Antioxidant Capacity of Phytochemicals in Fruits and Vegetables

Abstract
Overproduction of oxidants is a pathogenesis of various diseases in the human body,
such as obesity, cancer, cardiovascular disease, osteoporosis, eye problems, and
hypertension. One of the most important physiological processes in the human body is
the suppression of oxidants through natural nutrients that are included in the diet.
More fruits and vegetables should be consumed, according to epidemiological studies,
to avoid disease. The antioxidant phytochemicals offered by these fruits and
vegetables are responsible for the human body's defence system against these
oxidants. It has been found that the number of fruits and vegetables consumed is
inversely associated to the risk of chronic diseases. These phytochemicals have anti-
inflammatory, strong free radical scavenging, and antioxidant activity. They are also
the foundation for other bioactivities and health benefits such as anti-aging, anti-
cancer prevention, and protection from neurodegenerative diseases, cardiovascular
diseases, obesity, and diabetes millitus. According to studies, phenolic compounds
found in plants and animals are primarily the core phytochemicals with health-
promoting as well as functional properties. The risk of chronic diseases is increased
when consumption is reduced, which increases oxidants such as reactive nitrogen and
oxygen species. Phytochemicals, which we acquire from fruits and vegetables, are
powerful antioxidants that can alter metabolic pathways and aid in the detoxification
of carcinogens. Phenolic chemicals are nutritionally important because they aid in the
retardation and inhibition of lipids by serving as scavengers that prevent and protect
oxidative chain proliferation. These phytochemicals, which are found in many
therapeutic plants and foods and are responsible for the defence mechanism
against oxidative stress, act as antioxidants.
Keywords: Phytochemicals, antioxidant, anticancer, anti-inflammatory

