RECENT wireless sensor networks have
played critical roles in a variety of applica-
tions including environmental monitoring, tar-
get tracking, and distributed data storage.A
fundamental problem faced by current sen-
sor network deployment is to efficiently pro-
vide the required coverage.Specifically, there
is a question of how to guarantee that every
point/location in the target region is continu-
ously covered by a certain number of sensors,
with the objective to prolong the network life-
time as much as possible. This problem is chal-
lenging due to the limitation of wireless sen-
sor devices, as well as the ad hoc properties
of large-scale network deployment. An effec-
tive approach to extend network lifetime is to
have sensors autonomously schedule their duty
cycles according to local information, while si-
multaneously satisfying global sensing cover-
age requirements. This is referred to as cover-
age maintenance in the literature.
Inspired by the existing coverage mainte-
nance scheme proposed in [2](referred to as
differentiated surveillance (DS)), this paper
proposes enhanced differentiated surveillance
(EDS). In a static sensor network, EDS allows
sensors to establish working schedules by sim-
ply exchanging one message within neighbor-
hood including their IDs, coordinates and sens-
ing properties. Using the received information,
every sensor applies a hash function to produce
random reference times (of itself and its neigh-
bors) and employs a proposed rule to calculate
a set of locations to measure the coverage to its
sensing area. Based on the reference times and
the set of locations, every sensor can instan-
taneously generate a working schedule for its
entire lifetime in a distributive manner. With
every sensor scheduling on/off sensing states
according to its own working schedule, the re-
quired coverage of the target region is continu-
ously guaranteed. The benefits of EDS mainly
lie in two folds: 1) Inheriting from DS, EDS
achieves the benefits of minimal communica-
2
tion overhead, fast convergence, load balanc-
ing and high battery efficiency; 2) EDS also
adds contributions beyond DS. First, EDS pro-
vides strictly guaranteed coverage provision by
explicitly detecting and handling the circum-
stances under which DS fails to work. Second,
applying the proposed coverage measurement
rule, EDS improves energy efficiency of cover-
age provision. Third, EDS achieves load bal-
ancing over multiple rounds by employing an
integer hashing function to generate reference
times for different rounds, eliminating the need
of a sensor to gather multiple reference times
from every neighbor.
The only communication overhead incurred
by EDS is neighbor discovery, which hap-
pens only once in the initialization phase of
a static sensor network,Neighbor discovery is
also needed by other network functionalities
such as routing or connectivity maintenance,
meaning that EDS does not add extra commu-
nication overhead.
1.1 Sensor Node
A sensor node is a node in a wireless sensor
network that is capable of performing some
processing, gathering sensory information and
communicating with other connected nodes in
the network. The typical architecture of the
sensor node is shown in figure. The main com-
Figure 1: Sensor Node Architecture
ponents of a sensor node as seen from the figure memory used for storing application related or
are microcontroller, transceiver, external mem- personal data. b) Program memory used for
ory, power source and one or more sensors.
1.2 Microcontroller
Microcontroller performs tasks, processes data
and controls the functionality of other compo-
nents in the sensor node. The advantages of
microcontrollers are their flexibility to connect
to other devices, programmable interface and
lesser power consumption since these devices
can go to sleep state and part of controller can
be active.
1.3 Transceiver
Sensor nodes make use of ISM band which
gives free radio, huge spectrum allocation and
global availability. The various choices of wire-
less transmission media are Radio frequency,
Optical communication (Laser) and Infrared.
Laser requires less energy, but needs line of
sight for communication and also sensitive to
atmospheric conditions. Infrared like laser,
needs no antenna but is limited in its broad-
casting capacity. Radio Frequency (RF) based
communication is the most relevant that fits to
most of the WSN applications. The function-
ality of both transmitter and receiver are com-
bined into a single device know as transceivers
are used in sensor nodes. Transceivers lack
unique identifier. The operational states are
Transmit, Receive, Idle and Sleep.
