Belair High School

Caribbean Advanced Proficiency

Examination

Unit 1 Internal
Assessment
 Belair High School
Subject: CAPE Chemistry Unit 1
Name: ___Abbyshay Gayle_____________________
Date: _23__/_10__/___21 Lab No: 1
Module: 1 Forces of Attraction

(Skills Tested: ORR, A&I)

Aim: To determine the type of inter-molecular forces present in various substances

Introduction

You are supplied with four different substances. You are required to determine the type of bonds
present in each of the substances.

Procedure

 A spatula with load of each substance was placed in a clean dry test tube. Each substance
was heated for approximately one minute.
 A spatula with half load of each substance was added approximately 10cm3 of distilled
water. It was attempted to dissolve the substance.
 Steps 2 was repeated but with the use of supplied organic solvent.
 Observations were recorded in the table below

Results

Results

Substance Heating for Attempt to dissolve Attempt to dissolve Electrical

approximately in water (a polar in organic solvent conductivity
1 minute solvent) (non-polar solvent) in solid form
A dissolves does not dissolve Does
High melting point

B does not dissolve does not dissolves Good

High melting point
 C does not dissolve dissolve slowly Poor
Low melting point

does not dissolve does not dissolve Poor

D Low melting point

Treatment of results

 State the major type of inter- molecular force present in each substance.

Substance A …………ionic………… Substance C London dispersion forces

Substance B ……Van deer waals…………….… Substance D …………

Dispersion………

 Based on your observations for substance A, what type of solids would substance A and C most likely
be?

Substance A ………ionic………………… Substance C ………

Molecular………………….
Substance B ……………crystalline solid
Substance D ………molecular….………………
 Belair High School
Subject: CAPE Chemistry Unit 1
Name: _______AbbyshayGayle_________________
Date: __20_/_11__/__20_ Lab No. 3
Title: Determination of the concentration of NaOH using HCl
Aim: To determine the concentration of sodium hydroxide using an accurately known solution
of HCl.

Apparatus: Burette, pipette pump, pipette, retort stand, volumetric flask, conical flask, methyl
orange indicator, dropper, 0.1mol dm3 HCl, NaOH solution.

Introduction:
Titration is a technique where a solution of known concentration is used to determine the
concentration of an unknown solution. NaOH, a base, and HCl, an acid, are reagents in this
experiment; they neutralize each other to form a salt and involves the combination of H+ ions
and OH- ions to generate water (undergo a neutralization reaction). The concentration of the HCl
acid is accurately known, therefore, it can be used to determine the concentration of sodium
hydroxide. Considering that NaOH is a strong base and HCl is a strong acid, it can be deduced
that either methyl or phenolphthalein (pH indicators) can be used as the indicator
The titrant, in this case HCl, is a solution of known concentration, in other words a standard
solution, that is added (titrated) to another solution to determine the concentration of solution of
unknown concentration, the analyte (NaOH(aq))

Procedure:
 The equipment was rinsed with the appropriate solutions.
 25cm3 of sodium hydroxide solution was measured with a pipette and placed in a conical
flask.
 The burette was filled to the zero mark with the standard 0.1mol dm-3 HCl ensuring that
no air bubbles were in the tip.
  Two (2) drops of methyl orange indicator was added to the conical flask and swirled. The
conical flask was titrated with constant swirling against the acid until one drop of acid
turns the mixture orange with a tinge of pink.
 Steps 2 and 3 were repeated until three concordant values were obtained.
 Results were placed into a suitable table showing the readings of the burettete and the
number of titrations.

Results and Calculations

Burette reading Trial 1 2 3

Final volume 22.8 23.3 22.2 23.0
Initial volume 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00
Volume used 22.8 23.3 22.2 23.0

CALCULATIONS:
1. Determine the average volume of acid used in the titration and the number of moles of HCl
used.