Introduction

In comparison to other food types, vegetables and fruits provide nutritional

benefits to the human body [1,2,3]. Plant foods, such as vegetables and fruits, are
said to have a large amount of antioxidants, and that eating more of them reduces
the risk of chronic diseases and improves human health [4,5]. People who eat
more vegetables and fruits have a lower risk of death and cancer, which includes
epithelial cells such as the esophagus, colon, lungs, pancreas, stomach, cervix,
and colon cancer [6,7]. Reduced intake of vegetables and fruits has been shown in
studies to raise the risk of ischemic heart disease by 31% and stroke by 11% [2].
According to a report released by the WHO (World Health Organization)/FAO
(Food and Agricultural Organization), an individual should consume at least 400-
500g of fruits and vegetables per day to reduce or prevent stroke, high blood
pressure, cardiovascular diseases, and other deficiencies related to micronutrients
and phytochemicals [8].
Dark leafy greens, yellow and green vegetables (peppers), citrus fruits (lime,
orange, lemon, grapefruit), dates, pomegranates, cabbage, grapes, strawberries,
and carrots are some of the antioxidant-rich fruits and vegetables [9,10].
Antioxidants have a synergistic and additive effect in the treatment of chronic
diseases such as strokes, cancer, blood-related disease, cardiovascular, diabetes,
neurological diseases, cerebrovascular, hypertension, and ophthalmic diseases
[11,12,13,14,15,16]. Oxidative stress is caused by reactive oxygen species (ROS)
such as hydrogen peroxide (OH), superoxide anion (O2 -), and peroxy radical
(ROO), which are then removed by antioxidants found in vegetables and fruits
and so play an important role in human health [17,18,19].
Plants include antioxidants in a variety of forms, including vitamin A and C
(ascorbic acid), vitamin E (-tocopherol), and phytochemicals such as
glucosinolate, carotenoids, and phenolics, which include anthocyanins, phenolic
acids, and flavonoids [20]. Polyphenolic chemicals, phenolic compounds,
alkaloids, trepenoids, and sulfur-containing compounds [16] are other
antioxidants found in plant foods (fruits and vegetables), and they are likewise
important for reducing oxidative stress, repairing damage, and neutralizing free-
radical activity [14].
Important Phytochemical Antioxidants for Human Health
Plants produce phytochemicals, which are secondary metabolites that help defend
them from natural predators. When phytochemicals are consumed as part of a
plant-based diet (fruits and vegetables), they work as a significant component in
boosting health and preventing chronic diseases. Free radicals are intercepted by
phytochemicals, which protect cells from oxidative damage and thereby lower
oxidative stress [21].
Major Phytochemical Antioxidant Present in Fruits
Plants contain thousands of phytochemicals that have antioxidant properties and
serve to improve human health. The main antioxidants found in plants include
carotenoids, glucosinolates, and phenolic compounds; many of them are listed in
Table 1.
Table 1: Phytochemicals and Antioxidant present in fruits
Fruits Phytochemicals Antioxidants References
Apple Triterpenoids Campesterol, [22]
β-sitosterol
Phenolic acids Chlorogenic acid,
Ferulic acid
Flavonoids Delphinidin,
cyanindin,
catechin,
kaemferol,
quercetin,
chlorogenic acid,
phloretin, ferulic
acid,
Apricot Tetrapenoids Lycopene, α- [22]
carotene, β-
carotene
Flavonoids Quercetin,
phloretin,
kaempferol
Banana Flavonoids Myricetin, [14,22,23,24,25,
epicatechin, 26,27,28]
epigallocatechin,
catechin
Triterpenoids Campesterol
Phenolic acids Gallic acid
Lignans Pinoresinol
Berries Stilbenoids Piceatannol, [14,22]
resveratrol,
pterostilbene
Phenolic acids Gallic acid
Flavonoids Quercetin,
 delphinidin,
catechin,
kaempferol,
cyanidin
Carrot Monoterpenoids Limonene [22]
Flavonoids Apigenin,
delphinidin,
cyanidin
Tetrapenoids Lycopene, α-
carotene, β-
carotene
Lignans Pinoresinol
Grape Flavonoids Epigallocatechin, [29]
catechin,
epicatechin,
kaempferol,
isorhamntin-3-O-
glucoside,
delphinidin,
myricetin-3-O-
glucoside,
cyanidin,
myricetin-3-O-
glucuronide,
quercetin
Phenolic acids Protocatechuic
acid, gallic acid,
chlorogenic acid,
caffeic acid,
ferulic acid, p-
coumaric acid
Mango Tetrapenoids Xanthophylls, [22,30,31]
cryptoxanthin,
Lycopene, α-
carotene, β-
carotene
Orange Monoterpenoids Limonene [22,30,31,32,33,
Flavonoids Luteolin,
34]
hesperetin,
chrysin,
eriodictyol,
naringenin,
Organic acids Tertaric acid,
vitamin C
Tetrapenoids Lycopene, α-
carotene, β-
carotene, β-
cryptoxanthin,
xanthophylls
Pomegranate Triterpenoids Campesterol [22]
Phenolic acid Ellagic acid, gallic
aacid
Papaya Organic acids Vitamin C [22,30,31,32]
Tetrapenoids β-carotene,
xanthophylls, β-
cryptoxanthin