1.4 External Memory
From an energy perspective, the most relevant
kinds of memory are on-chip memory of a mi-
crocontroller and FLASH memory - off-chip
RAM is rarely if ever used. Flash memories
are used due to its cost and storage capac-
ity. Memory requirements are very much ap-
plication dependent. Two categories of mem-
ory based on the purpose of storage a) User
programming the device. This memory also
contains identification data of the device if any.
1.5 Power Source
Power consumption in the sensor node is for
the Sensing, Communication and Data Pro-
cessing. More energy is required for data
communication in sensor node. Energy ex-
penditure is less for sensing and data pro-
cessing. The energy cost of transmitting 1
Kb a distance of 100 m is approximately the
same as that for the executing 3 million in-
structions by 100 million instructions per sec-
ond/W processor. Power is stored either in
Batteries or Capacitors. Batteries are the main
source of power supply for sensor nodes. Bat-
teries can be chargeable or non-rechargeable.
They are also classified according to elec-
trochemical material used for electrode such
as NiCd(nickel-cadmium), NiZn(nickel-zinc),
Nimh (nickel metal hydride), and Lithium-Ion.
Current sensors are developed which are able
to renew their energy from solar, thermogen-
erator, or vibration energy.
1.6 Sensors
Sensors are hardware devices that produce
measurable response to a change in a physical
condition like temperature and pressure. Sen-
sors sense or measure physical data of the area
to be monitored. The continual analog signal
sensed by the sensors is digitized by an Analog-
to-digital converter and sent to controllers for
further processing. Characteristics and re-
quirements of Sensor node should be small size,
consume extremely low energy, operate in high
volumetric densities, be autonomous and oper-
ate unattended, and be adaptive to the envi-
ronment. As wireless sensor nodes are micro-
electronic sensor device, can only be equipped
3
with a limited power source of less than 0.5 sensing perimeters of the two sensors. Note
Ah and 1.2 V. Sensors are classified into three that two coincident sensing perimeters are not
categories. regarded to be contacted with each other. The
part of the sensing perimeter of sensor j con-
• Passive, Omni Directional Sensors: Pas-
tained in the sensing area of sensor i is called
sive sensors sense the data without actu-
the perimeter segment of j in i. Two sensors
ally manipulating the environment by ac-
are called sensing neighbors if their sensing ar-
tive probing. They are self powered i.e.
eas overlap.
energy is needed only to amplify their ana-
Definition 1: K-coverage maintainance -
log signal. There is no notion of ‘direction’
Given a set of sensors, S, deployed in region,
involved in these measurements.
A, and a natural number, K, a subset S 1 of S
• Passive, narrow-beam sensors: These sen- provides K-coverage maintenance if and only if
sors are passive but they have well-defined
notion of direction of measurement. Typ-
ical example is ‘camera’.

• Active Sensors: These group of sensors where CS (v) and CS 1 (v) denote the coverage
actively probe the environment, for exam- to point v by S and S 1 , respectively.
ple, a sonar or radar sensor or some type Definition 1 indicates that, to provide K-
of seismic sensor, which generate shock coverage maintenance, the subset S 1 should K-
waves by small explosions. cover a point if the point is K-covered by the
The overall theoretical work on WSN’s consid- full set, S, and should maintain the original
ers Passive, Omni directional sensors. Each coverage to the point otherwise.
sensor node has a certain area of coverage for
which it can reliably and accurately report the 2.1 Assumptions
particular quantity that it is observing.
