The Extractive Industries and Society xxx (xxxx) xxx–xxx

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The Extractive Industries and Society

journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/exis

Original article

Towards indigenous community-led monitoring of fish in the oil sands T

region of Canada: Lessons at the intersection of cultural consensus and fish
science
Nicolas D. Bruneta, , Timothy D. Jardineb, Paul D. Jonesb, Findlay Macdermidc, Graeme Reeda,
⁎

Ana-Maria Bogdand, Devan R. Tchird, David C. Natchere

a
School of Environmental Design and Rural Development, University of Guelph, 50 Stone Rd East, Guelph, Ontario N1G 2W1, Canada
b
School of Environment and Sustainability Toxicology Centre, University of Saskatchewan, 44 Campus Drive, Saskatoon, SK S7N5B3, Canada
c
Cold Lake First Nations, Cherry Grove Rd, Alberta T0A 0T0, Canada
d
Social Science Research Lab, University of Saskatchewan, Arts Bldg, 9 Campus Dr #260, Saskatoon, SK S7N 5A5, Canada
e
Department of Agricultural and Resource Economics, University of Saskatchewan, Agriculture Building 51 Campus Drive, Saskatoon, SK S7N 5A8, Canada

ARTICLE INFO ABSTRACT

Keywords: In the Oil Sands Regions of Alberta, Canada, Indigenous reassertion of rights and responsibilities has lead to a
Indicator renewed leadership in monitoring the effects of industries on various environment receptors. This study, con­
Multiple Evidence Base ducted with Cold Lake First Nations, Alberta (CLFN), sought to explore local concerns regarding fish con­
Fish consumption sumption safety and population health in response to multiple anthropogenic stressors focusing upon oil ex­
Alberta
traction. We undertook this work using a novel research design comprised of two distinct approaches including a
Fish health
participatory fish health and toxicology study and a cultural consensus survey of CLFN members. The cultural
consensus study assessed similarities and differences in knowledge and perceptions of CLFN members. The fish
toxicology and health research involved implementing a co-designed protocol to collect and sample fish for
toxicants and overall population health using scientific indicators. We discuss the results of each study as well as
the tangible application of our work in achieving a Multiple Evidence Base approach. Our work highlights that
complementarities between our studies as part of a negotiated research process can form a single cohesive
narrative to better inform fisheries management while respecting community knowledge, culture and rights to
access land, water and country foods.

1. Introduction national and international recognition of Indigenous rights, changes in

Indigenous peoples have historically been impacted by the social,
cultural, and environmental effects of extractive industries while ob­
taining little of the benefits they generate (Horowitz et al., 2018;
O'Faircheallaigh, 2013). Local livelihoods, in particular, have been
threatened by the environmental, social, and economic impacts of in­
dustries, often global, that have provided few revenue sharing possi­
bilities and invested very little in local capacity development
(Cademartori, 2002; Freudenburg, 1992). These impacts have been
further compounded by a local reliance on land-based activities to
support nutritional, cultural and spiritual needs. Nonetheless, re­
lationships between extractive industries and Indigenous peoples have
evolved in recent decades in certain areas of the world as growing
corporate policy, and greater Indigenous political capacity are influ­
encing legal and political contexts (McMillan and Prosper, 2016;
O'Faircheallaigh, 2013). Aboriginal and Treaty rights in Canada are
afforded constitutional protections through section 35 of the Constitu­
tion Act, and have been clarified and defined through successful pro­
cesses of litigation and negotiation by Indigenous Peoples
(Horowitz et al., 2018). However, the implementation and exercising of
these rights have been contentious processes, exacerbated by historical
and ongoing efforts of land dispossession, disrespect of Treaty re­
lationships, and jurisdictional issues with federal and provincial gov­
ernments over fiscal responsibilities (McMillan and Prosper, 2016;
Proctor).
In the Oil Sands Regions of Alberta, Canada, Indigenous reassertion

Corresponding author.
⁎

E-mail addresses: nicolas.brunet@uoguelph.ca (N.D. Brunet), tim.jardine@usask.ca (T.D. Jardine), pdj055@mail.usask.ca (P.D. Jones),
Fin.Macdermid@clfns.com (F. Macdermid), greed01@uoguelph.ca (G. Reed), ana.bogdan@usask.ca (A.-M. Bogdan), drt859@mail.usask.ca (D.R. Tchir),
david.natcher@usask.ca (D.C. Natcher).

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.exis.2020.06.014
Received 14 February 2020; Received in revised form 22 June 2020; Accepted 22 June 2020
2214-790X/ © 2020 The Author(s). Published by Elsevier Ltd. This is an open access article under the CC BY-NC-ND license
(http://creativecommons.org/licenses/BY-NC-ND/4.0/).

