Part (1)

Interlanguage

Q 1. What is interlanguage? Discuss the characteristics of interlanguage.

According to Richards et al. (1996), IL is the type of language which can be produced by FL/L2
learners who are in the process of acquiring or learning a new language.
The term ‘interlanguage’ was initially proposed by Larry Selinker statedthat interlanguage is a
linguistic system that is used by the L2 learners and it is influenced by the L1 (mother tongue).
When the learners learn the target language, the learners build their own system of language
which is different from their L1. For the first concept, interlanguage can be defined as “a half-
way house” between L1 and L2. L1 can be said as a language source which contains the first
material and mix with the target language gradually. The result is new anddifferent. It is neither
L1 nor L2, but something in between.
The Characteristics of Interlanguage:
An interlanguage has the following characteristics:

1) Systematic: At any particular point or stage of development, the IL is

governed by rules which constitute the learner’s internal grammar. These rules are discoverable
by analyzing the language that is used by the learner at that
time – what he or she can produce and interpret correctly as well as errors that are made.

2) Dynamic: The system of rules which learners have in their minds changes
frequently, or is in a state of flux, resulting in a succession of interimgrammars. Selinker views
this change not as a steady progression along
acontinuum, but discontinuous progression “from stable plateau to stable plateau”.

3) Variable: Although the IL is systematic, differences in context result indifferent patterns of

language use. Learner’s performance is variable. They may apply the same rule differently in
separate contexts or domains. Accuracy and fluency vary across occasions as learners have
alternative rules for the same function.

4) Reduced system: both in form and function. The characteristic of reduced form refers to the
less complex grammatical structures that typically occur in an ILcompared to the target language
(e.g. omission of inflections, such as the past tense suffix in English). The characteristic of
reduced function refers to the smaller range of communicative needs typically served by an IL
(especially if the learner is still in contact with members of the L1 speech community).

Q 2. How interlanguage is made of? Discuss through the rules.

Currently, there three factors that are believed to shape how learners' create interlanguage:
1. Overgeneralization
2. Transfer
 3. Internal Sequences
Overgeneralization:
Overgeneralization involves learners extending the application of a rule in L2. They group
similar items together and try to predict their behavior based on a rule they already know.
Using the same rule in new situations leads to errors: the plural for ''deer'' becomes ''deers'';
the past tense of ''go'' becomes ''goed.''
Transfer:
Learners use knowledge of their first language to understand to understand and organize
second language information.
When there are differences in the first and second language, transfer can lead learners to make
errors.
Examples of errors due to transfer:
 Pronunciation
 Vocabulary
 Speech acts
Overgeneralization and transfer lead learners to successfully produce language more often than
they lead them to make them errors. Errors are part of the learning process
Internal Sequences:
In internal sequences learners hear different language, for example: in classroom. Have
different first language. Therefore, we expect that learners learn a second language in different
ways.

Q 3. How interlanguage is developed through different stages? Exemplify

Interlanguage is a dynamic developmental process. It is the intermediate stage, which the
learners should pass through between native language and target language.
In terms of its characteristics of instability, Corder divides the intermediate stages into three
parts in general—pre-systematic stage, systematic stage and post systematic stage.
Pre-systematic stage is the first stage in the development of interlanguage. At this stage the
learner gets thing wrong 166 and only occasionally hits the right form, as if by chance. Corder
thinks that the learners only have vague awareness on the rules of target language. Although
they have intention to communicate, they don’t know how to use the target language to
express their intention. Therefore, errors are inevitable during the use of language. For this kind
of error, the learners are difficult to explain and to correct by themselves.
The second stage of interlanguage is systematic stage. The learners sometimes get a thing right
and sometimes wrong. It looks as if they knew some rules but simply failed to apply it. That
means the learners needs further internalization of target language rules. Corder thinks that in
this stage the learners can explain their errors, but cannot correct them. So, it needs the
teacher’s help.
The final stage of interlanguage development is post-systematic stage. In this stage, the
language system of the target language and been able to apply the rules in an effective way. So
what the teacher should do is to help learners form the right language habit in a certain
context.
Another linguist, Brown (1987) divided the interlanguage development into four stages,
(1) Random errors,
(2) Emergent state of interlanguage
(3) Systematic stage
(4) Stabilization.
Comparing with Corder’s classification of interlanguage stages, we can find some similarities
between them.
Brown’s first and second stages are similar to Corder’s first stage in the general way. Brown
focuses on the randomness of learners using language before the target language system
formed. Both Corder’s second stage and Brown’s third stage are called systematic stage. What’s
the difference is Brown thinks that the learners could not only explain errors, but correct them
in this stage.