This paper assumes that each sensor has a
locally unique ID. Sensors are static. Sens-
2 Enhanced Differentiated ing perimeters are assumed to be circles with
Surveillance(EDS) the radius called sensing range(SR).Each node
knows its own location and nodes are not mov-
The following notations are used throughout ing.Communication range (CR) is assumed to
the paper: the sensing area of a sensor is be large enough so that sensing neighbors are
the area that the sensor covers and the sens- within one communication hop. This assump-
ing perimeter of a sensor is the boundary of tion usually holds in practice. In the case that
its sensing area. Note that a sensors sensing CR is not large enough, EDS can work through
perimeter is not covered by the sensor. The multi-hop transmissions.
number of sensors covering a point is called the This paper also assumes that sensors
coverage to the point. If a point is within the are location-aware and time synchro-
sensing areas of at least K sensors, it is said to nized.Although equipping a GPS device
be K-covered. A target area is K-covered if ev- with each sensor is expensive and thus un-
ery point within the area is K-covered. A point realistic, there are a good number of sensor
is called an intersection point between two sen- localization schemes(e.g., [3] [4]) allowing
sors if the point is a contact point between the sensors to obtain their own locations without

4
using GPS.There are also many existing 2.2 Critical point set
schemes (e.g., [5] [6]) on time synchronization
EDS relies on the critical point set as defined
in wireless sensor networks.
below to establish working schedules for
K-coverage maintenance.
Many sensor network applications require lo-
cation awareness, but as told it is often too Definition 2:Critical point set - For every
expensive to include a GPS receiver in a sen- sensing neighbor, j, sensor is critical point
sor network node. Hence, localization schemes set, CPSi, contains either: 1) the intersection
for sensor networks typically use a small num- points within is sensing area between j and
ber of seed nodes that know their location and other sensing neighbors of i, or 2) if such in-
protocols whereby other nodes estimate their tersection points do not exist for j, one sam-
location from the messages they receive. pling point on the perimeter segment of j in i.
If no critical point is produced for any neigh-
bor, CPSi contains a sampling point within the
Time synchronization in a wireless sensor
sensing area of i.
network is critical for accurate timestamp-
ing of events and fine-tuned coordination of
wake/sleep duty cycles to reduce power con-
sumption.Time synchronization is an impor-
tant issue in the correct operation of deployed
sensor networks. First, it is often critical to
keep a globally synchronized clock when a sen-
sor reading is taken in order to determine the
right chronology of events. The lack of a global
clock will result in inaccurate timestamping
as the local clocks drift on each sensor node.
As a base station collects sensor data, inaccu-
rate time stamps from different sensor nodes Figure 2: Examples of critical point set
can lead the base station to falsely reorder,
or even reverse, an actual sequence of events. Examples of the critical point set are shown
Second, time synchronization has been found in Fig. 2, in which circles of various sizes rep-
to be crucial for efficiently maintaining low resent sensing perimeters. CPSi contains 6
duty cycles in sensor networks. The majority critical points, among which u, v, and w are
of the lifetime of a sensor network should be intersection points between sensing neighbors,
spent sleeping to conserve energy. During the and x, y, and z are sampling points on perime-
brief wake periods, neighboring sensor nodes ter segments. CPSj only contains one critical
should be synchronized to be awake together point, a.
so that packet messages can be quickly routed Theorem:Coverage measurement rule -
between neighbors and over multiple hops to Given a natural number K, the sensing area
the base station. If the sleep times are unsyn- of a sensor is K-covered if and only if every
chronized or random, then packets containing critical point of the sensor is K-covered.
sensor event data may be slow to propagate Proof:
through the sensor network, because neighbors According to Definition 2, there exist two
may be asleep and unable to relay messages. cases of a critical point set.

5
 Figure 3: Three sensors covering a critical point establish working schedules.
Case 1:The critical point set contains in-
tersection points between two sensors and/or
sampling points on perimeter segments. In
this case, the sensing area is divided into sub-
regions by perimeter segments (e.g., in Fig.
