4  2  2m
3/2 
 8 2m 

3
a  3/2 1/2
NE dE   3  8 2m E dE
2 h
 
3
a 3/2 1/2
 3
4 2m E dE
h
4 3 3/2 1/2
N E dE  3
a 2m E dE
h ... (11)
Density of states is given by the number of energy

states per unit volume.
NE dE ... (12)

ZE dE 
V
on substituting for N E dE and V, we have

Density of states
4 3 3/2 1/2
3
a 2m E dE
h
[... Volume V  a ]
3
ZE dE  3
a
4 3/2 1/2
Z E dE  2m E dE ...(13)
3
h
This is the expression for the density of states in energy

between E and E  dE.
 It is used to calculate carrier concentration in metals

and semiconductors.
1.14 CARRIER CONCENTRATION IN METALS
Carrier concentration, i.e., the number of electrons per unit

volume in a given energy interval is calculated by summing up
the product of the density of states Z E and probability
occupancy F E.
i.e., nc 
 Z E F E dE
Substituting for Z(E) and F(E), we have

4 3/2 1/2 1
nc  3
2m E E  EF  kT
dE
h 1e ...(14)
Calculation of Fermi Energy at 0 K

For a metal at absolute zero temperature, the upper most
occupied level is EF and all the levels are completely filled below
EF,
 F E  1 for the energy levels E  0 to E  EF at T  0 K
Now, the equation (14) reduces to
EF
o
4
nc   h
3
2m
3/2
E
1/2
dE
0
EFo
4
nc 
h
3
2m
3/2
 E
1/2
dE
0
EF
4 3/2  E 3/2  o
nc  2m  
h
3
 3/2  0
EF
4 3/2 1  E 3/2  o
nc  2m  0
3 3/2
h
4 2  3/2
 0 
3/2
nc  3
2m  EFo
h 3
 
8 3/2 ...(15)
nc  3
2mEFo
3h
This equation (15) is used to calculate carrier

concentration in metals and semiconductors in terms of
Fermi energy.
Expression for Fermi energy
8 3/2
We know that nc  3
2m EFo
3h
8 3/2 3/2
nc  3
2m EFo
3h
on rearranging, we have
3
 3nc   h  3/2
  3/2   EFo
 8   2m 
on raising to the power of 2/3 on both sides, we have

2
3
  3nc   3 
h
    3   EFo
8  2m /2
  
2/3
  3nc   h3  
EFo    
8  2m32
  
2/3 2/3
 3 
 3nc  h
EFo     3/2 
 8   2m 
2/3 3 2/3
 3nc   h  
EFo     3/2 2/3 
 8   [2m ] 
2/3
 h2   3nc  ... (16)
(or) EFo    
 2m   8 
This is the expression for Fermi energy of electrons in

solids at absolute zero temperature.
 It is noted that Fermi energy of a metal depends only

on the density of electrons of metal.
Expression for Fermi Energy at T  0 K

Fermi energy EF at any temperature T in terms of Fermi
energy at 0 K is given by the relation
2
 2
 kT 

EF  EFo  1  
12  EFo  
   
 
The second term within the bracket is very small compared

to 1 (but has significant value at very high temperature). Hence,
on neglecting that term, we get
EF  EFo
Hence, the value of EF can be taken equal to EFo itself.
Calculation of Mean Energy at 0 K
The mean or average energy at absolute zero is given by
 ET
E 
nc
ET is the total energy at absolute zero

nc is the carrier concentration
To Calculate Total Energy ET at 0 K
The total energy at absolute zero is given by
EFo
ET   E Z E dE F E
0
 At T  0 K , F E  1
EF
o
 ET   E Z E dE
0
Substituting for Z E dE

EF
o
4 3/2 1/2
ET   E 3
2m E dE
0 h
EFo
4 3/2

3/2
 3
2m E dE
h 0
EF
4 3/2  E 5/2  o
 2m  
h
3  5 
 2 
 0
4 3/2 2 5/2
 2m  EFo
h
3 5
8 3/2 5/2
ET  3
2m EFo
5h
But we know that the carrier concentration
8 3/2 3/2
nc  3
2m FFo
3h
Mean Energy at 0 K
 ET
E 
nc
8 3/2 5/2
3
2m EFo
5h