Average=22.2+23.3 +23.0/3= 22.8 Moles

hcl(aq) + NaOH(aq)→H2O +Nacl(aq salt)
molar concentration=0.1moldm ̄3
v =25cm3
n=c*v/1000 =0.0025
1:1 =0.0025mol
C=n/v*1000
c= 0.0025*1000/47.33
=0.05moldm ̄3

mass concentration= molar conc* molar mass

NaOh=23+16+1=40 g*0.01moldm ̄3
=2gdm ̄3
3. If the NaOH was prepared approximately a week ago and its mass concentration was 8gdm
3
what
is the percentage purity of the NaOH at present?
purity = mass of the pure substance in the sample/mass of the sample*100
8gdm ̄3/40*100
=20%
4. The equivalent point is point at which the added titrant is chemically
equivalent to the analyte.
5. The endpoint of this reaction could have been determined using changes in pH. Sketch a pH
curve
for this experiment and show on the graph, the equivalence point.

It is always stressed that the burette should always be to TWO decimal places and not ONE.
Suggest
a reason for this emphasis.
The burette should always be recorded in two decimal places because the second decimal place
is
an estimate for more accuracy of the results. Reading at one decimal place gives a percentage
error
at each reading.

Discussion: A titration experiment is used to determine the unknown concentration of an

Identified analyte substance of interest .In this type of experiment a reagent (titrant) is
Prepared as a standard solution, then a known concentration and volume of the prepared
Titrant reacts with analyte to determine the concentration.
An analyte is the substance that is being analyzed, while titrant is a solution of reagent that
reacts with the analyte.
The endpoint is the point during a titration when an indicator shows the amount of reactant
necessary for reaction. It is the point where the symbol changes color. On the other hand, point
of equivalence in titration refers to the point at which the added titrant is chemically equivalent
to the sample. Analyte is the closeness of a result to an accepted value and precision is the
closeness of the measurements themselves which relates to the burette readings being recorded
for more precise readings.

Source of Error: end point error, indicators which change color to indicate when the reaction has
stopped, do not change instantly. In this case of acid base titration, the indicator may first
Lighten in color before changing completely.

Precaution:

1. Clean all spills

2. Read from lower meniscus
3. Wear protective equipment, gloves, goggles and lab gown.
The

Conclusion: The concentration of NaOH was obtained by an accurately known solution of HCL
 Belair High School
Subject: CAPE Chemistry Unit 1
Name: __Abbyshay Gayle______________________
Date: 11___/_01__/21___ Lab No: 4

Module 1: Energetics: Enthalpy of Reaction Skills: M&M

Introduction
The enthalpy change of the above reaction cannot be determined experimentally, thus Hess’s
Law will be applied to achieve this objective. Two reactions will be conducted and via Hess’s
Law, the enthalpy change of the above reaction will be determined. Both calcium oxide and
calcium carbonate will be reacted with dilute hydrochloric acid and the enthalpy changes of
those reactions will allow one to achieve the aim of this experiment.

Aim: To determine the enthalpy of the reaction CaO (s) + CO2 (g) → CaCO3(s)
Apparatus: 50 mL burettes, Styrofoam cups, stirrer, thermometer
Materials: distilled water, calcium oxide, calcium carbonate, 1 mol dm-3 hydrochloric acid

Procedure:
1.1g of calcium oxide was measured using a suitable weighing vessel and it was placed in a
calorimeter.

 50 cm3 of 1M HCL was measured and it was allowed three minutes to pass and it was then
measured and its temperature was recorded.

 The acid was quickly poured into the calorimeter but carefully, the mixture was stirred and the
thermometer was used to measure the final temperature.

 Results were recorded.

 Steps 1-3 was recorded using calcium carbonate instead of Calcium oxide.

Conditions Temperature (°C)

Acid used with calcium oxide 22

Resulting mixture from reaction of calcium oxide and acid 29

Acid used with calcium carbonate 22

Resulting mixture from reaction of calcium carbonate and acid 23

Treatment of results

 Calculate the # of moles of:

i) calcium carbonate used

Molecular mass of CaC03 ii) calcium Oxide used

Mass=1g RMM of CaO=40+16 gmol-1

Mole=Mass/RMM

1g/56gmol -1

Moles of CaO= 0.01786mol

1*CA +1*c + 3*0

=1*40+1*12+3*16
=40+12+48
=100gmol-1
No of moles=1g/100=
Mole =given/RMM =0.01M

 Calculate the enthalpy change of the reaction involving

i) calcium oxide

Enthalpy change of CaO=

Mass=50 g(since 1g=1cm3)),c=4.18Jg-1°C-1(s.h.c. Of water), ∆T

∆T=30.0-25.0 =5.0°c

Enthalpy Change=mc∆T =50*4.18*5.0= -1,045J

 Calcium Carbonate mass= 50 g(since 1g=1cm3),c=4.18Jg-1°C(s.h.c),

 ∆T=26.5-25.0=1.5°c

Enthalpy change= mc∆T

=50*4.18*1.5= -313.5J

Given that the heat capacity of the solution is 4.18 J g -1 °C-1 and that 1 cm3 of aqueous solution
has a mass of 1 g