Q 4. Which theoretical assumptions are made in the process of Interlanguage?

Following are the theoretical assumptions made in the process of interlanguage.

• Second language learning is a gradual progression form L1 towards the L2.

• At every stage of learning the learner develops a system of rules that is neither the system of
L1 nor the system of L2 but instead falls between the two.

• The process of learning consists of rule formation or hypothesis-testing.

• The mistakes made by the learner are a natural procedure of language learning.

• There is a psychological structure latent in the brain, which is activated when one attempts to
learn a second language.

• Many learners do not achieve the full L2 competence.

Here follows a detailed discussion on Interlanguage theory based on the assumptions

INTERLANGUAGE CONTINUUM
During L2 acquisition, the learner formulates the hypotheses about the system/rules of TL. The
rules are viewed as mental grammars that construct the Interlanguage system. These grammars
are permeable. They are exposed to influences both from outside the learner and form the
learner’s internal processing. This suggests that the learner’s performance is variable. These
grammars are transitional. The learner changes his grammar from one time to another by
adding rules, deleting rules, and restructuring the whole system. Thus, in every stage of
learning, there is an Interlanguage. Through the gradual process of checking and rechecking
hypotheses, the learner keeps changing his Interlanguage until the target language system is
fully acquired/ shaped. This gradual progression naturally implies to an Interlanguage
Continuum.
LANGUAGE DEVICES
Interlanguage can proceed by adopting two types of mechanisms:

1. L1 Mechanisms: L2 learners can utilize the same mechanisms as L1 learners adopt during
language acquisition:
(a) Universal Grammar (UG): This device is postulated by Avram Noam Chomsky (1959).
Chomsky asserts that there are certain principles that all possible natural human languages
have. These principles are biologically determined and specialized for language learning.
(b) Latent Language Structure: This device is a counterpart to UG. It was proposed by Eric Heinz
Lenneberg (1967), a contemporary of Chomsky. The proponent assumes that the child’s brain
has an innate propensity for language acquisition and that this propensity is lost as maturation
takes place.

Originally, both the theories were associated with L1 acquisition. Their principles were adopted
by the second language researchers in order to provide explanations for the existence of
developmental sequences in Interlanguage and to view L2 acquisition as a natural process.

2. Alternative Mechanisms: L2 learner can use other mechanisms too:

(a) Latent Psychological Structure: This device is postulated by Larry Selinker. He argues that 5%
of L2 learners attain mastery in their TL by using the Latent Language Structure. On the other
hand, 95% of L2 learners achieve competence in their TL by using the Latent Psychological
Structure. The Latent psychological Structure is different from that of the Latent Language
Structure with respect to the following facts:

(i) It has no direct genetic time table (i.e. not subject to a critical period)
(ii) It has no direct connection with any grammatical concept (e.g. Universal Grammar)
(iii) It has no guarantee of activation or realization into particular grammar structures of the L2.
(iv) Although this device is considered independent, possible overlapping may occur between
this structure and other areas of the brain.

Within the Latent Psychological Structure there exist several important notions:

1. Fossilization
Selinker recognized Fossilization as an important mechanism of the Latent Psychological
Structure. He assumes that many learners will not achieve the total mastery of L2, but will stop
somewhere in the middle with their language still affected by errors. Fossilization can take
place at any stage of the learning process, even at a very early age. According to him, out of all
the L2 learners, only 5% of them are thoroughly successful as to be able to reach the end of the
Interlanguage Continuum. And when the learners stop progressing any further, their
Interlanguage is said to have fossilized. However, the successful learner doesn’t fossilize, rather
constantly moves along the Interlanguage continuum.