8 3/2 3/2
3
2m EFo
3h
3 5/2  3/2
 EFo
5

3
 E  E
5 Fo
Thus, the average or mean energy of electrons at absolute

zero is

3
E  E
5 Fo
ANNA UNIVERSITY SOLVED PROBLEMS
Problem 1.4
Calculate electrical conductivity in copper if the mean

8
free path of electrons is 4  10 m, electron density is
28 3
8.4  10 m and average thermal velocity of electron
6 1
is 1.6  10 ms . (A.U Dec 2018)
Given data
8
Mean free path of electron   4  10 m
28 3
Electron density n  8.4  10 m
6 1
Average thermal velocity of the electrons v  1.6  10 ms
 19
Charge of an electron e  1.6  10 coulomb
 31
Mass of an electron m  9.11  10 kg
Solution
2
ne  . . 
We know that    .   
mv  
28  19 2 8
8.4  10  1.6  10   4  10
   31 6
9.11  10  1.6  10
28  38 8
8.4  2.56  4  10  10  10
  31 6
9.11  1.6  10  10
7 1
  5.9  10 mho m
Problem 1.5
Calculate electrical and thermal conductivities for a

 14
metal with a relaxation time 10 second at 300 K. Also,
calculate Lorentz number using the above result
28 3
 density of electrons  6  10 m . (A.U. June 2017)
Given data
 14
Relaxation time   10 s
28 3
Electron concentration n  6  10 m
 31
 19
Charge of an electron e  1.6  10 C
 23 1
Boltzmann’s constant k  1.38  10 JK
Solution
2
ne 
We know that  
m
28  19 2  14
6  10  1.6  10   10
   31
9.1  10
28  52
15.36  10  10 7
  31
 1.69  10
9.1  10
7 1 1
Electrical conductivity   1.69  10  m
2 2
 nk  T
Thermal conductivity K 
3 m
(By quantum free electron theory)

2 28  23 2  14
3.14  6  10  1.38  10   10  300
K   31
3  9.1  10
1 1
K  123.80 W m K
K
Lorentz number L 
T
123.807 8 2
L  7
 2.44  10 W K
1.69  10  300
8 2
L  2.44  10 W K
Problem 1.6
Find the relaxation time of conduction electrons in a

8
metal of resistivity 1.54  10 ohm-m if the metal has
28 3
5.8  10 conduction electrons / m . (A.U. May 2018)
Given data
28 3
Number of electrons / unit volume n  5.8  10 m
8
Resistivity of the metal   1.54  10 m
Solution
We know that the electrical conductivity of a metal
2
ne  . . 1
   . 
m   
m m
  2
or   2
ne  ne 
 31
9.1  10
 28  19 2 8
5.8  10  1.6  10   1.54  10
 14
  3.98  10 s
Problem 1.7
8
A uniform silver wire has a resistivity of 1.34  10  m
at room temperature for an electric field of 1 volt/cm.
Calculate (i) the drift velocity (ii) the mobility and
(iii) the relaxation time of electrons assuming that there
28 3
are 5.8  10 conduction electrons m of the material.
(A.U. May 2019)
Given data
8
Resistivity of the wire   1.34  10 m
2 2 1
Electrical field E  1 V / cm  1 V / 10 m  1  10 Vm
28 3
Number of electron per unit volume n  5.8  10 m
Solution
2
ne 
Electrical conductivity  
m
2
1 ne   1
or   
 m   
m
   2
ne
 31
9.1  10
  8 28  19 2
1.34  10  5.8  10  1.6  10 
 14
  4.57  10 s
eE 
Drift velocity is given by vd 
m
19 2  14
1.6  10  1  10  4.57  10
  31
9.1  10
1
vd  0.804 ms
vd 0.804 2 2 1 1
Mobility     0.804  10 m V s
E 10
2
3 2 1 1
  8.04  10 m V s
Problem 1.8
Calculate the drift velocity and thermal velocity of

conduction electrons in copper at a temperature of
300 K. When a copper wire of length of 2 m and
resistance 0.02  carries a current of 15 A.
3 2 1 1
Given mobility   4.3  10 m V s (A.U. Jan 2018)
Given data
Length of the wire L  2 m
Resistance R  0.02 
Current I  15 A
3 2 1  1
Mobility   4.3  10 m V s
Solution
Voltage drop V across the wire is
V  IR  15  0.02  0.3 V
Elec tric field E across the wire is given by