 Using your answers to questions 1 and 2, determine the enthalpy change of reaction for
i) one mole of calcium oxide

Enthalpy change of CaO=-1,045J,Moles of CaO=0.01786mol

Enthalpy change per mole=Enthalpy change/mole
=- 1.045J/0.01786mol
=-58,510.6Jmol. -59KJmol

Calcium carbonate of CaCO= -313.5J Moles of CaCO= 0.01 mol

Enthalpy change per mole =Enthalpy change/mole= -313.5/0.01 mol= -31,350 Jmol-1 /-
31kJmol-1

 Draw an energy cycle for the enthalpy change of the reaction CaO(s) + CO2(g) → CaCO3(s)

using the TWO BALANCED chemical equations for the reactions you have conducted.
CaO(s) + CO2(g) → CaCO3

CaCO(s) +2HCL(aq) ) →CaCl2(aq)+H2O(I) +CO2(g) ∆H-31kJmol-1

CaCO(s) +2HCL(aq) ) →CaCl2(aq)+H2O(I) ∆H1=

-59KJmol
 Use the energy cycle and your answers from question 3 to determine the enthalpy change of the
reaction CaO(s) + CO2(g) → CaCO3(s) for one mole of calcium carbonate.

Using Hess law

∆H= ∆H-∆H
(31kJmol)-( -59KJmol)
=28KJmol
Conclusion: The heat of reaction for the decomposition of calcium carbonate was found to be
carbon dioxide and Calcium Oxide.

Limitations:
Insulate container ensure that there is little or no energy loss to the outside or that energy is not
getting in either.
Heat release is not fully captured limiting the results.

Belair High School

Subject: CAPE Chemistry Unit 1
Name: _________Abbyshay Gayle_______________
Date: ___22/__01_/_21__ Lab No. 5

Module: 2 Rates of Reaction Skills tested: A&I and

M&M

Aim: To determine the effect of concentration on reaction rate.

Apparatus/Materials: Measuring cylinder, conical flask, stop watch, cross on sheet of paper.
Reagents: Sodium thiosulphate (Na2S2O3), sulphuric acid (H2SO4), water (H2O)
Method/ Procedure:
 20cm3 of thiosulphate solution was placed in the flask.
 20cm3 was of hydrochloric acid was added and then the stop watch was started.
 The flask wasQ2Swir to mix the liquids and it was placed over the paper.
 It was looked vertically down through the liquid and it was noted how long it took for the cross to
disappear.
 The experiment was repeated using16, 12, 8 and 4 cm3 of thiosulphate solution that was made up
each time to 20 cm3 of water.

Results: Plot a graph of the concentration of the thiosulphate in moldm-3 against time for the
reaction
Plot a graph of the concentration of the thiosulphate in moldm-3 against 1/time for the
reaction

TABLE SHOWING RESULTS OBTAINED FROM RATE OF REACTION EXPERIMENT

Experiment Volume of Volume of Volume of Time (s) (s-1) Concentration

Hydrochloric Na2S2O3 (cm3) H2O (cm3) of Na2S2O3
Acid (cm3) (mol/dm3)
1 20 20 0 325 0.003 0.316
2 20 16 4 415 0.002 0.395
3 20 12 8 602 0.001 0.526
4 20 8 12 860 0.0011 0.79
5 20 4 16 1860 5.376 1.58

Calculations:
If the mass concentration of Na2S2O3 g/dm3 then determine the molar concentration for each
volume of acid used in the experiment.

