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University of Dar Es Salaam
University of Dar Es Salaam
Department of Mathematics
Department of Mathematics
Department of Mathematics
6 Introduction
Sheaves and sheaf cohomology were invented by Jean Leray in the mid 1940s as a branch of
algebraic topology to deal with the collation of local data on topological spaces. His remarkable
but rather obscure results were clarified by Borel, Henri Cartan, Koszul, Serre and Weil in the late
1940’s and early 1950’s. The first spectacular application of Leray’s new ideas was Weil’s proof
The next success story for sheaves and their cohomology was the proof by Cartan and Serre of
theorems A and B for Stein manifolds, which solved a whole series of difficult problems (like
Cousin I and Cousin II) with the help of techniques and theorems introduced by Oka. who can
Through the success in the theory of functions of several complex variables and algebraic
geometry (topology), this theory is now indispensable in modern mathematics. Moreover, sheaf
The followings definitions, lemmas, proposition, corollary and theorems will be used frequently
in this study:
0 −→ A −→ B −→ C −→ 0 and 0 −→ A0 −→ B0 −→ C0 −→ 0
be two short exact sequences of R-module. A homomorphism between these short exact
sequences is a triple α, β and δ of R-module homomorphism such that the following diagram
commutes.
0 A B C 0
α β δ
0 A0 B0 C0 0
Proposition 6.1.1. : There is short exact sequence of abelian sheaves, of this form
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Definition 6.1.2. Fix a topological space X. A pre-sheaf F of abelian group on X satisfied the
following,
(i) for each open set U ⊂ X an abelian group F(U) (differentiable ) an element of F(U) are
(ii) For each V ⊂ U a homomorphism (called striction map) ρu,v : F(U) −→ F(V ) such that
Definition 6.1.3. Sheaves Is a presheaf with additional of two conditions. These conditions are
1) Gluability : If U = {Ui }i∈I be open cover of the set U with section si ∈ F(Ui ) (element
Remark 6.1.1. All sheaf are pre-sheaf, since it satisfies condition for pre-sheaf first and then
This is because taking the bounded function which is bounded on C by liouvilles theorem it will
be constant, so there is no more function on the entire space. Then is not sheaf.
FX is inductive limit. The element of FX are {(u, s) such that u is open, x ∈ U, s ∈ F(U)}/ ∼
the equivalence class of of the RHS only depend on the equivalence of the two germs on the
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LHS.
Definition 6.1.5. Group cohomology is a set of mathematical tools used to study groups using
cohomology theory an algebraic topology technique. Group cohomology, like group representa-
tions, examines the group actions of a group G in an associated G-module M to elucidate the
measurable maps f : Gn → A| ∃ open subset U ⊆ Gn , (e, · · · , e) ∈ U,
Cn (G, A) = (1)
such that f |U is contineous.
Theorem 6.1.1. For any topological G-module A, MapG,lcm (−, A) is a sheaf on XGc and
Remark 6.1.2. Again, the cohomology of the sheaf represented by (A; 0) on XGlcm is not quite
Theorem 6.1.2. For any topological G-module A, MapG,lcm (−, A) is a sheaf on XGc and the
cohomology H n (XGc , pt, MapG,lcm (−, A)) is isomorphic to the locally continuous cohomology
n (G, A).
Hlcm
Proposition 6.1.2. For any sheaf F on XGlcm and any pointed G-space (U;U)
c , (U, u), v ∗ F) ∼ H n (X lcm , (U, u), F).
we have H n (XG,∗ = G
c and
Corollary 6.1.1. For any topological G-module A, HomClcm (−, A) is a sheaf on XG,∗
G
H n (XG,∗
c , pt, Hom ∼ n lcm
Clcm (−, A)) = H (XG , pt, A).
G
Definition 6.1.7. Let R be a ring. A left R-module is an abelian group (D, +) together with
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multiplication R × D −→ D(r, d −→ rd) such that for all r,t ∈ R and d, c ∈ D, Satisfies the
following axioms.
1 : r(d + c) = rd + rc.
2 : (r + t)d = rd + td.
3 : (rt)d = r(td).
Example 6.1.2. Every additive abelian group G is a unitary Z-module, with na where n ∈ Z and
a ∈ G defined by na = a + a + · · · + a (n times).