V 0.3 1
E    0.15 Vm
L 2
Drift velocity
3 3
vd   E  4.3  10  0.15  0.645  10
3 1
vd  0.645  10 ms
3 1 2
We know that kT  mv
2 2
where v is thermal velocity

2 3kT
v 
m
v 

 3kT
m


 23
3  1.38  10  300
  31
9.1  10
5 1
v  1.17  10 ms
Problem 1.9
Find the drift velocity of the free electrons in a copper

2
wire whose cross sectional area is 1.0 mm when the
wire carries a current of 1A. Assume that each copper
atom contributes one electron to the electron gas. Given
28 3
n  8.5  10 m . (A.U. May 2018)
Given Data
3 28 3
Conduction electron / m , n  8.5  10 m
 19
Charge of electron e  1.6  10 C
6 2
Area of cross section A  1.0  10 m
Current I  1.0 A
Solution
The drift velocity of the free electrons is given by

I
vd  ... J  ne vd and J  I  A
neA
1
vd  28  19 6
8.5  10  1.6  10  1.0  10
5 1
vd  7.4  10 ms
Problem 1.10
8
A metallic wire has a resistivity of 1.42  10  m. For
an electric field of 0.14 V/m. Find (i) average drift
velocity and (ii) mean collision time, assuming that
28 3
there are 6  10 electrons / m . (A.U. April 2016)
Given data
1
Electric field E  0.14 Vm
8
Resistivity   1.42  10 m
28 3
Number of electrons per unit volume n  6  10 m
 19
Charge of the electron e  1.6  10 C
 31
Solution:
The resistivity of a metal is given by,
m  2 
  2  ...   ne  
ne   m 
 
 1 
m    
  
2  
ne 

 31
9.1  10
  28  19 2 8
6  10  1.6  10   1.42  10
 14
  4.17  10 s
 eE  
Average drift velocity vd   
 m 
 19  14
1.6  10  0.14  4.17  10
   31
9.1  10
3 1
vd  1.03  10 ms
Density of energy states
Problem 1.11
Calculate the number of states lying in an energy

interval of 0.01 eV above the Fermi level for a crystal
of unit volume with Fermi energy EF  3 eV
. (A.U. June 2017)
Given data
 31
Mass of electron m  9.1  10 kg
Energy interval E  0.01 eV
 34
Planck’s constant h  6.63  10 Js
Fermi energy EF  3 eV [... 1 eV  1.6  1019 J]
 19
EF  3  1.6  10 J
 19
EF  4.8  10 J
Solution:
We know that E  E  EF
 EF  E
 3  0.01 eV
 19
 3.01  1.6  10 J
 19
E  4.816  10 J
Number of states per unit volume lying between

EF and E is given by
n   4
h
3
 2m
3/2
E
1/2
dE ...(1)
E
F
Here, ZE is taken as ‘1’.

Hence, the eqn (1) becomes
E
4 3/2 1/2
n  3
2m  E dE
h EF
E
4 3/2 2 3/2 
 3
2m  3 E 
h   EF
4 3/2 2  3/2 3/2

i.e., n 2m  E  EF 
h
3 3 
 31 3/2
4  3.14  2  9.1  10 
n   34 3
6.63  10 
2 3/2 3/2   19 3/2
  4.816  4.8   10 
3
55  30
 3.74  10  1.108  10 
25 3
n  4.14  10 m
Problem 1.12
28 3
Free electron density of aluminium is 18.10  10 m .
Calculate its Fermi energy at 0K. Planck’s constant and
 34
mass of free electron are 6.62  10 Js and
 31
9.1  10 kg. [A.U. Dec. 2017]
Given data
28 3
Electron density of aluminium n  18.10  10 m
 34
 31
Mass of electron m  9.1  10 kg
Solution:
2 2/3
h  3n 
Fermi energy at 0 K, EFo 
2m  8 