Please cite this article as: Nicolas D. Brunet, et al., The Extractive Industries and Society, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.exis.2020.06.014
N.D. Brunet, et al.
of rights and responsibilities with regard to land, air, and water re­
sources, in accordance with the original Treaty relationships, has had
important implications for this sector. For instance, agreements be­
tween First Nations and proponents have provided financial compen­
sation as well as other development opportunities for Indigenous
partners, contractors and consortiums (Westman and Joly, 2019). In
some cases, corporate partners have built and maintained community
facilities and funded events, often furthering community support for
projects (Urquhart, 2018). Additionally, some First Nations have been
engaged in joint ventures on key components of industrial infra­
structure, and at least two groups have sought jurisdiction over bitumen
bearing lands in hopes of exploiting the deposits (Westman and
Joly, 2019).
Resistance by Indigenous Nations and organizations to oil sands
extraction owes to serious concerns about both environmental and so­
cial impacts of these activities (Schwalb et al., 2014; AEMP Alberta
Environmental Monitoring Panel, 2011). Documented impacts to non-
human systems broadly include the contamination of land, water, and
air. Leaking tailings ponds pose a particular threat to water quality
(Timoney, 2007; Galarneau et al., 2014), and localized emissions from
oil sands development has over time introduced heavy metals and
polycyclic aromatic compounds (PAHs) to the Athabasca River system
and surrounding region (Kelly et al., 2010; Kurek et al., 2013). These
contaminants have had effects on wildlife including increased hormone
levels and tumor growth in fish populations (Schindler, 2013). Socio­
economic impacts have been numerous as small communities urbanize
due to population increases, with implications for their relationships to
the land and the maintenance of more traditional ways of life
(Westman and Joly, 2019; see also Keeling and Sandlos, 2016). When
simple access to land-based activities is threatened, inherent, Treaty,
and constitutionally-protected rights as well as Indigenous cultures are
also threatened, further compounding the many costs of oil develop­
ments in the region.
Responses to these impacts have been numerous with varying levels
of success, including government-led and multi-stakeholder programs
to monitor and assess environmental impacts of oil sands extraction
(Reed et al. (In this issue)). According to Tanner (2008), these programs
have often been abandoned by Indigenous Nations due to organiza­
tional concerns, their strict focus on Western science, and a lack of
Indigenous inputs. These programs have also suffered from instability
linked with government restructuring post election every few years,
including in October 2019 during this study (Westman and Joly, 2019).
In response, opportunities and challenges associated with Indigenous
community based monitoring (ICBM) approaches to track the effects of
industrial activities have been well documented in recent years in the
literature (Ansell and Koenig, 2011; Bach, Kulk, and Rangan, 2019;
Pyke et al., 2018; Reed et al. (In this issue)).
Beyond addressing rights and responsibilities to land and water,
ICBM initiatives often are in direct response to inadequate monitoring
efforts from centralized settler governments. ICBM is typically closely
aligned with local concerns and has been successful in overcoming
challenges associated with the high cost of gathering baseline data
across large areas (Bucland-Nick, 2015). It has empowered Indigenous
governments and organizations to directly collect and analyze data to
be used internally or to share with managers as needed. By shifting
decision-making regarding land and water to communities, scientific
data can be locally verified, interpreted and integrated to a more hol­
istic understanding of impacts provided by local experts and knowledge
holders (Mantyka-Pringle et al., 2017; McCord, 2013).
In some cases, ICBM models such as the Australian Ranger programs
or Guardian Watchmen program of the west coast of Canada (Great
Bear Initiative, 2017 http://coastalguardianwatchmen.ca/guardian-
watchmen-programs-overview) have also created jobs for local com­
munities where regular income through other means is scarce. The
Great Bear Initiative, especially, is indicative of local power and the
ability to manage local resources with properly shared rights to use
2
The Extractive Industries and Society xxx (xxxx) xxx–xxx
these resources and help the community achieve the capacity needed.
There are other similar initiatives where the CBM approach has been
helpful to support community driven resource governance on the west
coast of Canada such as the North Coast-Skeena First Nations Stew­
ardship Society. This community has extensive programs including
Salmon Management, community field projects covering water quality
monitoring, and governance support for a marine protected area that is
a multi-jurisdictional issue. Nonetheless, many ICBM programs have
failed for similar reasons as settler government initiatives including
inadequate and inconsistent funding sources as well as local capacity to
take on monitoring efforts (Fache, 2014; Austin et al., 2018). The lack
of formal power sharing structures with settler governments including
enforcement and permitting capabilities has also led some communities
to abandon programs (Reed et al. (In this issue) ). Another key chal­
lenge is the implementation of monitoring programs that use both lo­
cally derived ‘traditional’ indicators and knowledge, and scientific ones
(Johnson et al., 2015, 2016; Ostertag et al., 2018; Parlee, 2011). Settler
institutions, that still lead a number of these initiatives, have yet to find
ways to use this information appropriately in scientifically driven land
and water management programs due to numerous systemic barriers
despite Indigenous-led approaches to ‘braiding’ knowledge systems
(Preuss and Dixon, 2012; Reed, Dagli, and Hambly, 2020). Importantly,
ICBM practice must contend with the fact that research foci, findings,
relationships as well as the lack of importance attributed to the human
dimensions of resource extraction are largely shaped by colonialism and
its institutions (Cameron, 2012). It has been suggested that these
challenges may be overcome by supporting community led efforts
where the design, implementation and enforcement of environmental
management can be governed locally (ILI; ITK, 2019; Thompson et al.,
2020).
This study, conducted with Cold Lake First Nations, Alberta (CLFN),
sought to explore local concerns regarding fish consumption safety and
population health in response to multiple anthropogenic stressors fo­
cusing upon oil extraction. We undertook this work using a novel re­
search design comprised of two distinct approaches including a parti­
cipatory fish health and toxicology study and a cultural consensus
survey of CLFN members. In doing this, we hoped to support and em­
power community-led fisheries management as CLFN continues to re-
assert their rights and jurisdiction to their ancestral territory. Our
partnership with CLFN, as well as their long history with and high ca­
pacity to lead research, enabled us to co-develop meaningful research
objectives that overcame many of the usual governance issues in joint
projects (Thompson et al., 2020). Beyond responding to our initial re­
search objective, we found that our study also contributed to furthering
our understanding of Multiple Evidence Base (MEB) research
(Tengö et al., 2014, 2017). The MEB approach recognizes inherent
power asymmetries between ontologies, suggesting that validation
within knowledge systems and joint assessments of knowledge con­
tributions are foundational to a meaningful research process
(Tengö et al., 2017). We briefly reflect on our contributions to this
approach in our discussion.
This study occurred within a broader initiative funded by the
Government of Alberta in 2016 to establish a regional Indigenous
community-led fish monitoring program in the Province's three oil
producing regions.
2. Research context
2.1. Establishing a regional community-led fish monitoring program in the
three oil sands regions of Alberta, Canada
In early 2016, The Government of Alberta Environment and Parks