2, the sensing area of i is divided into 8 sub-
regions). Due to the continuity of sensing cov-
erage (i.e., two points have the same coverage
if there exists a path between them that does
not cross any sensing perimeter), all points in
the same sub-region have equal coverage. Since
the sensing perimeter of a sensor is not covered
by the sensor, the coverage of a sub-region is
always larger than or equal to the coverage of
the part of the perimeter segments bounding
the sub-region. Thus, the minimum coverage
of the sub-regions is no less than the minimum
coverage of the perimeter segments. Since a
point within a sensing area is either within
a sub-region or on a perimeter segment, the
minimum coverage of a sensing area is no less
6
than the minimum coverage of perimeter seg-
ments. Definition 2 implies that there exists
at least one critical point on each perimeter
segment. Due to the continuity of the sensing
coverage, coverage of any point on a perime-
ter segment is no less than the closest critical
point on the perimeter segment. That means
the minimum coverage of perimeter segments
is no less than the minimum coverage of crit-
ical points. Therefore, the minimum coverage
of a sensing area is no less than the minimum
coverage of critical points. Since a sensors crit-
ical points are within its sensing area, the mini-
mum coverage of critical points equals the min-
imum coverage of its sensing area.
Case 2:The critical point set only contains a
sampling point within the sensors sensing area.
In this case, there is no perimeter segment in
the sensors sensing area. It is clear that the
coverage of the sampling point represents the
coverage of the sensors sensing area.
 In either case, the minimum coverage of a
sensors critical points equals the minimum cov-
erage of its sensing area. Therefore, if every
critical point of a sensor is K-covered, its sens-
ing area is also K-covered, and vice versa.
2.3 Scheme description
In this section, EDS is specified in detail for
sensor networks.
EDS for static sensor networks:Each node in
the sensor network is either in sleeping mode
or in working mode. Our goal is to have as
many nodes as possible go to sleep to save en-
ergy and extend the lifetime of the sensor net-
work while guaranteeing 100 % sensing cover-
age to the target area.The lifetime of a sensor
network is composed of an initialization phase
and a sensing phase.In the initialization phase,
every sensor broadcasts a message including its
ID, coordinates, and sensing range to sensing
neighbors. Every sensor stores the IDs, coordi-
nates, and sensing ranges of its sensing neigh-
bors in a neighbor list.In this phase, each sen-
sor node finds its own position and synchro-
nizes time with neighboring nodes. After that,
nodes enter into a sensing phase and start to
sense environmental events. The sensing phase
of nodes is divided into rounds with equal du-
ration and are synchronized. Each node will
establish a working schedule through our algo-
rithm, which tells it when to sleep and when
to work for each round. When a node goes to
sleep, its sensing, communication and compu-
tation components can all be asleep and only
a timer needs to work and wake up all compo-
nents according to its schedule.
We denote the duration of each round as T.
The schedule for a node is determined by a
tuple with four parameters: (T, Ref, Tf ront ,
Tend ). As shown in Figure 4, Ref is a random
time reference point chosen by a node within
[0, T). Tf ront is the duration of time prior to
the reference point Ref and Tend is the dura-
7
tion of time after reference point Ref. For any
given tuple (T, Ref, Tf ront , Tend ), a node exe-
cutes the following working schedule:
A node wakes up at time (T × i +Ref - Tf ront )
and goes to sleep at time (T × i +Ref + Tend )
Figure 4: Node Working Schedule
It should be noted that the following two
rules hold for the schedule:
Rule1 :The tuple (T, Ref, Tf ront , Tend ) for
each node is chosen during the initialization
phase and does not change during the whole
sensing phase, unless rescheduling is required
for faulttolerance purposes.
Rule2 :Time duration Tf ront and Tend should
be in the interval [0, T) and furthermore,
the sum of Tf ront and Tend , which is the
time duration for a node to work during each
round, should be less than or equal to T.
After the initialization phase, EDS works
in rounds of duration T . At the beginning of
each round, every sensor executes the follow-
ing steps to establish its working schedule for
the round.