Americans prefer including potatoes in there diet because it provide almost 25%
of phenolics which are present in vegetables, such as phenolic acids (caffeic acid
and chlorogenic acid), carotenoids (zeaxanthin and lutein) and flavonoids
(kaempferol and quercetin). Potatoes are known as low-fat foods having unique
phytochemicals and nutrients content and also are rich in vitamin B-6,
mamganese, vitamin C, dietary fibers and potassium [22].
Table 2: Phytochemicals and antioxidant present in vegetables
Vegetables Phytochemicals Antioxidants References
Asparagus Triterpenoids β-sitosterol, [22]
campesterol
Broccoli Tanins Gluconapin, [26,30,32,33,35,36,
progoitrin, 37,38,39,40,41,42,
procyanidin A 1, 43,44]
gluconasturtiin,
sinigrin,
procyanidin B 2,
 glucoraphanin,
progoitrin,
glucoalyssin
Triterpenoids β-tocotrienols, β-
tocopherol, β-T3,
α-T3, α-tocopherol,
α-tocotrienol,
campestanol,
campesterol,
sitosterol,
stigmasterol,
sitostanol,
brassicasterol, β-
sitosterol
Tetrapenoids Xanthophylls, α-
carotene, β-
carotene, lycopene
Flavonoids Butein, luteolin,
pelargonidin,
catechin, cyanidin,
kaempferol,
quercetin
Brussels sprout Triterpenoids β-tocotrienols, β- [26,32,37,41,44,45]
tocopherol, β-T3,
α-T3, α-tocopherol,
α-tocotrienol,
brassicasterol, β-
sitosterol,
campesterol,
sitosterol,
stigmasterol,
sitostanol
Tetrapenoids β-carotene
Lignans Sinigrin,
gluconasturtiin,
 glucoraphanin,
gluconapin,
progoitrin,
glucoalyssin,
glucoiberin,
secoisolariciresinol,
lariciresinol,
matairesinol,
pinoresinol
Cabbage Lignans Pinoresinol [22]
Tetrapenoids α-carotene,
β-carotene,
lycopene
Glucosinolates Sulforaphane,
glucobrassicin
Phenolic acids Chlorogenic acid,
ferulic acid
Eggplant Glycoalkaloids α-solasonine, α- [46,47]
solamargine
Phenolic acids Caffeoylquinic
acid, chlorogenic
acid
Flavonoids Rutin, kaempferol,
quercetin, apigenin,
isorhamnetin,
nasunin,
delphinidin,
zeaxanthin, lutein
Onion Lignans Pinoresinol [22]
Sulfur compounds Allicin
Triterpenoids β-sitosterol,
campesterol
Flavonoids Kaempferol,
delphinidin,
cyanidin, quercetin
Spinach Tetrapenoids α-carotene, [22]
β-carotene,
 lycopene
Triterpenoids Vitmain E
Vanilla grass Coumarins Coumarin [22]

Carotenoids
Animals do not produce carotenoids; instead, microorganisms and plants do. They
are polyene chains with 40 carbon rings that contain natural pigments that are
lipid soluble. Carotenes are hydrocarbon carotenoids like lycopene and carotene,
and oxygen derivatives like lutein and crytoxanthin contain at least one set of
hydroxyls known as xanthophylls. Carotenoids can be acyclic, such as lycopene,
monocyclic, such as -carotene, or dicyclic, such as -carotene and -carotene. Plants
only contain trans-isomers, but other conditions, such as light, can cause trans to
cis isomerization [48].
Carotenoids are the pigments that give many plants their yellow, red, and orange
hues. They are commonly used as food coloring and as nutritional supplements.
Carotenoids act as photosensitizers in photosynthesis, assisting in the
protection/prevention of photon damage [49]. Consumers use color as the primary
criterion for determining the quality of food [50]. Carotenoids, such as -carotene,
are provitamin A and are therefore essential for human health. They can only be
obtained from the consumption of plant foods (vegetables and fruits). Carotenoids
such as lutein, a non-provitamin A, also have a role in human health [21,51].
Figure 1: Chemical structures of carotenoids (source: 49)

Phenolic compounds
Aromatic rings having at least one hydroxyl group are known as phenolic
substances. According to arrangement and number of carbon present on phenolic
compound they are identify as flavonoids (flavonols, flavan-3-ols, isoflavones,
flavones, flavanones, anthocyanidins) and non-flavonoids (stilbenes, phenolic
acids, hydroxycinnamates). Organic acids and sugars are widely used to bind with
phenolic compounds [52,53]. The antioxidant activity of phenolic compounds
varies depending on their chemical composition.
Phenolic compounds play a vital role in minimizing insect damage and protecting
plants against microbial infection. Chemically, they aid in plant defense
mechanisms [54]. Phenolic compounds are one of the most powerful antioxidants,
with the ability to chelate metals, trap nitrate, and reduce lipid peroxidation,
preventing the generation of carcinogenic nitroso compounds [55]. Phenolic
chemicals reduce oxidative degradation caused by fatty acids and so give
protection against free radicals and oxidizing agents that cause oxidative stress,
thereby improving human health [56]. They also aid in the attraction of certain
pollinators.