Definition 6.1.8. Let D be R-module . An R- module is abelian sub group C such that for all
r ∈ R, c ∈ C : rc ∈ C.
(ii) f (rd) = r f (d) for all d ∈ D and r ∈ R. The set of all R- linear or R-module maps f : D −→ C
Remark 6.1.3. HomR (D,C) is abelian group with addition defined point-wise . Furthermore
EndR (D) = HomR (D, D) is a ring, where multiplication is defined by composition of maps,
Definition 6.1.10. Let {Mi }i∈I be family of R-module. Their direct sum ⊕i∈I Mi is the set of all
tuples (ai )i∈I such that ai ∈ Mi for all i ∈ I and all but finitely many ai are 0. This set ⊕i∈I Mi has
r(ai )i∈I = (rai )i∈I for all r ∈ R and for all (ai )i∈I , (bi )i∈I ∈ ⊕i∈I Mi .
M0 = ⊕i∈I Mi
Definition 6.1.11. Let {Mi }i∈I be family of R-module. Their direct product ∏i∈I Mi is the set
of all tuples (ai )i∈I such that ai ∈ Mi for all i ∈ I. This set ∏i∈I Mi has natural structure of an
R-module given by
r(ai )i∈I = (rai )i∈I for all r ∈ R and for all (ai )i∈I , (bi )i∈I ∈ ∏i∈I Mi
by this property.
f g
Definition 6.1.12. A pair of module homomorphisms A −
→B→
− C is said to be exact at B
f1 f2 f3 fn−1
Definition 6.1.13. A finite sequence of module homomorphisms, M0 −
→ M1 −
→ M2 −
→ · · · −−→
fn
Mn−1 −
→ Mn is exact provided Im fi = Ker fi+1 for i = 1, 2, 3, · · · n − 1.
fi−1 fi f i+1
Definition 6.1.14. A finite sequence of module homomorphisms, · · · −−→ Mi−1 −
→ Mi −−−→
f i+2
Mi+1 −−−→ · · · is exact provided Im fi = Ker fi+1 for i ∈ Z
f
Remark 6.1.4. 0 −→ A −
→ B is exact sequence of module homomorphism if and only if is
module monomorphism.
g
Similarly, B →
− C −→ 0 is exact sequence of module homomorphism if and only if g is module
f g
epimorphism. If A −
→B→
− C is exact then g ◦ f = 0.
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f g
Definition 6.1.15. A short exact sequence 0 −→ A −
→B→
− C −→ 0.
h
X Y
a b
g
Z W
Then
(2) g induces homomorphism on cokernels , such that the map z + im a −→ g(z) + im b, where
(3) If h is injective , so the map induced by h and if g is sujective , so is the map induced by g
Theorem 6.1.5. (Five lemma) : Let α, δ and β be homomorphism between the exact sequence
ϕ ψ
M A B C N
γ α δ β ε
ϕ0 ψ0
M0 A0 B0 C N0
every R- module J and every map f : T −→ J there exist a unique R- module homomorphism
Precisely, we say that W is free module if there exist a unique R- module homomorphism g
8
h
W
T f
J
Remark 6.1.5. If A is a free module and T ⊆ A is a sub module then T need not to be free
f g
Definition 6.1.17. Given a short exact sequence of M-module of the form 0 −→ A −
→B→
− C −→
0, then P is projective if for every surjective M-linear map f : A −→ B and every M-linear map
diagram commutes:
P
h!‘ g
f
A // B / 0
In other word we say that , P is projective if A B −→ O is exact, implies that the induced
Definition 6.1.18. An R- module P is projective module if there exist R-module A such that
P ⊕ A is free R-module.
Example 6.1.3. Z/2Z and Z/3Z are non -free projective Z/6Z
Theorem 6.1.6. Let R be a ring with identity and let P be an R module. The following conditions
are equivalent.