and an interdisciplinary research team based at the University of
Saskatchewan, engaged in a multi year pilot project to collaborate with
interested Indigenous Nations in three oil sands regions to design and
implement community-led fish health monitoring programs. This
N.D. Brunet, et al.
overarching, government-led project was intended to create capacity
development opportunities around a methodology that would combine
Indigenous Knowledge and western science based approaches into a
methodology that could be adopted over larger areas of the oil sands
region.
The project focused on fish health because of its widespread re­
cognition as an environmental concern for Indigenous Nations in
Alberta's oil sands regions (Stratos Inc., 2015). These concerns have
been detailed in a variety of documents including the 2015 Review
Panel Report for the Lower Athabasca Regional Plan, where Indigenous
Nations expressed concerns regarding health of and contaminant pre­
sence in traditional food resources (whitefish, walleye, white sucker)
and the ability to continue to practice traditional uses across the rivers
and lakes in Alberta's oil sands regions. Indigenous Nations in these oil
sands regions have expressed the desire to be meaningfully involved in
the full life cycle of environmental monitoring from design, to inter­
pretation/evaluation and reporting (Stratos Inc., 2015).
In response to its members’ concerns regarding oil sands impacts to
fish and impacts of fish stocking programs on the ecology of Cold Lake,
Cold Lake First Nations (CLFN) collaborated with the research team to
develop a CBM program that would address these concerns as well as
CLFN capacity development goals. CLFN defines capacity development
to include both the capacity of individual members to conduct mon­
itoring work and the capacity of the Nation to engage in the issue of
fisheries management. The CLFN program was intended to develop a
community-supported, low cost methodology that would address
community concerns regarding trout genetics, whitefish and trout dy­
namics, and fish health and safety for consumption, and that could
remain in operation for long periods of time. The current study fit
within this initiative although only comprised part of the work under­
taken with CLFN to establish their monitoring program.
2.2. Cold Lake First Nations: a brief introduction
Cold Lake First Nations (CLFN) is a 2960-member community, 1322
of whom reside within five reserves (See map Fig. 1). Governed by an
elected Chief and Council, CLFN is a signatory to Treaty Six, an
agreement with the Canadian Crown. While predominantly Denesųłįne
(or “Chipewyan”) in its origins, CLFN's name uses the plural “Nations”
to reference several distinct groups amalgamation during the history of
the band's formation. Denesųłįne (Denésoliné or Dënesųłiné) are a Dene
Aboriginal people in Canada, whose ancestors were the Taltheilei
(Parlee, 2011) and who are known in historical records as “Chi­
pewyan”. Many CLFN members engage in traditional land and water-
based activities including hunting, fishing, berry picking and collecting
medicines although access to and integrity of their traditional territory
beyond reserves has historically been, and continues to be impacted for
a number of reasons. Importantly, for instance, a Federal Air Weapons
Range in much of their Traditional Territory was created in 1952, re­
sulting in the forcible eviction of CLFN members (see Fig. 1), and
prevented them from freely accessing their ancestral homelands and
exercising their traditional activities. The resulting “damage to the
community was not only financial, it was psychological and spiritual”
(Indian Claims Commission, 1993, p. 118; CLFN, 2013). It took 50 years
for CLFN, Canada, and Alberta to enter into the Primrose Claim Set­
tlement and Access Agreement, providing members with limited legal
rights to enter the Weapons Range to exercise their traditional land use
(CLFN, 2013).
The region is also recognized as one of three oil sands production
regions with large reserves at a depth of about 500 m below ground
(Alberta Culture and Tourism, 2020). The expansion of oil sands de­
velopment, as a result, has substantially eroded CLFN members’ ability
to participate meaningfully in traditional activities (CLFN, 2012). Al­
though written accounts of CLFN connections to fish and fisheries in
Cold Lake are limited, CLFN team members and informal conversations
with elders during the research process highlighted that fish were once
3
The Extractive Industries and Society xxx (xxxx) xxx–xxx
central to their way of life. As with many other Indigenous communities
in Canada, fish are not only a source of food but are seen as kin and a
symbol of cultural survival and resistance to colonialism (Todd, 2018).
As CLFN develops its monitoring program, it will be important to fur­
ther explore and document current and historical connections to fish
and fishing practice.
2.3. Cold Lake ecology and fisheries
Cold Lake (Łuechogh Tue) is one of Alberta's largest and deepest
lakes and a critical source of fish for CLFN members. Located on the
border between Alberta and Saskatchewan, just south of the Primrose
Lake Air Weapons Range (Fig. 1), Cold Lake is a deep, clear body of
water that supports a relatively large number of fish species. Histori­
cally, Cold Lake has supported commercial, recreational, and In­
digenous harvesting of burbot (Lota lota), cisco (Coregonus artedi), lake
trout (Salvelinus namaycush), lake whitefish (Coregonis clupeaformis),
northern pike (Esox lucius), and walleye (Sander vitreus). Commercial
and recreational fishing pressure affected sport fish species in the lake,
and some species have showed signs of over-exploitation in the past
(AENV, 2006). In an attempt to allow recovery and because of limited
commercial viability of fish populations in several lakes, commercial
fisheries in Alberta were closed in 2014 (AEP, 2016). To supplement
natural reproduction heavily impacted by historical overfishing and a
collapse associated with DDT applications in the area by the military in
the 1960s and 1970s, lake trout were stocked in Cold Lake. Stocking
began in 1974 and ended in 1987 (Sterling, 1998). Rainbow trout are
now stocked annually in the Medley River just north of Cold Lake by the
Cold Lake Fish Hatchery.1
3. Methods
Set within the broader research program presented in Section 2, this
study included two parallel but highly interconnected studies with our
partners in CLFN using (1) a cultural consensus study of local fish
health and abundance and (2) toxicology research. While the studies
were conducted separately, their interconnections were discussed both
at community meetings and through ongoing communications with the
CLFN team.
3.1. Cultural consensus study
In the summer of 2018, members of the research team, including
one local researcher from CLFN, one CLFN staff and one university-
based researcher (NDB) conducted a cultural consensus study (Blair and
Lovecraft, 2020). This study was designed in partnership with the CLFN
research team, including consent protocols and best approaches to re­
spect community interview protocols. We also received ethics clearance
from the University of Saskatchewan (BEH# 17-253). Consensus ana­
lysis measures each individual's cultural competence (or knowledge of a
cultural truth), and predicts the culturally correct answers (Borgatti and
Daniel, 2011). Thus, consensus analysis aims to: (1) determine whether
there exists a cultural truth in a certain group, (2) assess the compe­
tence of individuals with respect to their cultural truth, and (3) de­
termine an “answer key” to a particular topic. It is important to note
that our study was exploratory recognizing that competence, as mea­
sured here, was highly contextual and in no way reflected an
1
The Cold Lake Fish Hatchery, operated by Alberta Environment and Parks,
opened on 23 May 1987. It is located on English Bay, 26 km north of the town
of Cold Lake. The hatchery produces fish to enhance walleye populations and to
sustain or introduce trout populations in provincial lakes. It can produce 16 to
25 million walleye fry, 1.4 million walleye fingerlings (in conjunction with a
satellite pond at Lac La Biche), 1.4 million rainbow trout and 550,000 lake trout
annually (Alta. For. Ld. Wild. n.d.).
N.D. Brunet, et al. The Extractive Industries and Society xxx (xxxx) xxx–xxx