2/3
 34 2  3  18.10  1028 
6.62  10 
EFo   
2  9.1  10
 31
 8  3.14 
 18
EFo  1.869  10 J
interms of electron volt,
 18
1.869  10
EFo   19
eV
1.6  10
EFo  11.68 eV
Problem 1.13
Fermi level in silver is 5.5 eV at 0 K. Calculate the

number of free electrons per unit volume and the
probability of occupation for electrons with energy
5.6 eV in silver at the same temperature. (Given
 19
1 eV  1.602  10 J) [A.U. May 2016]
Given data
 34
 31
For silver
 19
EF  5.5 eV  5.5  1.602  10 J
 19
 8.811  10 J
Solution
Fermi energy is given by
 h2   3n 2/3
EF    
 2m   8 
 h2   3 2/3 2/3
EF     n
 8m    
on substituting the given values, we get
 34 2 2/3
 19 6.63  10  3   2/3
8.811  10   31  3.14 
n
8  9.1  10   
 19  38 2/3
8.811  10  5.85  10 n
 19
2/3 8.811  10  19
n   38
 1.506  10
5.85  10
 19 3/2
n  1.506  10 
28 3
n  5.84  10 m
E  5.6 eV and EF  5.5 eV (given)
 E  EF
But T  0 K, no energy levels are occupied above EF
 F E  0
Problem 1.14
Aluminium is a FCC crystal with lattice constant 4.05 Å

and the metal has 3 free electrons / atom. Calculate the
fermi energy in eV for the metal. Also evaluate its Fermi
factor at temperature 300 K for an energy value 0.1 eV
higher than EF. [A.U. May 2017]
Given data
Crystal structure of aluminium is FCC.
 10
Lattice constant a  4.05 Å  4.05  10 m
Number of free electrons / atom  3
 34
 31
Mass of the electron m  9.1  10 kg
The value of energy for the concerned energy state

E1  EF  0.1 eV
Fo r FCC struc ture, eac h unit c ell has 4 ato ms and
 The total number of free electrons / unit cell
i.e., N  4  3  12
Since it is cubic in structure, the volume of the unit cell
3  10 3
V  a  4.05  10 
 Number of free electrons / unit volume
N 12 12
n  
V  10 3
4.05  10  66.43  10
 30
29 3
 1.8064  10 m
Fermi energy is given by
 h2   3n 2/3
EF    
 2m   8 
on substituting the given values, we have
2/3
 34 2 29
6.625  10   3  1.8064  10 
  
2  9.1  10
 31
 8  3.14 
 18  ... 1 eV  1.6  1019 J 

 1.869  10 J
 
 1
1J eV 
EF  11.66 eV   19 
 1.6  10 
Fermi factor is given by
1
F E  E  EF/kT
1  e
We know that E  EF  0.1 eV
E  EF  0.1 eV
 19
 0.1  1.6  10 J
 19
 0.16  10 J
 23 1
Also k  1.381  10 JK
1
 F E 
  19 
 0.16  10 
  23 
 1.381  10  300 
1  e  
1 1
 
1  e
3.862 1  47.85
1

48.85
 0.0205
F E  0.0205
ANNA UNIVERSITY Part - A ‘2’ Marks Q & A
1. Give any two postulates of classical free electron

theory.
(A.U. Dec 2018)
 According to this theory, a metal consists of a very large

number of free electrons. These free electrons move freely
throughout the volume of the metal. They are fully
responsible for the electrical conduction in the metal.
 Drude assumed that the free electrons in a metal form

an electron gas. These free electrons move randomly in
all possible directions just like the gas molecules move
in a container.
2. Define mean free path. (A.U. Dec 2015, June 2017)
The average distance travelled by a free electron between

any two successive collisions in the presence of an applied field
is known as mean free path.
It is the product of drift velocity of electrons vd and
collision time c.
  vd  c
3. Define relaxation time of an electron.
(A.U. May 2017, Dec 2018)
The average time taken by a free electron to reach its

equilibrium state from its disturbed state due to application of
an external electrical field is called relaxation time.
4. Define drift velocity of electron. How is it different

from the thermal velocity of an electron?
(A.U. May 2016, Dec 2018)
The average velocity acquired by a free electron in a

particular direction after a steady state is reached on the
application of an electrical field is called drift velocity.
It is denoted as vd and its value is very small (50 cm / s).
The thermal velocity is random in nature and its value is