P
h!‘ g
f
J /T /0
f g
(3) Every short exact sequence 0 −→ T −
→J→
− P −→ 0 split up.
phisms di between the chain groups with the important property that di ◦ di+1 = 0 for all i. For
ease of notation, we frequently refer to each boundary homomorphism simply as d, without the
subscript. From that property we have that Im(An ) ⊆ ker(An−1 ). We call elements of the image
there are natural connecting maps ∂ such that there is a long exact sequence in cohomology:
∂
0 · · · −→ Hn A −→ Hn B −→ HnC −
→ Hn−1 A −→ Hn−1 B −→ Hn−1C −→ · · · −→ 0
Many researchers are interested in the concept of sheaf cohomology. Several method and
approaches has been used to develop the concept of sheaf cohomology and their application on
different field, more specifically on engineering and computer science. Fore example, Robert
G and Yasuaki H 2011, they worked on the application of sheaf cohomology theories and
exact sequence for network cooding. Keneth S,B 1973 studies the part of sheaves cohomology
called homotopy theory of sheaves of spectral and give its application for generalization of
sheaf cohomology group. Also, Amnon N 2007 uses the concept of snake lemma to prove the
triangulation of long exact sequence of the length six, as one of the application on analysis.
Despite the good number of researchers who worked on sheaf cohomology and its branches,
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there are some interesting gap which will be worked on this study. The further understanding and
application of sheaf cohomology and its branch specifically as main tools for analysis need to
be investigated. This study will investigate on the application of sheaf cohomology on analysis
and investigate on the notion of sheaf, pre sheaf and cohomological group with Grothendick
The general objective of this study is to extend the existing concept of sheaf cohomology and
study are:
(i) To study the notion of pre-sheaf, sheaf and co homological group on Grothendieck topol-
ogy.
(ii) To frame the suitable conditions to prove how short exact sequence of sheaves give rise to
(i) How are the notion of pre-sheaf, sheaf and co homological group on Grothendieck topology
be studied?
(ii) What are the suitable conditions to establish and prove how short exact sequence of sheaves
(i) Through this study the researcher will provide and link the notion of pre-sheaf, sheaf and
(ii) This study will help researchers to generate the suitable conditions for rise of long exact
(iii) Through this study the researcher will be able to provide the applications of G-topology
on P-adic analysis.
A J, Lindenhovis 2014 studies the Grothendic topologies on poset that are generated by some
subset of P. They shows that Grothendieck topology exhaust all possibilities if and only if P is
theories which have result into Comparison Lemma. Also they introduce the idea on calculating
Amnon Neeman 2007 worked on the concept of triangulation of long exact sequence of the
length six, using the Snake Lemma and equivalently the long exact sequence which arises as the
homology of triangle in the corresponding derived bounded categories. the problem states that,
Daniel Murfet 2007 introduced a compactly generated triangulated category Km (Pro j X), called
the Mock homotopy category of projectives, which extends the derived category of quasi-
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coherent sheaves by adjoining the acyclic complexes of flat quasi-coherent sheaves.These acyclic
complexes carry the same information about the singularities of the scheme as the triangulated
category of singularities. Also he studies the homotopy category K(In jX) of injective quasi-
coherent sheaves, which was introduced earlier by Krause and plays a dual role. In the presence
of a dualizing complex he give an equivalence of the mock homotopy category of projectives with
Keneth S.Brown 1973 studied the homotopy theory of a sheaves of spectral that was used to
give a derived functors definition of generalized sheaf cohomology group H q (X, E), where X is
Robert Ghrist and Yasuaki Hiraoka 2011 they research on application of shieves co-homology
and the exact sequence of network coding. They give out and prove main theorem which states
that “O-th network coding sheaf cohomology is equivalent to information flow for the network
coding”, they establish some standard exact sequence of homological algebra. According to
the result they obtain using these sheaf cohomology they come up with the general conclusion
that sheaf cohomology and long exact sequence can be applied in several practical field and on
M. Abbas and G. Jungck 2008 established the results of existence of coincidence points and
common fixed points for two maps satisfying a generalized contractive conditions without the
consideration of their continuity. The conditions for the uniqueness of a common fixed point for
Van Oystaeyen, F. and Willaert, L.1995 studied Grothendieck topology, coherent sheaves and
Serre’s theorem for schematic algebras where they define schematic algebras to be algebras
which have “enough” Ore-sets. Many graded algebras studied are schematic and they construct a
generalised Grothendieck topology for the free monoid on all Ore-sets of a schematic algebra R.