Fig. 1. CLFN traditional territory (Denne Ni Nenne) in green with weapons range indicated. Reserve lands are in pink.

4
N.D. Brunet, et al. The Extractive Industries and Society xxx (xxxx) xxx–xxx

Table 1 In our study, 12 of the 20 respondents (60%) answered greater than

Cold Lake: totals for gender, age, number of fish caught per year and number of 90% of the survey statements. An arbitrary rule is to allow up to 10%
fish consumed per year (n = 20). missing responses per respondent as outlined by Weller (2007), but
Gender Frequency (n) Percentage % because of the small sample size, we set our cut-off point to 20%, and
excluded individuals who had greater than 20% missing responses. Two
Male 12 60 of the 20 respondents had greater than 20% missing responses; with
Female 8 40
their removal our sample size for the consensus analysis was 18.
Other 0 0
Age (years) Frequency (n) Percentage %
18–29 1 5 3.3. Fish toxicology and health study
30–39 1 5
40–49 5 25
The research team, led by the FM from CLFN, conducted the first
50–59 5 25
≥60 8 40
fish sampling in the summer of 2017 on Cold Lake with four community
Annual number of fish caught Frequency (n) Percentage % research assistants who were trained by TDJ and PDJ (Permit #17-3403
1–99 4 20 RL). The intent was to conduct chemical and biological measurements
100–499 8 40 that would match a subset of the questions posed in the cultural con­
>500 8 40
sensus study, namely potential predator–prey interactions between lake
Annual number of fish consumed Frequency (n) Percentage %
1 per month 3 15 trout and whitefish and concentrations of contaminants in these spe­
1 per week 7 35 cies.
2–5 per week 10 50 Fish were caught with 5.5 inch nets set overnight in English Bay of
Total 20 100
Cold Lake using traditional methods and knowledge to define the site
for harvest. The objective of sampling was to replicate as closely as
possible the traditional harvest practices of CLFN members. Lake trout
individuals’ competence as a traditional knowledge holder or with re­
and lake whitefish dominated the catch and were the focus of the in­
gard to topics not covered in the survey tool (see Blair and
vestigation. CLFN staff inspected each fish harvested, and collected
Lovecraft, 2020). Based on its common usage in cultural consensus
length, weight and species information. A subset of 1–2 fish from each
analysis literature, we retained it within this manuscript.
net was held for detailed internal and external health exam, assessing
In our study, twenty CLFN members were surveyed in person,
potential deformities, lesions and tumors using the standard fish health
mostly by visiting participants at their homes, where the community
exam procedure supplied by Environment Canada. Muscle tissue was
researcher explained the project and obtained their consent prior to
removed and stored at −20 C, and bile was collected into centrifuge
participating in the study. We used a purposive sampling that was
tubes and stored at −80 C. Liver and gonad weights were collected.
identified by members of the CLFN research team and included First
Additional samples such as gill plate, scales, and liver were collected
Nation members from a broad spectrum of ages, levels of participation
and stored for future use.
in the Cold Lake fishery, experience in fish handling and preparation,
To partially assess the safety of fish for human consumption, we
and fish consumption. This approach yielded participants that were
analyzed the muscle samples for metals and PAHs. For metals, samples
active fishers, fish cutters and consumers of fish of all ages. In person
were digested in acid and analyzed by inductively-coupled plasma mass
surveys were in English and lasted between 30 min and 1 h. Our survey
spectrometry. Quality control was assessed by% recovery of standards
consisted of a series of questions co-designed locally and inspired by
(1640 and TORT4) analyzed alongside samples, which ranged from
previous cultural consensus studies of Indigenous fisheries (SeeTable 2;
81% to 106% for 24 metals. All concentrations are expressed as mg/kg
Naves et al., 2015; Grant and Miller, 2004). Questions included back­
dry weight. For PAHs, we extracted lipids in dichloromethane using a
ground information focusing mostly on behaviors related to fishing, fish
Soxhlet apparatus, concentrated the lipids and cleaned them in a mixed
preparation and consumption as well as gender and age group, as in­
bed silica column as described in Ohiozebau et al. (2017). Samples were
dependent variables. These questions were followed by a series of
analyzed using gas chromatography mass spectrometry on an Orbitrap
agree/disagree statements (see Tables 2 and 3). Responses were written
ultrahigh-resolution mass spectrometer.
directly on the sheet. Beyond filling out the survey form, we asked
To understand potential predator–prey relationships between lake
respondents for additional comments in support of their responses.
trout and lake whitefish and their habitat use, we used stable isotopes of
Notes were taken by hand during the survey and informed our discus­