Figure 2: Chemical structures of flavonoids (source: 54)

Glucosinolates
Glucosinolates are found in cruciferous plants such as broccoli and mustard. They
are nitrogen and Sulphur-containing secondary metabolites. Glucosinolates
protect plants against herbivores and stress [57]. They are not bioactive; they
become bioactive when a plant endogenous enzyme, myrosinase, acts on them,
causing them to be hydrolyzed enzymatically, resulting in a variety of bioactive
breakdown products [58]. Aromatic, aliphatic, and indolic glucosinolates are the
three major types of glucosinolates that are based on the precursors of amino
acids that are involved in biosynthesis [59].
Role of Fruits and Vegetables Phytochemicals to Maintain Human Health
Many studies have shown that eating vegetables and plants is beneficial to human
health since they include nutrients that aid in the development of an individual's
health [10,60,61,62,63]. Burton-Freeman hypothesized that eating fruits and
vegetables high in antioxidants enhances blood antioxidant capacity, lowering the
risk of diseases such coronary atherosclerosis, cancer, diarrhea, gastrointestinal
tract diseases, obesity, and cardiovascular disease. Many scientists have
undertaken laboratory and epidemiological research to support the notion that
increasing fruit and vegetable consumption will reduce the risk of many chronic
diseases, including cancer, cardiovascular disease, diabetes, and Alzheimer's
disease [64,65,66].
Further epidemiological research has found that high consumption of vegetables
and fruits is inversely connected to ageing and degenerative diseases
[60,67,68,69]. It was observed that eating fruits and vegetables on a daily basis
helped those with digestion issues, asthma, immunological disorders, diabetes,
cataracts, respiratory syndromes, and bronchitis. Butt and Sultan also found that
those who eat more fruits and vegetables have a 10% to 15% lower chance of
acquiring cataracts than people who eat less of them [63]. According to Jaganath
and Crosier, a good balance between antioxidants and oxidants is necessary for
sustaining health because an imbalance can lead to pathological responses, which
result in diseases and disorders [8]. It has also been discovered that people who
eat a non-vegetarian diet have a higher risk of colon, breast, and prostate cancer
because non-vegetarian diets disrupt hormone production, cellular activities, and
metabolism [70]. Thus, the anti-inflammatory, antiangiogenic, antibiotic,
antioxidative, antiviral, anti-carcinogenic, antithrombotic, and antimicrobial
properties of vegetables and fruits are based on their phytochemical content
[35,71,72]. Phytochemicals are present in various chemical forms and possess
many capabilities such as anti-inflammatory, antiangiogenic, antibiotic,
antioxidative, antiviral, anti-carcinogenic, antithrombotic, and antimicrobial
properties.
An experiment was conducted and found that the generation of free radicals in the
human body is caused by external factors such as environmental stress or
naturally occurring free radicals, which cause various degenerative diseases and
reduce human health [73]. Although our bodies have an intrinsic defense
mechanism that scavenges free radicals, it is insufficient to avoid certain chronic
diseases, therefore we need to supplement with antioxidants, which we can
receive from fruits and vegetables [74]. The formation of these free radicals
causes diseases such as Parkinson’s disease, atherosclerosis, ageing, alzheimer
disease, arthritis, and cancer [73]. Antioxidants, which are found in vegetables
and fruits and play a vital role in scavenging free radicals, are needed to avoid
damage to the human body caused by these free radicals. It was also noted that, as
compared to other therapeutic medicine, eating more fruits and vegetables helps
to prevent degenerative disorders [75].
Antioxidants in our diet operate by lowering the levels of RNS, ROS, or both, and
so lowering their detrimental effects in humans through normal physiological
processes [62,76]. RNS (peroxynitrite, nitrous anhydride, and nitrogen dioxide
radicals) and ROS (free radicals, oxygen ions, and peroxides) cause halogenation,
oxidation, nitration, and deamination of nucleic acids, lipids, carbohydrates, and
proteins, resulting in mutagenic and toxic compounds [77,78]. The pathogenesis
of non-nutritionally and non-communicable diseases such as diabetes, cancer,
parkinson's disease, rheumatoid arthritis, and brain stroke has been influenced by
the oxidative damage caused by these oxidant cells [79,80], which
phytochemicals contained in fruits and vegetables counteract. Lycopene, the main
carotenoid found in tomatoes [81], is an extremely effective quencher of singlet
oxygen in the biological system. Vitamin E is another example of a lipid-soluble
chain-breaking antioxidant that protects DNA, low-density lipoproteins, and
polyunsaturated fatty acids against free radical-induced oxidation in humans [35].
Mechanism of action of phytochemicals in fruits and vegetables
Fruits and vegetables have a preventative or protective impact due to the presence
of antioxidants; they are also known as natural radical terminators [82,83].
Carotenoids are thought to be particularly effective at inhibiting singlet oxygen
oxidation [84]. Flavonoids [85] have numerous potential qualities, including
antioxidant, antimutagenic [86,87], anti-inflammatory [88], and anticarcinogenic
[89,90]. Antioxidants have the potential to contribute hydrogen atoms, electrons,
and proton to newly created free radicals, delaying their creation and/or having a
metal chelating effect on ROS synthesis [8,35]. Direct free radical termination is
accomplished by several antioxidant operational modes, which neutralize free
radical influence on cells through various mechanisms [91], and active chemicals
undergo post-metabolic alteration [79,92,93]. The latter method frequently
produces metabolites that differ chemically, physiologically, and functionally
from the food form, and these differences underpin their bioactivity [94]. It was
proposed that the cell responds only when phytochemicals directly engage with
receptors, or when gene expression is altered, or when signal transduction
enzymes are involved, resulting in a cascade of redox-dependent reactions.