Number of Moles = =1/158g=0.00632mol

Na2S2O3= 23*2+32*2+16*3=
46+64+48= 158g

Molar Concentration = =
0.00632*1000/20=0.316
0.00632*1000/16=0.395
0.00632*1000/12=0.526
0.00632*1000/8=0.79
0.00632*1000/4=1.58

Analysis of Data: Why did you make up the solution to 20 cm3 each time? The solution was
made up each time in order for the average to be found.
Name TWO factors which were kept constant in the experiments.

The volume of hydrochloric acid was kept constant and the number of times it was repeated.

One of your graphs should be a straight line. It was the thiosulphate in moldm-3 against time for
the reaction
Which is it?
What does this straight line tell you? As the concentration of sodium thiosulphate increases, the
value of 1/time increases.
 Belair High School
Subject: CAPE Chemistry Unit 1
Name: ___ Abbyhay Gayle_____________________
Date: _6__/_11__/___21 Lab No. 2

Title: Plan and Design

Problem Statement: Aunty Marva, Abigail’s mother, was watching an advertisement
promoting a new brand of baking soda however she has reservation about this brand being better
than her favourite brand. As a CAPE student, plan and design an experiment to determine which
brand of baking soda is more effective
This the format that the lab should take:
Theory: sodium bicarbonate is a widely used compound with the formula NAHCO3. It is
also known as baking soda, bicarbonate of soda,cooking soda,and sodium hydrogen
carbonate. vinegar is a dilute solution of acetic acid,HC2 H3 O2,made by fermentation of
wine or some other solution containing ethanol. Baking soda reacts with acetic acid in
vinegar to produce carbon dioxide gas, water, and an aqueous solution of sodium acetate.

Hypothesis : The greater the concentration of sodium bicarbonate in the baking soda, the more
effective it is, for smaller amount of baking soda is needed for the same purpose.
Aim: To determine which brand of baking soda is more effective using vinegar.
Apparatus: 100cm3 conical flask,25cm3 burette,100cm3 measuring cylinder, electric scale,
calculator, lab coat, gloves, retort stand, stirring rod.
Procedure:
 Crush 25 grams of Brand arm and Hammer baking soda and 25 grams of bake king baking soda.
 Formely dissolve both samples of baking soda into eperate conical flask with25cm 3 HCL each and
add one drop of phenolphthalein indicator.
 Later fill the burette to the zero mark with NaOH, then use that burette to titrate over the HCL until a
pink colaration is seen endpoint.
 Repeat the procedure with the other conical flask containing the other Baking soda(Red king)and
precisely record the amounts of HCL added and then make necessary calculation.
 Finally recap 1,2,3,and 4 to gain maximum accuracy with the reults, the effectiveness of the baking
soda.(that is the amountof HCL nuetraliszed by Baking soda).
Variables:
Controlled variable:
1. Volume of HCL added
2. Mass of both baking soda weighed.
Independent:
1. Brand of baking soda
2. NaOH
Dependent variable:
1. Amount of HCL neutralized
2. The Pink color Change.

Expected Results: The smaller the volumne,the alkaline needed to react with HCL, the more
reactive it will be. Arm and hammer baking soda will be more reactive since there was less
moles of HCL wa nuetraliszed by NaOH to bring it to endpoint.
Precautions:
 Make sure the baking soda purchased is not close to its expiry date.

 Make sure all utensils are washed and dry when repeating titration.
 Belair High School
Subject: CAPE Chemistry Unit 1
Name: _______AbbyshayGayle_________________
Date: Lab No. 7

Title: Plan and Design (Investigative Project – Proposal)

Problem Statement: Krisann and her friend, Aneika having lunch when they Krisann decided to
offer Aneika some of her favourite soda. Aneika insisted that Krisann’s brand was more acidic,
however she was not convinced. As a CAPE student, on passing Krisann and Aneika's lunch
table, overheard their dispute and now you are required to plan and design an experiment to
determine which brand of soda is more acidic .