carbon (δ13C) and nitrogen (δ15N). Stable carbon isotopes reveal fora­
sion.
ging locations for fishes because pelagic (offshore) δ13C tends to be
lower than littoral (nearshore) δ13C (Vander Zanden and Rasmussen,
3.2. Cultural consensus analysis 1999). To confirm that this pattern held in Cold Lake, we also collected
zooplankton and benthic invertebrates to represent the pelagic and
We followed the approach suggested by Romney et al. (1986) up­ littoral zones, respectively. Zooplankton were collected at two locations
dated by Naves et al. (2015) to explore how the observed variation in approximately 1 km offshore using vertical hauls of a 250 μm mesh
respondent perceptions with regard to fish health and safety are rooted plankton net, and benthic invertebrates were collected along the
in culture. Our consensus analysis was performed by first creating a shoreline at three locations with 250 μm D-frame kick nets. Zoo­
person-by-person agreement matrix, which indicated the level of plankton and benthic invertebrates also served as baseline organisms to
agreement between each respondent. Factor analysis on the agreement calculate trophic position of the fishes because δ15N increases pre­
matrix resulted in a set of eigenvectors and associated eigenvalues dictably with each step in the food chain (Post, 2002).
(Borgatti and Daniel, 2011). A high ratio between the first and second All samples were stored frozen, then dried, ground and weighed to
eigenvalues (3 to 1 or greater as a general rule of thumb) indicated that ~1 mg for stable isotope analysis. Samples were combusted in a PDZ
the solution has a single dimension, thus indicating a high degree of Europa ANCA-GSL elemental analyzer and gases delivered to a PDZ
agreement among individuals and providing evidence for a common Europa 20–20 isotope ratio mass spectrometer. Isotope ratios are ex­
cultural truth. UCINET, a software package for the analysis of social pressed as delta values (δ) according to: δ X = [(Rsample/
network data, provided the eigenvalue ratio and associated factor Rstandard)−1]*1000 where Rsample is the ratio of heavy to light isotopes
loadings (or competence scores), and the culturally correct answer key, in the sample and Rstandard is the ratio of heavy to light isotopes in an
thus addressing the three objectives listed above (Borgatti et al., 2002; internationally accepted standard reference material – Peedee
Weller, 2007). Belemnite carbonate for δ13C and atmospheric nitrogen for δ15 N.

5
N.D. Brunet, et al. The Extractive Industries and Society xxx (xxxx) xxx–xxx

Table 2
Responses to survey statements regarding fish and Cold Lake. Respondents ‘Disagreed’ or ‘Agreed’ to the following statements (% of n = 20) and culturally correct
answer key revealed by our analysis – ‘correct answer’ identified in gray.
Statement Agree Disagree Missing

S1. Fish caught in Cold Lake are safe to eat. 80* 5 15

S2. If Cold Lake is healthy, then all of the fish in it will be healthy too. 65* 30 5
S3. There are more unhealthy fish in Cold Lake now then 25 years ago. 45 40 10
S4. I trust scientific information regarding fish in Cold Lake. 60* 20 20
S5. I trust the knowledge of CLFN elders and fishermen more than scientific 55* 35 10
studies.
S6. The way the government manages fishing ensures that there is enough 35 55* 10
healthy fish for people now and for the future (Gov. does a good job)
S7. Catch and release practices help to make sure there is enough fish for 40 50 10
everyone.
S8. CLFN fishermen and elders have important knowledge that can help to 95* 0 5
manage fish in Cold Lake.
S9. By harvesting fish, CLFN keeps the fish healthy in Cold Lake. 85* 10 5
S10. There are both hatchery lake trout and native lake trout in Cold Lake. 80* 15 5
S11. Hatchery lake trout are an important part CLFN's fish harvest. 25 50 25
S12. Hatchery lake trout are bad for native trout populations. 45 25 30
S13. Lake trout in Cold Lake are being overfished for recreational/sport fishing purposes. 20 70* 10
S14. Lake trout in Cold Lake are being overfished by Indigenous people. 0 95* 5
S15. Lake trout in Cold Lake are being overfished by non-Indigenous fishermen. 20 70* 10
S16. Lake trout are smaller in size now than they were 25 years ago. 45 35 15
S17. There are more lake trout in Cold lake now than 25 years ago. 75* 15 10
S18. Whitefish are smaller in size now than they were 25 years ago. 30 60* 10
S19. There were more whitefish in Cold lake now than 25 years ago. 25 65* 5
S20. Lake trout are eating whitefish (or High lake trout numbers mean low 45* 30 5
whitefish numbers)
S21. Recreational use of Cold lake impacts CLEN fishing for their family (boating, kayaking, outboard engines in general) 80* 20 0
S22. Contamination from air force activities affects fish quality in Cold lake 65* 25 0
S23. Contamination from oil development affects fish quality in Cold lake 80* 15 0
S24. Chemicals in fish flesh means that there is contamination from industry. 85* 5 5
S25. The health of fish affects the health of other animals. 80* 20 0
S26. Fishing allows you to feel connected to your culture. 90* 10 0

* denotes that the result was significant (p-value ˂ 0.05).