This allows them to develop a sheaf theory which is similar to the scheme theory for commutative
algebras. In particular, they obtain an equivalence between the category of all coherent sheaves
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To achieve the proposed research questions, we will consult various dissertations, books, and
papers on sheaf cohomology and concepts on analysis . The Definitions, Lemmas, and Theorems
in this proposal will assist to obtain the results of each objective as described below:
(i) To study the notion of pre-sheaf, sheaf and co homological group on Grothendieck topology
the Definitions 6.1.1, 6.1.2, 6.1.3, 6.1.4, and 6.1.5, the Lemma 6.1.1 , proposition 6.1.1,
6.1.2 , Corollary 6.1.1 and the theorems 6.1.1 and 6.1.2 will assist to get the intended
results.
(ii) The formulation and proofs of how short exact sequence of sheaves give rise to long exact
cohomological sequence. the Definitions 6.1.1, .6.1.6, 6.1.7, 6.1.8, 6.1.9, 6.1.10, 6.1.11,
6.1.12, 6.1.13, 6.1.14, 6.1.15, 6.1.16, 6.1.17, 6.1.18 and 6.1.19 Also, the lemma 6.1.2 and
6.1.3 will be used to achieve this objective. Furthermore, the theorems 6.1.3, 6.1.4, 6.1.5,
8 REFERENCES
Allday, C., Allday, C. J., and Puppe, V. (1993). Cohomological methods in transformation
Anel, M. (2009). Grothendieck topologies from unique factorisation systems. arXiv preprint
arXiv:0902.1130.
Brown, K. S. (1973). Abstract homotopy theory and generalized sheaf cohomology. Transac-
Chase, S. U. (1962). On direct sums and products of modules. Pacific Journal of Mathematics,
12(3), 847-854.
Edmundo, M. J., Jones, G. O., and Peatfield, N. J. (2006). Sheaf cohomology in o-minimal
Facchini, A. (2013). Module theory: endomorphism rings and direct sum decompositions in
Faith, C., and Walker, E. A. (1967). Direct sum representations of injective modules. J. Algebra,
5(2), 203-221.
Gelfand, S. I., and Manin, Y. I. (2013). Methods of homological algebra. Springer Science and
Business Media.
Ghrist, R., and Hiraoka, Y. (2011). Applications of sheaf cohomology and exact sequences to
Hilton, P. J., and Stammbach, U. (2012). A course in homological algebra (Vol. 4). Springer
Huisgen-Zimmermann, B., and Okoh, F. (2001). Direct products of modules and the pure
semisimplicity conjecture.
Koblitz, N. (2012). p-adic Numbers, p-adic Analysis, and Zeta-Functions (Vol. 58). Springer
Lenzing, H. (1976). Direct sums of projective modules as direct summaots of their direct
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Miller, H. (2000). Leray in Oflag XVIIA: the origins of sheaf theory, sheaf cohomology, and
Murfet, D. S. (2007). The mock homotopy category of projectives and Grothendieck duality.
Neeman, A. (2007). Long exact sequences coming from triangles. In Proceedings of the 39th
Osborne, M. S. (2012). Basic homological algebra (Vol. 196). Springer Science and Business
Media.
Stovicek, J. (2009). A characterization of long exact sequences coming from the snake lemma.
Swan, R. G. (1962). Vector bundles and projective modules. Transactions of the American
of Mathematics, 572-595.
Ullrich, P. (2011). On the origins of p-adic analysis. In Mathematics and Theoretical Physics
Van Oystaeyen, F., and Willaert, L. (1995). Grothendieck topology, coherent sheaves and
16
Serre’s theorem for schematic algebras. Journal of Pure and Applied Algebra, 104(1),
109-122.
Vistoli, A. (2004). Notes on Grothendieck topologies, fibered categories and descent theory.
press.
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1 Application 50,000 NA
1 Allowances •
• Sub-total 13,000,000
3 Research Funds •
• Contingencies 600,000
• Sub-total 3,200,000
• Grand-total 21,100,000
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9.2 Duration
Oct Nov Dec Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul
Literature Review
Research Proposal
Writing
Analysis of the
Results
Dissertation Writing
and Submission
CANDIDATE
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SUPERVISOR
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SUPERVISOR
3. Comments by supervisor 3:
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HEAD OF DEPARTMENT