Figure 3: Overview of mechanism of phytochemicals on human health present

in fruits and vegetables.

There is a lot of evidence that phytochemicals like flavonoids may play an

important function as intracellular signaling cascade modulators, which are
important for cell machinery. Signaling cascades intracellularly are crucial
channels for communication between regulatory targets and plasma membrane in
distinct compartments of intracellular environment [8]. In these intracellular
signaling cascades, there are five tiers of protein kinases that are activated
sequentially by phosphorylation, affecting the activity of transcription factors that
govern gene expression [95]. These signaling cascades enable cells to respond to
numerous types of signals and stress, which are responsible for a variety of cell
functions such as growth, proliferation, and apoptosis or cell death. Different
phytochemicals have different kinds of effects on different components that are
engaged in signaling cascades [96,97]. The intracellular concentration of
phytochemicals required to influence cell signaling pathways is significantly
lower than that required to have an impact on cellular anti-oxidant capacity, and
their metabolites should retain the ability to interact with cell signaling proteins,
albeit with diminished antioxidant activity [93,98].
The majority of plant tissues have the ability to synthesize flavonoids, which are
plentiful in plants [99]. Flavonoid glycosides can be found in the leaves, fruits,
and flowers of plants; aglycones can be found in woody tissue, and seeds can
contain either aglycones or flavonoid glycosides. Apigenin, a flavone found in
celery and parsley, inhibits the expression of HIFR, COX-2, and HIFR, as well as
proinflammatory cytokines, by inhibiting the PI3K/Akt, nuclear factor-B (NF-B),
and ATF/cyclic AMP response element signaling pathways [100,101,102].
Tangeretin, a polymethoxylated flavone found in the peels of citrus fruits, acts as
an anti-carcinogenic drug by inhibiting p38 MAPK, Akt activation, and c-Jun N-
terminal kinase (JNK), all of which limit IL-1-induced COX-2 production [103].
Kaempferol flavonol is found in broccoli and tea, and it helps to reduce the
inflammation activities of genes like iNOS and COX-2 by inhibiting NF-B, AP-1,
and STAT-1 signaling in human macrophages and endothelial cells [104]. The
flavonol quercetin is found in leafy vegetables, apples, grapes, broccoli, and
onions, and it possesses anti-inflammatory and antioxidant characteristics.
Quercetin inhibits the production of pro-inflammatory cytokines in mast cells
[105], while TNF-induced NF-B is inhibited and CBP/p300 is recruited to pro-
inflammatory promoter genes [106]. Quercetion also inhibits 11-hydroxysteroid
dehydrogenase type 1, which lowers total triglycerides, low-density lipoprotein,
and cholestrol while also lowering high-density lipoprotein and glycemia
[107,108].
Orange contains a flavanone called naringenin, which inhibits gene expression
and iNOS protein by preventing NF-B activation [109]. It has been reported that
nargingenin-7-O-glucoside protects cardiomyocytes from doxorubicin toxicity by
inducing enzymes involved in endogenous antioxidant by extracellular
phosphorylation of signal-regulated kinases 1 and 2 (ERK1/2) and Nrf2 nuclear
translocation [110], as well as reducing reactive oxygen species generation and
stabilizing cell membrane [111]. The anthocyanidin cyanidin, which is found in
cherries and strawberries, has been shown to suppress tumor metastasis and
tumour promoter-induced carcinogenesis in vivo via modulating COX-2 and
TNF-R expression [112]. Cyanidin-3-O-rutinoside inhibits -glucosidase, which
delays in vivo carbohydrate absorption [113]. Delphindin, a dark fruit contain
anthocyanidin, has antiangiogenic action in smooth muscle cells by blocking
PDGF receptor (PDGFR)-/PDGF [114].