Table 3 enrichment factor and was estimated as 3.4‰ (Post 2002).

Concentrations (mg/kg dry weight) of trace metals in muscle tissue of lake trout We also calculated a BaP equivalent concentration by applying
and lake whitefish in Cold Lake, Alberta, Canada, with associated limit of de­ compound-specific potencies summarized in three sources
tection (LOD). (Collins et al., 1998; Larsen and Larsen 1998; United States
Trace metal Lake trout Lake whitefish LOD Environmental Protection Agency, 2010). These potency values are
relative to the known carcinogen BaP (which is assigned a value of 1)
Ag 0.002 ± 0.002 0.003 ± 0.005 0.003
and range from 0.0005 (naphthalene, Larsen and Larsen, 1998) to 30
Al 3.123 ± 6.844 2.069 ± 3.784 0.02
As 0.882 ± 0.477 1.648 ± 0.803 0.004
(Dibenzo[a,l]pyrene, United States Environmental Protection Agency,
B 0.262 ± 0.271 0.212 ± 0.342 0.147 2010). Other compounds that have been assigned potencies greater
Ba 0.084 ± 0.217 0.092 ± 0.141 0.005 than 1 include Dibenzo[a,h]anthracene, 5-methylchrysene, Dibenzo
Cd 0.003 ± 0.000 0.005 ± 0.008 0.002 [a,e]pyrene, Dibenzo[a,i]pyrene and Dibenzo[a,h]pyrene. From these
Co 0.004 ± 0.003 0.004 ± 0.003 0.004
BaP equivalent concentrations, we calculated daily BaP equivalent in­
Cr 0.357 ± 0.634 0.334 ± 0.502 0.027
Cu 1.199 ± 0.379 0.921 ± 0.398 0.019 take (ng day−1) according to a maximum expected consumption of
Fe 32.365 ± 22.445 26.745 ± 28.370 0.009 three servings of fish per day (227 g). We then estimated lifetime cancer
Hg 0.793 ± 0.667 0.304 ± 0.329 0.001 risk using the formula in Xia et al. (2010).
Mn 0.792 ± 1.035 0.952 ± 0.672 0.001
Mo 0.025 ± 0.057 0.022 ± 0.024 0.004
Ni 0.155 ± 0.060 0.105 ± 0.060 0.125 4. Results
Pb 0.012 ± 0.017 0.015 ± 0.015 0.002
Sb 0.004 ± 0.006 0.007 ± 0.010 0.001
Se 0.615 ± 0.160 0.694 ± 0.130 0.008
4.1. Cultural consensus study
Tl 0.006 ± 0.006 0.002 ± 0.001 0.001
U 0.001 ± 0.000 0.001 ± 0.000 <0.001 4.1.1. A description of participants (Table 1)
V 0.012 ± 0.019 0.029 ± 0.038 0.002 Overall, 80% of respondents reported catching more than 100 fish
Zn 13.868 ± 4.845 18.279 ± 14.069 0.008
per year, and 85% of the respondents consumed at least one fish per
week. Almost the entirety of the sample (≥95%) reported fishing on
To estimate proportion littoral feeding, we used a simple one-iso­ Cold Lake, cutting fish from Cold Lake, and cooking fish from Cold
tope, two source mixing model: Proportion littoral = (δ13Cconsumer – Lake, which is in line with our sampling strategy. 40% of respondents
δ13Cpelagic)/(δ13Clittoral – δ13Cpelagic) where δ13Cpelagic is the δ13C value were considered to be heavily engaged in fishing (>500 fish caught per
of zooplankton and δ13Clittoral is the δ13C value of benthic invertebrates. year category). 90% of respondents were over the age of 40.
To calculate trophic position (TP) we used TP = 2 + [δ15Nconsumer –
(δ15Nlittoral x Proportion littoral + δ15Npelagic x Proportion pelagic)]/ 4.1.2. Descriptive analysis of survey responses
Δ15N where δ15Npelagic is the δ15N value of zooplankton, δ15Nlittoral is Survey results can be found in Table 2 below. In summary, 80% of
the δ15N value of benthic invertebrates, and Δ15N is the trophic respondents believed fish caught in Cold Lake were safe to eat. Almost

6
N.D. Brunet, et al. The Extractive Industries and Society xxx (xxxx) xxx–xxx

all (95%) believed CLFN fishermen and elders have important knowl­
edge that can help manage fish in Cold Lake. Approximately 85% be­
lieved harvesting fish by the CLFN keeps fish in Cold Lake healthy.
None of the respondents believed Cold Lake is being over-fished by First
Nations people. Three-fourths believed there are more lake trout in
Cold Lake now than 25 years ago. 80% believed that recreational use of
Cold Lake impacts CLFN fishing for their families, that contamination
from oil development affected fish quality in Cold Lake, and that the
health of fish affected the health of other animals. Almost all (90%)
believed fishing allows you to feel connected to your culture.