First, using the collected information about
neighbors (i.e., their IDs, locations and sensing
ranges), the sensor calculates its critical point
set according to Definition 2.
Second, the sensor hashes its own and sens-
ing neighbors IDs into reference times within coverage where K > 1), a simple approach is
[0, T) using the following formula: to extend the two segments starting from the
sensors reference time to the end points of its
working period proportionally to K (i.e., multi-
ply the length of the two segments by K). For
example, 2-coverage can be achieved by dou-
bling the active period of each sensor in the
manner as illustrated in the middle part of Fig.
where refi and IDi denote the reference
3. However, this approach can not guarantee
time and ID of sensor i, respectively, Hash is
the required coverage when an active period of
an integer hash function that generates a uni-
a sensor, after being extended, is greater than
formly distributed integer number from an in-
the round duration, T . This situation is re-
teger hash key, n is the round number initially
ferred to as overflow hereinafter. Since a sen-
set to 0, and IN Tmax represents the maximum
sor cannot offer an active period greater than
integer. The integer hash function, Hash, is
T , overflow may cause some time interval in-
required to be strongly collision-free, meaning
sufficiently covered (i.e., not K-covered). The
that two different inputs have very low proba-
upper part of Fig. 3. shows that overflow oc-
bility to be hashed to the same value, and able
curs when each sensor triples its active period
to achieve avalanche effect, meaning that a sin-
to provide 3-coverage to u. The active peri-
gle bit of difference in the input makes about
ods of sensor 1 and 3, after being tripled, are
half of the output bits different [7]. The refer-
both greater than T . As indicated in the up-
ence times are sorted in ascending order.
per part of Fig. 3, there is an interval that is
Third, for every critical point u, the sensor
insufficiently covered (i.e., not 3-covered).
generates a list Lu as a subsequence of the
In EDS, every sensor detects overflow by
sorted list, composed of the reference times
checking whether the active period of any sen-
of the sensors that cover u. It then sets a
sor in Lu , after being multiplied, is greater
working schedule for 1-coverage to cover half
than T . If overflow happens, the sensor adjusts
of the intervals between its own reference time
the reference time list Lu to form an evenly dis-
and adjacent reference times. An example
tributed reference time list Levenu while keep-
is shown in the lower part of Fig. 3. ref1 ,
ing the original order of Lu . The sensor then
ref2 , and ref3 (ref1 < ref2 < ref3 ) denote
redoes the third step to calculate a working
the reference times of sensors 1, 2, and 3 that
schedule for 1-coverage based on Leven u , and
cover u. The working schedules established by
extends the working schedule by K for K-
sensors 1, 2, and 3 to provide 1- coverage are:
coverage. Since the reference times are evenly
distributed in Leven
u , sensors covering u have
the same length of active period. If overflow
ref1 + ref3 − T ref1 + ref2 still happens, it must happen to all the sensors
[ , ]
2 2 in the list, causing all of them to stay active
ref1 + ref2 ref2 + ref3 for the entire round. Clearly, overflow of Leven
[ , ] u
2 2 only happens when the number of sensors cov-
ref2 + ref3 ref1 + ref3 + T ering u is less than K.
[ , ]
2 2 Finally, the sensor combines working sched-
ules for all the critical points to generate a final
To provide differentiated coverage (i.e., K- working schedule. Note that, since the refer-

8
ence time may vary for different critical points
due to overflow, the final working schedule may
be composed of multiple discrete active peri-
ods.
In a static sensor network, message exchange
only happens once in the initialization phase,
and no further communications are triggered
by EDS during the whole lifetime of the net-
work. Furthermore, the only message ex-
changed in the initialization phase can be com-
bined with neighbor discovery as usually re-
quired by other network functionalities. EDS
also converges fast in that a sensor can instan-
taneously establish its working schedule based
on collected neighbor information without re-
ferring to the decisions of its sensing neighbors.