Figure 4: Chemical structures of quercetin, kaempferol, naringenin and

tangeretin (source: 114)

Anthocyanins limit lipid peroxidation in caco-2 cells [115], and they also reduce
ethanol-induced migration in breast cancer cells by blocking the activation of the
ErB2/cSrc/FAK pathway crucial for migration of cells [116]. Furthermore,
anthocyanins inhibit Fyn signalling pathway activation by suppressing
benzo[a]pyrene-7,8-idol-9,10-expoxide-induced cyclooxygenase-2 (COX-2)
expression [117], preventing reductions in nitric oxide, nitric oxide synthase, and
postaglandin E2 production (PGE2) and COX-2 [118]; as well as IĸBa
phosphorylation get inhibited, thus in vivo model and cell activity of NF-ĸB is
suppressed [119,120,121] and hence helps in its ability of chemopreventive.
Tomatoes, oranges, papaya, pink grapefruit, and watermelon include carotenoids
such as lycopene, which inhibits the inflammatory response induced by iNOS and
COX-2 gene expression [122] as well as the generation of IL-12 in murine
dendritic cells by preventing MAPK and NF-B activation [123]. Carotene is
found in fruits such as palm fruits, papayas, carrots, mangoes, and green leafy
vegetables, and it suppresses LPS-induced iNOS, TNF-, and COX-2 production in
macrophages via decreasing phosphorylation, IBR degradation, and NF-B nuclear
translocation [124]. The presence of lutein, a yellow pigment found in leafy
vegetables like kale and spinach, was found to reduce H2O2- and LPS-induced
production of pro-inflammatory genes in RAW264.7 cells by lowering PI3K and
NF-B including kinase (NIK) activity and Akt phosphorylation [125].
Cancer and phytochemicals present in fruits and vegetable
Cancer is the largest cause of death worldwide, is one of the most common
degenerative diseases [63,69,126], and has been linked to dietary, lifestyle, and
environmental factors. Heavy metal use, a poor diet, genetic mutation, and
smoking all contribute to cancer development [63]. The poor diet is responsible
for half of cardiovascular infection and hypertension, as well as one-third of
cancer cases [127,128]. It is observed that appropriate diet can prevent more than
30% of malignant cell proliferation [129]. Adopting a healthy, nutritional diet and
active lifestyle can reduce the risk of cancer by 30-40% [63,130]. A diet high in
antioxidant-rich fruits and vegetables has been shown to reduce the risk of
cancers such as lung, oral, pharyngeal, colon, stomach, and esophageal cancer
[63,132]. Glucosinote's anti-carcinogenic effect is due to protection against
oxidant damage, enzyme activation required for carcinogen detoxication, and
inhibition of enzymes involved in involved in modifying metabolism of steroid
hormone. Isothiocyanates, which are produced by the hydrolysis of glucosinolate,
have anti-proliferative and antioxidant properties [133].