2. Psycholinguistic Processes
Selinker points out five psycholinguistic processes which determine the fossilized forms:
i) Overgeneralization: fossilization due to the use of an L2 rule in contexts where it is not
required.

ii) Transfer of Training: fossilization due to certain features found in the instruction via which
the learner is taught the second language.

iii) Strategies of Second Language Learning: fossilization due to some approach to the learning

of L2 material adopted by the learner.

iv)  Strategies of Second Language Communication: fossilization due to some approach used by

the learner when communicating with L2 native speakers.

v) Language Transfer: fossilization due to L1 influence.

Application Level

Q 5. What are the aims of error analysis? How L2 errors are investigated in
Interlanguage and classified through error taxonomies using Coder’s framework.
In Applies Linguistics, an error is a deviation from accepted rules of a language, committed by
learners of second language.

Aims of error analysis:

 To identify types and patterns of errors

 To establish error taxonomy
 Common difficulties in second language acquisition are to be identified.
 On this basis, error analysis is supposed to contribute to a comprehensive knowledge
and processes of second language acquisition.
 In addition, results are to be used for the revision of theories of language learning and it
also helps to evaluate and improve language teaching.

Interlanguage is the intermediate stage between native language and target language.
Compared with other natural languages, it seems incomplete. This kind of incompleteness
could be illustrated by all types of error. So it can be said that errors accompany with the whole
stages of interlanguage. Interlanguage is the foundation of error analysis. Learner’s error
symbolizes some marked points in the interlanguage continuum, which reflects the real
situation of learners. That is, the form and number of errors are variable in different
interlanguage stages. Error Analysis flourished at the end of 1960s and 70s, its purpose is to
find out the causes of the error’s appearance in second language acquisition and provide help
to language learning and teaching. The main problem to emerge was that of how to categorize
errors.
Corder posited that second language learners discover the target language by hypothesizing
about it and testing their hypotheses more or less like children do. This process does not
happen randomly, but follows the learner’s built-in syllabus, so that errors will necessarily be
made.
Corder used the term transitional competence for what has since become a widely accepted
and often used concept: that of interlanguage (cf. Selinker 1972), the learner’s individual,
dynamic approximation of the target language. According to this view, errors indicate that a
learner actively learns the target language, as they occur whenever a hypothesis tested by the
learner does not work. In error analysis, the language learning process is regarded as being
influenced by the learner’s first language, his or her interlanguage and the target language.
Thus, all of these three language systems have an influence on which errors a learner makes.
But the gap between the interlanguage and the target language is considered the most
important factor of the three. Even more importantly, however, the learner makes errors
because of the learning strategies he or she employs to ‘discover’ the target language.

Part (II)

Language and Culture

Comprehension Level

Q 6. What is the relation between language and culture? How they are related
and reflected with each other.

Language is the method of human communication, either in written or a spoken form whereas,
culture is the idea, values and beliefs we have in our society.
Communication or language is a mechanism for channeling culture and cultural bonds that
reflects and reproduces culture. Different ideas are born form different languages within the
same culture.
Language and culture are intertwined, and one will affect the other. Language and culture have
a kind of deep and symbolic relationship. Language stands for the whole culture because
language represents culture in the minds of its speakers. Conversely, culture also symbolizes
language and is summed in the economic, religions, and philosophical systems of a country.
Let’s take an example of the words we use and how we use it on a daily basis. All of us learn
those words with the help of people around us, that’s language. But the way we use those
words that’s our culture.
In American English, there are endless supply of superlatives even in ordinary situations such
as: awesome, incredible, fantastic, and many others.
Similarly, there are also superlatives such as: killer, sick, sweet, or wicked. These words might
not make sense to everyone. People might use these kinds of words based on the situation and
to whom they are speaking.
These words reflect the culture of U.S. and how words links them and enables users to claim
affiliation with these subcultures.
Every word we speak is an example of the beliefs, values and its origins. For instance, Japan was
an agricultural society depended to its nature. As a result we can see lots of phrases in Japan
concerning to the nature and climate.
Similarly, in Korea, the term called “our” is mostly used due to their collectivism culture rather
than individualism. The phrase using the term “our” is very popular word due to the culture
they follow. This shows that the culture has a huge influence on the language we speak.
The difference between two cultures are reflected perfectly in their languages. It is important
to understand people who grew up with an entirely different set of values and beliefs to
understand the real relationship between language and culture.
When we grow up in a society, we learn the glances, gestures and the pattern of voice and tone
of communication of that society to emphasize what we want to say or do.
These techniques of communication are often learned mostly by imitating and observing people
which is part of both the language as well as culture.