5
very high 10 m/s,
5. Define mobility of electrons. (A.U. May 2019)
The magnitude of the drift velocity acquired by the

electrons per unit electric field is defined as the mobility of
electrons 
vd
i.e., 
E
where vd  Drift velocity of electrons
E  Electrical field.
6. Define electrical conductivity. What is its unit.
(A.U. April 2015, Dec 2017)
The amount of electrical charges (q) conducted per unit

time t across unit area (A) of the conductor for unit applied
electrical field (E) is defined as electrical conductivity.
q
 
tAE
1 1 1
Its unit is ohm m or mho m
7. What are the merits of classical free electron theory?

(A.U. May 2017)
 It is used to verify Ohm’s law.
 It is used to explain electrical and thermal conductivities

of metals.
 It is used to derive Wiedemann - Franz law.
 It is used to explain the optical properties of metal.
8. What are the drawbacks of classical free electron

theory? (A.U. May 2016, June 2017, Dec 2018)
 Classical theory states that all free electrons will absorb

the supplied energy; on the contrary, quantum theory
states that only a few electrons will absorb the supplied
energy.
 Electrical conductivity of semiconductors and insulators
(non-metals) can not be explained.
 The phenomena such as photo-electric effect, Compton
effect and black body radiation can not be explained on
the basis of this theory because these phenomena are
based on quantum theory.
9. State Wiedemann - Franz law.
(A.U. Dec 2015, June 2016, May 2018)
It states that the ratio of thermal conductivity K to

electrical conductivity  of a metal is directly proportional to
absolute temperature (T). This ratio is constant for all metals
at a given temperature.
K
 T

K
i.e.,  LT

where L is a constant and it is known as Lorentz number.

10. What is Lorentz number? (A.U. June 2018)
The ratio between thermal conductivity (K) of a metal to

the product of electrical conductivity () of a metal and absolute
temperature (T) of the metal is a constant. It is called Lorentz
number and it is given by
K
L 
T
11. Define Fermi distribution function. (A.U. May 2017)
The probability F E of an electron occupancy for a given

energy level at temperature T is known as Fermi distribution
function. It is given by
1
F E  E  E /kT
1e F
EF  Fermi level
k  Boltzmann’s constant
T  Absolute temperature
E  Energy of the level whose occupancy is being

considered.
12. Write down the expression for the Fermi distribution

law and explain for the electrons in a metal.
(A.U. May 2018)
Fermi distribution function is given by
1
F E  E  EF /kT
1e
where EF is called Fermi energy

if E  EF, all levels are filled with electrons
i.e., F E  1
if E  EF, all levels are empty
i.e., F E  0
1
if T  0 K at EF , F E 
2
13. Define Fermi level and Fermi energy with its

importance. (A.U. Dec. 2015, May 2016, Dec 2017,
June 2018, Dec 2018)
Fermi level: It is the energy level at finite temperature
above 0 K in which the probability of the electron occupation is
1/2 and it is also the level of maximum energy of the filled
states at 0 K.
Fermi energy: It is the energy of the state at which the

probability of the electron occupation is 1/2 at any temperature
above 0K. It is also the maximum energy of filled states at 0 K.
Importance: Fermi level and Fermi energy determine the

probability of an electron occupation for a given energy level at
a given temperature.
14. Draw the Fermi distribution curve at 0 K and at any

temperature TK. (A.U. May 2019)
(or)
How does the Fermi function varies with
temperature.
Fermi function varies with respect to the temperature as

shown in fig.1. At 0 K, all the energy states below EF are filled
and all those above it are empty. When the temperature is
increased, the electron takes an energy kT and hence Fermi
function falls to zero.
Fig. Variation of Fermi distribution function with E at

different temperatures
15. Define density of states. What is its use?