Figure 5: Chemical structure of sulforaphane (source: 12)

Sulforaphane, an isothiocyanate present in turnips, cauliflower, broccoli, and
collard greens, has been shown to reduce the incidence of cancers such as colon
cancer and breast cancer [12]. Sulfur-containing chemicals are plentiful in chives,
scallions, garlic, leek, and onions, and they are particularly beneficial in reducing
the risk of cancer [63].

Figure 6: Fruits and vegetables beneficial in prevention of cancer.

The flavonoids-rich vegetables such as endive, tomato, bean, onion, broccoli, and
leek have a positive effect on cancerous conditions because they stimulate
enzymes that are responsible for carcinogenic detoxification substances and also
inhibit inflammation linked to local free radical production [134]. Tomatoes and
their products, on the other hand, are high in lycopene, which has been shown to
reduce the risk of many cancers. Sterols are necessary for the synthesis of
leukotriene and prostaglandins, and they also play an important function in the
immune system [35]. Vegetables including soy, cauliflower, brussels sprouts,
spinach, celery, tomato, carrot, and broccoli contain a lot of them [135]. Sterols
have been shown to limit cholesterol absorption due to structural similarities
between cholesterol and sterols [35]. Plant sterols may have antiatherosclerosis,
antioxidant, anticancer, and anti-inflammation characteristics due to their
cholesterol-lowering impact [71,72]. Although phytoestrogens have been shown
to reduce the risk of particular hormone-stimulated malignant cells such as
prostate cancer and breast cancer in studies [136], their anti-carcinogenic
capabilities are currently being investigated [63].
Lignans have anti-estrogenic and antioxidant characteristics in humans, and have
been shown to reduce the incidence of some malignancies [35]. Higher urine
lignan excretion has also been associated to a lower cancer risk [137]. When two
units of phenylpropane are present in their free form in nature, they undergo
oxidative dimerization, and small forms of their glycoside derivatives are present,
lignans are formed [138]. Lignans are a key source of phytoestrogen and are
found in plant secondary metabolites [139]. Plums, grapes, apricots, pears,
strawberries, kiwis, and raspberries contain secondary metabolites, as do broccoli,
carrots, garlic, cabbage, and asparagus [46,139]. Sesamin, lignans precursor
sesamolin, medioresinol, and syringaresinol are just a few of the lignans present
in fruits and vegetables [139,140,141]. Because of their conversion into
enterolactone and enterodiol in the microbiota intestine, lignans are considered
phytoestrogens. Phytoestrogens present in apples and various vegetables have
been demonstrated to protect against diseases such as osteoporosis,
cardiovascular disease, cancer, and menopause symptoms [46,142]. The
pharmacological and epidemiological studies on lignan showed that it is quite
effective in cancer prevention, inflammation reduction, risk factors for oxidative
stroke, stress, and atherosclerosis [143,144]. In a study examining the relationship
between the incidence of colon cancer and plasma lignan concentration in women
aged 50 to 64, it was discovered that the higher the lignans concentration, the
lower the risk of colon cancer [139,145].

Figure 7: Chemical structure of lignan and sesamin (source: 46)

Cardiovascular diseases and effect of phytochemicals present in fruits and

vegetables
Cardiovascular disorders are a major cause of rising morality rates around the
world, and they're also linked to the likelihood of developing other conditions like
type 2 diabetes and obesity. Increased consumption of fruits and vegetables in the
diet decreases blood cholesterol levels and improves coronary care, resulting in a
lower risk of cardiovascular disease, according to studies.

Figure 8: Common vegetables beneficial to Prevent cardiovascular diseases.