Due to the avalanche effect of the integer hash
function, the reference times of a sensor in two
consecutive rounds are very different and can
be regarded as independent. In this way, EDS
achieves load balancing over multiple rounds.
By exchanging final working schedules
among neighbors, sensors can further shrink
their active periods while still guaranteeing the
required coverage of every critical point (re-
ferred to as 2nd Pass EDS). 2nd Pass EDS im-
proves the energy efficiency of coverage provi-
sion at the cost of extra communication over-
head other than neighbor discovery.
2.4 The existing differentiated
EDS assumes that each sensor is aware of its
surveillance scheme
EDS is inspired by the existing differentiated
surveillance (DS) scheme. In DS, each sen-
sor randomly generates a reference time and
broadcasts it to neighbors at the beginning of
each round. Sensors can also combine multiple
random reference times into one message to es-
tablish schedules for multiple rounds. The tar-
get region is covered by a virtual square grid.
For each grid point, v, within a sensors sens-
ing area, the sensor sorts the reference times of
the neighbors that cover v. It then sets a work-
9
ing schedule for v to cover half of the intervals
between its own reference time and the two ad-
jacent reference times (in the same manner as
EDS). Working schedules for all the grid points
are combined into a single integrated schedule
as the final working schedule of the sensor. DS
supports differentiated coverage by extending
a sensors final working schedule proportionally
to the required coverage.
DS possesses the beneficial features of min-
imum communication overhead, fast conver-
gence and high battery efficiency, as inherited
by EDS. However, despite of its obvious advan-
tages, DS fails to provide coverage guarantee
when overflow happens. Also, since DS uses a
virtual square grid and only checks coverage at
each grid point, it employs a conservative sens-
ing range smaller than normal sensing range,
leading to underestimation of coverage redun-
dancy. Therefore, DS spends more energy than
EDS on coverage provision. Furthermore, to
achieve load balancing over multiple rounds,
DS requires a sensor to gather multiple ran-
dom reference times of each sensing neighbor.
2nd pass optimization can also be employed
to shrink sensor working schedules (referred to
as 2nd Pass DS).
2.5 Location errors and time syn-
chronization skew
own location. In practice, however, location
measurement is often noisy and incurs error.
Therefore, the location obtained by a sensor is
usually inaccurate. In EDS, inaccurate loca-
tion incurs faulty calculation of critical points,
and causes errors in measuring the coverage of
other sensors to the sensors sensing area. As a
result, location errors may lead to some areas
not adequately covered.
EDS also assumes time synchronization
among sensors. Time synchronization guaran-
tees a consistent view among sensing neighbors
on their working schedules, so that coverage
to a certain location can be continuously pro-
vided by multiple sensors in a time division
manner. However, in a real sensor network de-
ployment, sensors cannot be perfectly synchro-
nized. Time synchronization skew may cause
gaps between the active periods of sensors cov-
ering a location, and thus leaves the location
insufficiently covered during the gaps.
3 Simulation Evaluation
EDS simulation module is implemented on the
MIT uAMPS NS-2 extension. In order to elim-
inate the edge effect (i.e., sensors close to the
edge of the deployment area have larger proba-
bility to stay active due to lower density), sim-
ulations are carried out over a square region of
100 × 100m2 with wraparound in both dimen-
sions, in which sensors are uniformly deployed.
Thus, the simulated network represents a finite
subregion of a large-scale sensor network.
For static sensor networks, four coverage
maintenance schemes were compared: EDS,
2nd Pass EDS, DS, and 2nd Pass DS.
1)Energy efficiency: Energy efficiency of
coverage maintenance depends on various
aspects, such as communication overhead,
energy consumption of coverage provision,
and battery efficiency. Previous discussion
10
demonstrates that EDS and DS have minimal
communication overhead. Therefore, this
section focuses on the other aspects, energy
consumption of coverage provision and battery
efficiency.