(A.U. June 2015, Dec 2017, June 2019)
It is defined as the number of available electron states per

unit volume in an energy interval E and E  dE. It is denoted
by Z E.
It is used to determine Fermi energy at any temperature.
16. Mention any two important features of quantum free

electron theory of metals. (AU April 2019)
 It shows that the energy levels of an electron are discrete
 Maximum energy level upto which the electrons can be

filled is denoted by Fermi energy level.
17. Calculate the drift velocity of the free electrons with

3 2 1 1
a mobility of 3.5  10 m V s in copper for an
electric field strength of 0.5 V/m (A.U. June 2018)
Given data
3 2 1 1
Mobility of free electrons   3.5  10 m V s
1
Electric field strength of copper E  0.5 Vm
Solution
Drift velocity vd    E
3 3
 3.5  10  0.5  1.75  10
1
vd  0.00175 ms
ADDITIONAL Q&A
1. What is electron theory of solids?
The electrons in the outermost orbit of the atoms which

constitute the solids determine its electrical properties. The
electron theory of solids explains the structure and properties
of solids through their electronic structure.
2. What are special features of classical free electron

theory of solids?
In a metal, the free electrons of an atom are free to move

about the entire volume of the metal like the molecules of a
perfect gas in a container. These free electrons in the metal are
responsible for electrical conduction.
Anna University PART - B ‘16’ Marks Questions
Classicial free electron theory

1. Define electrical conductivity obtain an expression for
electrical conductivity by free electron theory.
(AU May / June 2015)
2. (i) Based on the classical free electron theory, derive an
expression for electrical conductivity of metals.
(ii) State and prove Wiedemann-Franz law.
(AU April / May, 2016)
3. (i) State the assumption of the classical free electron

model.
(ii) Obtain an expression for the electrical conductivity on
the basis of the classical free electron theory.
(AU June 2019)
4. Starting with the classical free electron theory of metals
obtain an expression for electrical and thermal conductivity
and hence prove the Wiedemann-Franz Law. (AU Dec 2018)
5. (i) List the drawbacks of classical free electron theory.
(ii) Obtain Wiedemann Franz law using the expressions of
electrical and thermal conductivity and find expression
for Lorentz number. (AU Nov/Dec, 2016)
6. (i) What are the postulates of classical free electron
theory?
(ii) Derive an expression connecting electrical conductivity
and relaxation time. (AU Oct. 2019)
7. (i) Deduce an expression for electrical conductivity of
conducting material.
(ii) List any four drawbacks of classical free electrons
theory. (AU Dec. 2018)
8. Deduce mathematical expressions for electrical conductivity
and thermal conductivity of a conducting material and hence
obtain Wiedemann-Franz law. (AU May / June 2017)
9. (i) Mention any four postulates of classical free electron
theory.
(ii) Obtain an expression for the thermal conductivity of
metal and hence the Wiedemann Franz law.
(AU Nov / Dec. 2018)
Fermi distribution function

10. (i) Define Fermi energy.
(ii) Starting with the density of energy states obtain an
expression for Fermi energy of the electron at absolute
zero.
(iii) Obtain an expression for average energy of an electron

at T  0 K. (AU May 2019)
11. (i) Define ‘Fermi energy’ and obtain a general expression
for the Fermi energy of electrons in solids at 0 K.
(ii) Show that at 0 K, the average energy of the electrons
is (3/5) th of the Fermi energy. (AU Nov / Dec 2016)
12. Based on Fermi-Dirac statistics, state the nature of Fermi
distribution function. How does it vary with temperature?
13. (i) Explain qualitatively the effect of temperature on Fermi
function.
(ii) Derive an expression for the density of energy states.
14. Write Fermi - Dirac function. Obtain an expression for the
density of states and carrier concentration in metals.
(AU Dec 2018)
15. (i) Explain Fermi-Dirac distribution function and how it
varies with temperature?
(ii) Derive an expression for the density of states and based
on that calculate the carrier concentration in metals.
(AU Dec 2017)
16. (a) What is density of states? Derive an expression for
density of states and using that obtain an expression
for Fermi energy of a metal at 0 K.
(b) Explain Wiedemann-Franz law. (AU Oct. 2019)
17. Derive an expression for density of states. Hence deduce
the expression for carrier concentration in metals.
(AU July 2019)
18. Obtain an expression for density of states. (AU Dec. 2015)
19. (i) Explain the meaning of ‘density of states’. Derive an

expression for the number of allowed states for unit
volume of a solid.
(ii) Write an expression for the Fermi energy distribution