4.1.3. Survey responses by demographics and fishing activity

No noticeable trend existed for survey statements by age, with the
exception of the perception of oil contamination affecting fish in Cold
Lake. All age groups believed contamination affects fish in Cold Lake,
except for some respondents older than 60 who feel that the extent and
depth of the lake ‘diluted’ pollution. Gender appeared to play a more
significant role on perceptions of Cold Lake fish, although an in depth Fig. 2. Dual isotope biplot of lake trout (solid squares), lake whitefish (open
exploration of this result would require further study. Men more often circles) and baseline organisms (zooplankton – shaded triangle, benthic in­
disagreed that catch and release practices help to make sure there is vertebrates – shaded diamond) in Cold Lake, Alberta, Canada.
enough fish for everyone (Women: 83% agreed; Men: 25% agreed). This
was similar to whether respondents believed the government manages
lowest and highest competencies came from those aged 60 and older
fishing appropriately to ensure there are healthy fish for people now
(Lowest: 0.279; Highest: 0.832). Our analysis also revealed the cultu­
and for the future (Women: 67% agreed; Men: 25% agreed). There was
rally ‘correct’ answers for the 26 survey statements (Table 2).
also discrepancy between the perceived size of lake trout and whitefish
today compared to 25 years ago (Women: 33% agreed lake trout are
4.2. Fish toxicology and health study
smaller, Men: 70% agreed lake trout are smaller; Women: 50% agreed
whitefish are smaller, Men: 25% agreed whitefish are smaller). Men
Of 682 fish caught for research purposes, none presented obvious
also reported fishing and consuming fish more often than females.
tumorous growths. Some individual fish had minor abnormalities, in­
Those who fish more often (>500 times/year) reported that fish
cluding misshapen or discolored organs, parasites, and cysts, but their
have not declined in health compared to 25 years ago (75%), while
overall frequency was low. CLFN staff did receive some deformed fish
those who fished <499 times per year reported this less often (22.2%).
from community members but because they were not caught as part of
Experienced fishers (>500 times/year) also believed more often that
the research activities their frequency cannot be estimated. One fish
lake trout are smaller than 25 years ago (83.3% agreed compared to
was harvested with skin lesions and was sent to the Canadian Wildlife
40% agreement among the <499 fish caught/year group). Conversely,
Health Cooperative at the University of Calgary for analysis. Initial
experienced fishers disagreed that whitefish are smaller than 25 years
examination suggested that the lesions were caused by traumatic injury
ago (100% disagreed compared to 45.5% disagreement among the
to the fish, possibly by water birds while the fish was trapped in the net.
<499 fish caught/year group).

4.1.4. Inferential consensus analysis of survey responses
For 20 of the 26 statements, there were significant differences (p <
0.05) from a 50:50 Agree/Disagree ratio suggesting strong consensus
among respondents. The only statements that were not different from
50:50 Agree/disagree, and hence the most contested among re­
spondents, were: ‘There are more unhealthy fish in Cold Lake now then
25 years ago’, ‘Catch and release practices help to make sure there is
enough fish for everyone’, ‘Hatchery lake trout are an important part of
CLFNs fish harvest’, ‘Hatchery lake trout are bad for native trout po­
pulations’, ‘Lake trout are smaller in size now than they were 25 years
ago’, and ‘Lake trout are eating whitefish (or High lake trout numbers
mean low whitefish numbers)’. The large number of significant differ­
ences suggests that the questions were not answered randomly by re­
spondents (Table 2). We assessed cultural consensus by verifying if
responses respected the convention whereby the largest eigenvalue is
three times larger than the next largest (See Borgatti and Daniel, 2011
for details). In our study, the mean ratio of all participant scores was
larger than three (ratio=3.419). This provided evidence that the
sample shared a cultural truth regarding Cold Lake. UCINET provided a
top value of 5.836 and a second largest value of 1.107.
4.1.4. Competence of individuals and answer key
UCINET also provided the “competence” (or an individual's
“knowledge” of the shared cultural truth). The competence reflects the
probability that a given respondent knows the culturally ‘correct’ an­
swer. While we may have expected higher competence in older fishers
because of their experience with the fishery, we note that both the
4.2.1. Trophic levels of two key species- whitefish and lake trout
Zooplankton had lower δ13C (mean = −31.3 ± 0.2‰ SD) than
benthic invertebrates (mean = −22.9 ± 2.1‰ SD) (Fig. 2), sup­
porting the use of δ13C as a tool to separate feeding areas for fishes in
Cold Lake. The two fish species had δ13C values that fell within this
range defined by the baseline organisms, and both species had in­
dividuals that spanned the range of Proportion littoral (Fig. 2) from
0.02 to 1.05, with similar mean values (Lake trout = 0.49 ± 0.13 SD,
Lake whitefish = 0.58 ± 0.26 SD). This signified that the two species
had overlapping habitats and each had individuals that were feeding in
nearshore and offshore areas.
Zooplankton had slightly higher δ15N (4.9 ± 0.1‰) than benthic
invertebrates (3.3 ± 1.3‰) (Fig. 2). Lake trout had higher TP
(mean = 4.6 ± 0.2 SD) than lake whitefish (mean = 3.9 ± 0.2 SD),
and TP increased only weakly with body size in both species (Lake
trout: r2 = 0.21, p = 0.061, n = 17; Lake whitefish: r2 = 0.14,
p = 0.224, n = 12, data not shown). Largest trout were approximately
one TP above whitefish, suggesting a predator–prey relationship
(Fig. 2).
4.2.2. Fish toxicology
Concentrations of trace metals ranged from a low of below detection
(<0.002 µg/kg) for U in both species to a high of 32.4 µg/kg for Fe in
lake trout (Table 3). Several metals, including Ag, Cd, Co, Mo, Ni and Sb
were below or just above detection. Most metals were similar between
the two species with the exception of Hg, which was higher in lake trout
likely owing to its higher TP (Table 3). Mean concentrations of Hg were

7
N.D. Brunet, et al. The Extractive Industries and Society xxx (xxxx) xxx–xxx

Table 4 5.1. Fish are safe to eat?