Theory: All soda has carbon dioxide in it, which forms carbonice acid in aqueous liquids.Soda
contains phosphoric acid and carbonic acid this contributes to its acidic charecteristics.The
technique titration can be used to determine the concentration of acid presented in soda using a
solution with known concentration. Phenophthlein is a good indicator for the reaction because it
responds to PH change by the formation of carbonic acid.It is pink in basic solutions and turns
colorless as soon as the solution becomes acidic.
Hypothesis: Sprite will be more acidic than Ting when the NaOH and phenolphthlein is added
reaching its endpoint.
Aim: To determine if spite soda is more acidic than ting.
Apparatus: Pepsi, Coco cola, 2 tarnished pennies, two plastic cup and marker.
Procedure:
Procedure:
 Rinse the equipment with the appropriate solution.
 Mark 0.5M of Sprite soda and measure with a pipette placing it in a conical flask.
 Fill the burette to zero mark with the standard 0.1molNaOH ensuring no air bubbles are
in the tip.
 Drop Two(2) drops of phenolphtlein indicator to the conical flask and swirl.Titrate the
conical flask with constant swirling against the soda until one drop of acid turns the soda
purple.
 Repeat steps 2 and 3 until three values is obtained
  Place results in a suitable table showing readings of the burette and number of titrations.
 Repeat steps 1-5 using Ting Soda.

Variables:
Controlled: The PH values of the sodas

Manipulated Variable:
The amount of phenolphthalein indicator used

Responding Variable: Rate at which the soda turns purple

Treatment of Results:
Burette reading Trial 1 2 3

Final volume
Initial volume
Volume used
Sprite Average Volume of NaOH used: (_______+_______+________)/3 =
____47.15_____cm3

Burette reading Trial 1 2 3

Final volumne
Initial volume
 Volume used

Ting Average Volume of NaOH used: (_______+_______+________)/3 = ____47.15_____cm3

Precautions:
 make sure the graduated beakers are rinsed thoroughly before using them.
Wear gloves for the protection from corrosive chemicals.
Name: _________Abbyshay Gayle_______________
Date: _01__/_3__/___21 Lab No. 13

Module: 3 Ligand Exchange Skills tested: ORR, A&I

Aim: To demonstrate the process of ligand exchange.

Introduction

Transition metal ions in aqueous solution form complexes. However, depending on amount of a competing
ligand and its stability constant, ligand exchange can occur with an accompanying colour change.

Procedure

 3 cm3 of aqueous Co2+ ions was added to a test tube. Its color was recorded.
 HCL conc was added slowly to the test tube until no further changes occurred. All
observations were recorded.
 ¾ of the mixture was decanted and then distilled water was added slowly until no further
changes occurred.
 Steps 1 to 3 was repeated aqueous Cu2+ ions
 Steps 1 to 3 was repeated using aqueous Fe3+ , however instead conc added. A small
amount of
ammonium thiocyanate was added to the test tube.
 The table below was completed.

 Inferences should include the formulae of the complex ions present and a brief
explanation of color changes.
Results

Test Observations Inferences

1 The colour of aqueous Co2+ was
pink, small amount of co2
reacted with Hcl to make
hydrogen ions. It turned a dark
blue colour
2 There can be no molecular H2CO3 in water. It is
No change was noted
When chloride ion in the form of hydrochloric acid is
added to the solution, the color changes to blue,
corresponding to the formation of a charged
coordination complex between Co2+ and chloride
ions.
Formula Co(H2O)6 2+ + 4Cl– + heat ←→ CoCl4 2–
+ 6H2O
impossible for aqueous solution doesn’t exist in
aqueous solution.H20+CO2←→H2CO3

3
2+
The color of the aqueous Cu
was reversible and a mixture of
both green and blue due to both
 
when  a water is added to the green solution, it
returns to the blue color. ... In contact with water,
though, it slowly turns blue as copper(II) ions
 complex ions.
4 The colour of Fe3+ is yellow
solution when Hcl was added in
HCl, it wasl oxidized gradually.
small bubbles of hydrogen gas
evolve. But not vigorous.
5 .The reaction of of ammonium thiocyanate to Fe3+
When ammonium thiocyanate
was added to Fe3+ it turned a
blood red colour,
are formed.
The formula is
Fe3+reacts fairly slowly with hydrochloric acid
Fe(s) + HCl (aq) → FeCl2 (aq) + H2 (g).
The reaction between iron and hydrochloric acid is
slower than the reaction with zinc, with much smaller
hydrogen bubbles produced.
NH4SCN+FeCl3→FeSCN2++NH4Cl+2Cl−
When in contact with Fe3+ ion solution in
ferric alum solution the product of the
reaction is a solution with a blood red colour, due to
the formation of the thiocyanato iron complex
Fe(SCN)3.
Belair High School
Subject: CAPE Chemistry Unit 1
Name: ______Abbyhay Gayle__________________
Date: __01_/__3_/__21_ Lab No. 15