function fFD E and discuss its behaviour with change
in temperature. Plot fFD E versus E for T  0 K and
T  0 K. (AU June 2018)
ASSIGNMENT PROBLEM
1. A copper wire whose diameter is 0.16 cm carries steady

current of 10 A. What is the current density of the wire?
Also calculate the drift velocity of the electrons in copper.
28 3
Given : Density of electron in copper 8.5  10 m
[Ans: J  497.6  10 4 A/m 2, vd  3.6  10  4 m/s]
3
2. The density and atomic weight of copper is 8900 kgm and
63.5 respectively. The relaxation time of electrons in copper
 14
at 300 K is 10 seconds. Calculate the electrical
conductivity of copper. [Ans: 2.375  10  1 m  1]
7
3. The thermal and electrical conductivities of Cu at 20C are

1 1 7 1 1
390 Wm K and 5.87  10  m respectively.
Calculate the Lorentz number. [Ans: 2.267  10  8 W  K 2]
4. Calculate the electrical and thermal conductivities of a
 14
metal rod with relaxation time 10 second at 300 K. Also
calculate the Lorentz number. Given: Density of electrons
28 3
 6  10 / m .
[Ans: K  123.93 Wm  1 K  1 and L  2.44  10  8 W  K  1]
5. Using Fermi function, evaluate the temperature at which
there is 1% probability that an electron in a metal will have
an energy 0.5 eV above EF of 5 eV. [Ans: 1260 K]
6. Use the Fermi distribution function to obtain the value of

F E for E  EF  0.01 eV at 300 K. [Ans: FE  0.4045 ]

Conducting Materials: Alloys. in The Study of Solid State Materials, The Metals Occupy

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1.

Introduction - Conduction in metals - mobility and

The conducting materials play an important role in the

They are mainly used for conducting electricity and heat.

1.1 CONDUCTION IN METALS

The conductors or conducting materials have high thermal

The low resistive materials are also generally called

Classification of Conducting materials

(i) Zero resistivity materials

(ii) Low resistivity materials and

(iii) High resistivity materials.

(i) Zero resistivity materials

These materials are used for energy saving in power

(ii) Low resistivity materials

They are used as conductors, electrical contact, etc., in

(iii) High resistivity materials

Such metals and their alloys are used in the manufacturing

The conducting property of a solid does not depend on the

In a metal, the electrical conductivity is proportional to the

When an electrical current flows through a conductor, then

where I is the current in ampere,

where R is the resistance to the current flow in ohm and

where V is the voltage drop across the conductor in volt.

The resistance R of a conductor is a geometry (length and

 Proportionality constant known as . . 1

Current Density J

It is defined as the current per unit area of cross section

Electrical Field (E)

The electrical field E in a conductor of uniform cross section

1.2 ELECTRICAL CONDUCTIVITY 

The amount of electrical charges Q conducted per

It is denoted by  and it is given by

From eqn (1), V  IR

Relation between Current Density J, Drift Velocity vd

neAl ... (7)

Using eqn (7), J is written as

J  nevd ... (8)

Therefore, eqn (8) becomes

Hence,   ne ... (9)

It is defined as the drift velocity per unit electric field. Its

Free Electron theory of solids

This theory is applicable to all solids, both metals and

 The behaviour of conductors, semiconductors and

 The electrical, thermal and magnetic properties of solids.

Main Stages of Free Electron theory of solids

(i) Classical free electron theory

(ii) Quantum free electron theory

(iii) Zone theory or band theory of solids

1.4 CLASSICAL FREE ELECTRON (CFE)

We know that an atom consists of a central nucleus with

The electrons in the inner shells are called core electrons

Fig. 1.1 Atom (Drude model)

In a metal, when the valence electrons of each atom detach

Postulates of classical free electron theory

1. According to this theory, a metal consists of a

2. Drude assumed that the free electrons in the metal

3. In absence of an electrical field, the free electrons

Fig. 1.2 Random motion of free electrons in the absence of

4. When the electrical field is applied the electrons get

As a result, the free electrons acquire a constant average

Fig. 1.3 Movement free electrons with applied electric field

5. The velocity and the energy distribution of free