Figure 5: Energy consumption of coverage pro-
vision
Energy consumption of coverage provision:
Fig. 5 shows the energy consumption of cov-
erage provision by varying sensor density (Fig.
5(a)) and required coverage (Fig. 5(b)). The
required coverage in Fig. 5(a) and sensor den-
sity in Fig. 5(b) are set to 1-coverage and 0.08
nodes/m2, respectively.
Fig. 5(a) indicates that all the schemes con-
sume energy at nearly stable rates with the in-
crease of sensor density. EDS has lower energy
consumption rate than DS because DS relies
on conservative SR and underestimates sens-
ing redundancy.
Fig. 5(b) shows that EDS outperforms DS
to provide various required coverage. However,
the margin between EDS and DS diminishes af-
ter the required coverage reaches a certain de-
gree. For example, EDS is only slightly better
than DS to provide 6-coverage.Further analy-
sis reveals that this abnormality is caused by
overflow, which happens more frequently with
the increase of the required coverage. Since DS
does not handle overflow, it fails to schedule
enough sensing activities to provide sufficient
coverage when overflow happens. One such ex-
ample we have seen is shown in the upper part
of Fig. 5. With the increase of the required
coverage, DS suffers from worse guarantee of
coverage provision.
Fig. 5 also demonstrates that 2nd pass
optimization is effective in reducing energy
consumption.Note that 2nd pass optimization
achieves the improvement at the cost of more
communication overhead to exchange schedule
information among neighboring sensors. Fig.
5 also shows that 2nd Pass EDS outperforms
2nd Pass DS in all the cases.
2)Load balancing:
Figure 6: Load balancing
DS is able to balance the energy consump-
tion among sensors due to the randomness of
reference times generated. Instead of having
every sensor to generate a random reference
time and exchange it with its neighbors, EDS
allows every sensor to produce reference times
(of itself and sensing neighbors) using an inte-
ger hash function with avalanche effect. The
integer hash function maps an integer hash
key (i.e., the summation of a sensor ID and
a round number) to a uniformly distributed
integer hash result. Due to the avalanche ef-
11
fect, the integer hash result can be regarded
as independent in different rounds. Therefore,
EDS should also be able to balance the energy
consumption among sensors.In the tests, each
sensor starts with full energy capacity. The en-
ergy consumption of an active round is fixed at
10%, and the energy consumed by each sensor
in a round is proportional to the total length
of its active periods.
Fig. 6 depicts the half-node network life-
time, measured as the network operating time
until half of the sensors use up their energy,the
half-node network lifetime of each scheme in-
creases almost linearly with the growth of sen-
sor density. In all the cases, EDS and 2nd Pass
EDS have a longer half-node network lifetime
than DS and 2nd Pass DS, respectively.Fig. 6
demonstrates that, like DS and 2nd Pass DS,
EDS and 2nd Pass EDS also effectively dis-
tribute work load over sensors.
4 Conclusion
This paper proposes a distributed sensor
scheduling scheme to maintain required cov-
erage for wireless sensor networks. The pro-
posed scheme provides strictly guaranteed cov-
erage provision while presenting minimal com-
munication overhead, fast convergence, load
balancing and high battery efficiency. Com-
munication overhead is minimized because the
proposed scheme has no extra communica-
tion overhead other than neighbor discov-
ery.Convergence is fast with each sensor in-
stantly calculating its working schedule based
on neighbor information without referring to
the decisions of its neighbors. Load is bal-
anced due to the randomness of reference times
generated by an integer hash function. Bat-
tery efficiency is high because the proposed
scheme forms an efficient discharge profile, ex-
haustively utilizing energy stored in a bat-
tery. In addition, 2nd pass optimization can
be adopted in static sensor networks to fur- [9]
ther reduce the energy consumption of cover-
age provision. Simulations validated the pro-
posed scheme as an effective and efficient solu-
tion to coverage maintenance for static sensor
networks. [10]
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