Flavonoids in endive, tomatoes, bean, leek, and broccoli [35], as well as dietary
fibers in turnip, sweet potato, and artichoke [63], are all capable of suppressing
cardiovascular disorders. Fruits and vegetables have a large number of
phytonutrients, which aid in the prevention of several degenerative diseases that
impair the human body [14].
Table 3: Health benefits of Bioactive Components of fruits
Fruits Health benefits References
Acai Formation in polymorphonuclear (PMN), [146]
reduction of reactive oxygen species
 (ROS), alleviation of oxidative stress in
aging
Apple Decrease lipid oxidation, lowers [147,148]
cholesterol level, inhibit cancer cells
proliferation, reduces risk of asthma,
cardiovascular diseases, some cancer, and
diabetes
Avocado Function as neurotransmitter, reduces the [146,149]
risk of cardiovascular diseases
Berries Exhibits chemotherapeutic and chemo- [150,151]
preventive activities in in vivo and in
vitro and inhibit proliferation of human
lung epithelial cancer A549 cell line
Citrus fruit Potential to inhibit aggregation of platelet [152,153]
and possess antiviral, anti-atherogenic,
anticancer, anti-inflammatory and
antioxidant properties
Stone fruit Inhibition of LDL oxidation, scavenge [154]
hydroxy radicals
Pineapple Anti-tumor, anti-inflammatory, anti- [146,155]
metastatic and anti-invasive
Mango Helps to combat degenerative diseases [156,157]
like cardiovascular and cancer, protect
human cells against damage
Guava Normalize body blood pressure [158,159]
Prickly pear Undergoes reducing properties and [160,161]
radical- scavenging
Durian Reduction of cholesterol level in body [146]
Graviola Possess anti-inflammatory and anti- [146]
rheumatic properties, maintain intestinal
flora, promotes weight loss, its juice
functions as good diuretic, used in
normalizing acidity of stomach
Grapes Anti-fungal agent, reduction of low- [146,162]
density lipoprotein and inhibition of
platelet aggregation
Kiwano Blood platelet aggregation inhibitory [146]
activity, Anti-inflammatory, capillary
 protective, spasmolytic
Star fruit Mitigate liver problems, hangover after [164]
(carambola) excessive alcohol, diarrhea, halt
hemorrhages, and counteracts fever

Bioactive present in plants like vitamins, fatty acid, peptides, oligosaccharides

and polyphenols contains cardioprotective properties which helps in boosting
health of heart, hence having high consumption of fruits and vegetables helps in
lowering the risk of cardiovascular disease [63].
Table 4: Health Benefits Bioactive Components of Vegetables.
Vegetables Health benefits References
Beetroot LDL oxidation inhibition [165]
Tomato Serve as pro-oxidant in lipid environment [166,167]
and prevention from cardiovascular
diseases and cancer
Allium (garlic Inhibition of LDL oxidation, cell [168,169]
and onions) proliferation and growth, reduces
carcinogen-DNA binding, enhances
immune system, stimulate detoxification
enzymes, and alters activation of
carcinogen
Pepper Acts as pro-oxidants [170,171]
Spinach Inhibition of LDL oxidation [172]
Cruciferous Prevention of lipid peroxidation and [173]
vegetables cancer chemo-preventive effects
(cabbage,
brussels
sprouts,
cauliflower,
kale, broccoli)
Lettuce Inhibition of LDL oxidation [173]

Conclusion
Fruits and vegetables contain a variety of bioactive substances that not only
supply critical nutrients to the body but also aid in the body's defence
mechanisms. Phytochemicals, such as phenolics, carotenoids, and glucosinolates,
are a class of antioxidants that are highly bioactive and have been found to
improve human health. Because of the presence of antioxidants, many studies
have found that the higher the consumption of fruits and vegetables, the lower the
risk of degenerative diseases such as cardiovascular disease, cancer, type II
diabetes, obesity, and stroke. For a healthy body and to reduce the risk of terminal
and degenerative diseases, it is recommended to consume at least 400-500g of
fruits and vegetables every day.
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