Module: 2 Implementation Skills tested: ORR,

A&Problem Statement: Krisann and her friend, Aneika having lunch

when they Krisann decided to offer Aneika some of her favourite soda. Aneika insisted that
Krisann’s brand was more acidic, however she was not convinced. As a CAPE student, on
passing Krisann and Aneika's lunch table, overheard their dispute and now you are required to
plan and design an experiment to determine which brand of soda is more acidic

Theory: All soda has carbon dioxide in it, which forms carbonice acid in aqueous liquids.Soda
contains citric acid and carbonic acid this contributes to its acidic charecteristics.The technique
titration can be used to determine the concentration of acid presented in soda using a solution
with known concentration. Phenophthlein is a good indicator for the reaction because it
responds to PH change by the formation of carbonic acid.It is pink in basic solutions and turns
colorless as soon as the solution becomes acidic
Hypothesis: : Sprite will be more acidic than Ting when the NaOH and phenolphthlein is added
reaching its endpoint
Aim: To determine if spite soda is more acidic than ting.
Apparatus: : Burette, pipette pump, pipette, retort stand, volumetric flask, conical flask,
Phenolphthlein purple indicator, dropper, 0.1mol dm3 HCl, NaOH solution.

Procedure:

 The equipment was rinsed with the appropriate solutions.

 0.5M of sprite was marked and was measured with a pipette and placed in a conical
flask.
 The burettete was filled to the zero mark with the standard 0.1mol dm-3 NaOH ensuring
that no air bubbles were in the tip.
  Two (2) drops of phenolpthlein indicator was added to the conical flask and swirled. The
conical flask was titrated with constant swirling against the acid until one drop of acid
turns the mixture purle with a tinge of pink.
 Steps 2 and 3 were repeated until three concordant values were obtained.
 Results were placed into a suitable table showing the readings of the burettete and the
number of titrations.
 Steps 1-5 was repeated using ting.

Burette Trial 1 2 3
Reading
Initial 39.0 38.4 38.5 38.6
volumne
Final 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00
volumne
Volumne 39.0 38.4 38.5 38.6
used

Sprite Average Volume of NaOH used: (____38.4___+____38._5_+_38.6_______)/3 =

______38.5___cm3

Burette Trial 1 2 3
Reading
Initial 41.0 40.8 40.6 40.2
Volumne
Final 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00
Volumne
Volumne 41.0 40.8 40.6 40.2
used

Ting Average Volume of NaOH used: (___40.8____+__40.6____+__40.2______)/3 = 40. 5cm

Discussion:
Soda is a carbonated water originally made with sodium carbonate that is consumed as a
beverage. Titration was used to determine the concentration of sodium carbonate using a solution
with a known concentration of NaOH. Sprite and Ting was used because of their colorless
characteristics because this is essential to be able to see this color change to determine desired
moles. Phenolphthalein is often used as an indicator in acid base titrations. It turns colorless in
acidic solutions and pink in basic solutions. When the Sodium hydroxide (NaOH), which is a
base, is mixed with phenolphthalein, it turned pink. When the base is neutralized by the acid,
citric acid which is presented in the soda, the purple color will turn colorless. This happens
because the base is neutralized in acid solution, which causes the indicator to become colorless.
The average calculated acid concentrate on is less than it is supposed to be because adding more
base than what it was at the equivalence point would push it pass it. The sample remained
colorless it was completely neutralized .Near the endpoint, a pale pink color appeared in the
sample flask then disappeared immediately when it was shook. The sprite was more acidic than
the ting because the number of moles used (NaOH) to turn the color to pink was less than the
ting.

Limitations:
Test tubes may have contained impurities, thus contaminating the samples a and resulting in
inaccurate results.

Possible source of error:

If the titration is not stop when the pink coloration is seen , this could lead to inaccurate results.

Precautions:
It was ensured that all utensils was wash thoroughly when repeating titration.
Make sure the burette is zeroed before titration.