Q 7. What concepts are included in sociocultural theories? Discuss all through

examples.

“Every function in the child’s cultural development appears twice: first, on the social level, and
later, on the individual level; first, between people (interpsychological) and then inside the child
(intrapsychological). This applies equally to voluntary attention, to logical memory, and to the
formation of concepts. All the higher functions originate as actual relationships between
individuals.” (Vygotsky, 1978)
According to Vygotsky, a child already has some innate biological characteristics of his brain.
Society and culture only provide him “tools for intellectual adaptations”. These tools vary in
different cultures and societies. Socio-cultural development with the help of these tools
develops his human intelligence and cognition.
For example, one culture teaches children to play with toys, while the other encourages them
to play outdoors. Children from both cultures adapt to what their cultures teach them. If a
culture encourages talking, they will learn to do so. If a culture requires children to learn two
languages at the same time, they will learn both.
There are two levels of learning in children according to this theory – social level and personal
level.
Social level (the first level) says that an individual learns through interaction in a society. Adding
to this, Personal level (the second level) says these learning are reflected throughout his life.
Inter-psychological cognitive development is the development of learning and cognition in the
first level. It happens due to society and culture through interaction. On the other hand,
changes that occur inside a child’s brain in the second level is an intra-psychological process of
cognitive development. Here, child’s behavior and thinking pattern change because of
interaction with culture and society. These are the two types of cognitive development that
occurs socio-culturally in the theory.
Sociocultural reasons help children to form concepts, mindsets, logical memory and attention
span. These are parts of cognition of humans.
Principles of Sociocultural Theory
 Children construct their own knowledge:
Knowledge is not transferable; it needs learning. Acquiring knowledge is an individual
ability. However, children might need help to do so.
 Learning needs mediation:
Other people interact with the child to use tools and facilitate the learning process.
 Language is used for mental development:
People use language to develop higher psychological functions.
 Two levels of learning:
It happens on social level at first and then on individual level.
 Social context is important:
If a person does not get the proper social environment to develop, cognition does not
develop.
 Zone of Proximal Development (ZPD):
It is how much a child develops with help from society. It differs from that of the
development that happens without help.

Examples of Sociocultural Theory:

A child can’t learn many things without society like language skills. They need to be with people
to learn how to use language.
Similarly, people also develop their own cognition by reading, interacting, using various tools,
etc. So, a person’s cognitive level and another persons can be different.
One child can be curious, exploring, eager to learn and hardworking, while another child might
not be. Someone might be better at indoor games while someone at outdoor games. People
differ according to their cognitive development and their interests.
Individual persistence can help the person acquire new skills and knowledge. He/she might
need external help to see and learn those things.
For instance, the child has never seen anyone play a Chinese game called Mahjong, the child
will not be able to know how to play it. But if someone shows him/her, the child will develop a
skill to play the game. He/she can even surpass the skills of the person who taught him/her with
practice and cognitive development.
When a child is first taught to write, he/she might not be able to do it right away but can write
well after several days’ practice.

Piaget’s Sociocultural Theory:

According to Piaget’s sociocultural theory, bits of information that form cognition is a schema.
It is mental representations and meanings of everything. Adaptation processes like assimilation,
accommodation and equilibration help in changing schemata.
There are four stages of cognitive development. They are sensorimotor stage, preoperational
stage, concrete operational stage and formal operational stage.

Vygotsky and Piaget’s Sociocultural Theory:

Vygotsky and Piaget have given their own versions of the theory. According to both, children
construct knowledge by learning. But there are many differences between the two
psychologists’ concept of the theory.
Vygotsky says that language and culture are more important than maturation. But, according to
Piaget, there are stages of thinking based on natural maturation. Role of teachers is central
according to Vygotsky and the opposite in Piaget.
According to Vygotsky, children need opportunities to develop skills in various things. For this,
scaffolding is important. He also states that language is a means to achieve cognitive
development while Piaget regards language as a measure of cognitive development.