Conclusion: The purpose of this lab was to determine which soda was more acidic and this was
obtained by the number of moles that was neutralized by NaOH
 Belair High School
Subject: CAPE Chemistry Unit 1
Name: ___Abbyshay GAYLE_____________________
Date: ___/___/___ Lab No. 14

Module: 2 Qualitative Analysis – Flame Test Skills tested:

ORR, A&I

Theory:

When an electron becomes excited, it will jump to a higher energy level. As the excited electron
returns to its ground state, it gives off energy, often in the form of visible light. As in all cases
where electrons become excited, the flame will only produce color for a few seconds at most.
Many elements produce flames of a characteristic color when they come in contact with the
flame of the burner. Using this method, scientists can determine some elements of an unknown
mixture or solution. The flame test is made by dipping a nickel- chromium wire into a slurry of
the salt, heating it in a flame, and noting the distinctive color of the flame produced by the
vaporized salt.

Aim: To identify selected cations present in samples provided using the flame test
Materials: splint, Bunsen burner, matches
Procedure:
 A nichrome wire was dipped in a concentrated hydrochloric acid. It was heated in a
roaring Bunsen burner until it no longer gave colour to the flame. The wire was now
cleaned.
 A little of Barium chloride was mixed with concentrated hydrochloric acid on a watch
glass, the wire was moistened with this solution and the wire was held in the Bunsen
burner.
 The wire was cleaned thoroughly again and the test was repeated with the other salts.
 When the identification of known ions was successfully completed. It was proceeded to
identify the unknowns. On the other side counter, five unknowns were found. Each salt
had a positive ion that could be identified using a flame test.


RESULTS
Results of the flame tests
Ion tested Name of salt used Color of Flame and Notes
Na+ sodium chloride Yellow golden flame was
formed in the flame test. The
ionization enthalpy of sodium
is low. Therefore,
when sodium metal or its salt
is heated in Bunsen flame, its
valence shell electron is excited
to higher energy levels of
absorption of energy . ...
Therefore , sodium gives yellow
colour to the flame
Ca2+ calcium sulphate When placed over the flame test
calcium sulphate gave off a
orange red colour. Metal salts
introduced into a flame give off
light characteristic of the metal.
Metal ions combine with
electrons in the flame and the
metal atoms are raised to
excited states because of the
high flame temperature.
Cu2+ copper (II) nitrate When hcl was added to copper
it turned an aqua light blue
colour. This is because when the
 metal copper is burned, it makes
bluish-green light. If an atom's
electrons lose energy, they drop
down to a lower energy level,
and the lost energy can be
released as light.
Ba2+ barium chloride When added to water barium
produced an apple green color.
This  indicates the presence of
copper. As copper heats up, it
absorbs energy that's manifested
in the form of a green flame.
K+ potassium permanganate When added to HCL it obtained
a lilac pink color. The white
smoke-like vapor produced by
the reaction is a mixture of
carbon dioxide gas and water
vapor. Since the
reaction is highly exothermic,
initial sparking occurs, followed
by a lilac- or pink-colored flame
Mg2+ magnesium chloride A white light was obtained from
magnesium chloride. When
the magnesium metal burns it
reacts with oxygen found in the
air to
form Magnesium Oxide. ...
After it burns, it forms
a white powder of
the magnesium oxide
Tests on the unknowns

Unknown # Color of flame observed Positive ion in the salt

A Cu2+ Light blue cation
B Mg2+ White light cation

C Na+ Golden yellow cation

D Ba2+ Apple green cation

E Ca2+ Orange red Metal cation

Questions:
 Why do certain metal ions give flame colors in this way? The exact sizes of the possible
jumps in energy terms vary from one metal to another. That means that each different
metal will have a different pattern of spectral lines, and so a different flame color.
  Magnesium did not produce any colour in flame test.
Generally the colour of flame of alkaline metals are due to the reason that electrons are excited to
higher energy levels and when they drop back to the ground state, magnesium are too strongly
bound it cannot get excited by flame.
Conclusion: Sample A contained ___cation____; Sample B contained ___anion_____....

Precautions:

 It was ensured that the wire was cleaned in between each test
 The Bunsen flame was carefully monitored at all times

Limitations

If the test tubes containing the samples were not thoroughly cleaned, this may have resulted in
contamination leading to inaccurate results.