PAH concentrations (ng g−1 wet mass) in muscle tissue of lake trout (n = 16)
and lake whitefish (n = 10) from Cold Lake, AB. Half-detection limit was Our approach revealed that fish were relatively safe to eat and po­
substituted for non-detectable concentrations. pulations were relatively healthy. This answered the central goal of our
Lake trout Lake whitefish study and a main priority expressed by CLFN members in engaging in
Mean SD Mean SD this project. Our study of trophic levels occupied by lake trout and
whitefish also revealed interesting findings with important ramifica­
Naphthalene 48.3 49.4 43.8 36.3
Acenapthene 0.5 0.1 1.4 2.9
tions for community fishing practices. We found, for instance, that lake
Fluorene 29.2 25.2 30.3 19.0 trout are likely feeding upon whitefish as they occupy a higher position
Anthracene 7.2 4.0 3.8 1.7 in the food chain (S20). Beyond management practice used to control
Fluoranthene 18.5 8.1 15.3 8.2 harvest levels, we can speculate that this effect has increased pressure
Pyrene 8.9 3.8 12.4 14.9
on whitefish populations, contributing to an increase in population size
Cyclopenta[c,d,]pyrene 0.5 0.1 0.7 0.8
Benzo[a]anthracene 0.9 0.6 0.7 0.3 for lake trout in the systems under study (S17 and S19). It may also
Chrysene 2.0 0.6 1.9 1.9 explain why CLFN members found lake trout body size to have in­
5 methyl-chrysene 0.4 0.3 0.4 0.3 creased over time (S16). This phenomenon would require further study.
0.2 0.1 0.2 0.1
Σbenzofluoranthenes
Our toxicological assessments found that lead, mercury, and arsenic
Benzo[a]pyrene ND ND
Indeno[1,2,3-c,d]pyrene 0.9 1.9 1.2 2.7
concentrations were below federal consumption guidelines for the two
Dibenzo[a,h]anthracene ND ND most consumed species of fish, whitefish and lake trout. However,
Benzo[g,h,i]perylene 3.2 4.2 2.9 3.7 overall summed concentrations of PAHs were higher in Cold Lake fish
Dibenzo[a,l]pyrene 0.9 1.2 0.8 0.8 relative to those in the Athabasca and Slave Rivers (Ohiozebau et al.,
Dibenzo[a,e]pyrene 1.3 1.7 0.7 0.6
2017). This could be due to higher background concentrations, phy­
Dibenzo[a,i]pyrene 0.6 0.3 ND
Dibenzo[a,h]pyrene ND ND siological differences in lacustrine vs. riverine fishes, the presence of
∑PAHs 124.7 55.0 118.1 59.0 human activity (vehicle traffic, etc.), natural factors such as forest fires,
or higher local inputs from oil and gas activity. As a comparison, con­
SD = standard deviation, ND = non-detect. centrations were in the range of values for carp in Poyang Lake, China
(Zhao et al., 2014) and multiple taxa in Lake Michigan (Levengood and
below the recommended consumption guideline for subsistence Schaeffer, 2011), but below those for a heavily contaminated Ohio river
(0.2 µg/kg wet weight, equivalent to 0.8 µg/kg dry weight assuming (Baumann and Harshbarger, 1995) and higher than multiple species in
75% moisture) according to Health Canada. Arsenic concentrations the Three Gorges Reservoir, China (Wang et al., 2016). Given this, we
were higher than expected but remained below Canada Food Inspection found that the increase in lifetime cancer risk is on par with other lo­
Agency's action level of 3.5 µg/kg wet weight (~14 µg/kg dry weight). cations where PAHs were measured in food, although our study only
Lead concentrations were well below CFIA's action level of 0.5 µg/kg examined fish and not other foods that can sometimes have high PAH
wet weight (~2 µg/kg dry weight). Other metals lack guideline values concentrations (e.g. barbequed or smoked meat) and other foods with
for comparison. lower concentrations but consumed in greater quantities (Xia et al.,
Concentrations and PAH profiles were similar in the two fish spe­ 2010). A fuller examination of PAH exposure and associated risk would
cies, with naphthalene, fluorene, fluoranthene and pyrene as the con­ come from examining a full suite of regularly eaten foods in the com­
geners with the highest concentrations (Table 4). Benzo[a]pyrene and munity, to put the fish results in perspective.
dibenzo[a,h]anthracene were both below detection limits. Mean The cultural consensus survey provided a more nuanced under­
SumPAH concentrations were 125 and 118 ng/g wm for lake trout and standing of fish consumption safety issues, which we explore further in
whitefish, respectively. Mean BaP equivalent concentrations were only Section 5.2. Experienced fishers found that the health and size of fish in
3.9 ng/g wm when using the Larsen and Larsen (1998) potency Cold Lake to be generally good and unchanged. However, our study
equivalents, but were 24.7 ng/g wm when applying the also revealed that more abnormal fish were being caught than in the
Collins et al. (1998) potencies and 35.6 ng/g wm when using United past, citing small increases in tumors, changes in flesh consistency and
States Environmental Protection Agency (2010). This discrepancy was unusual livers, which were still considered anomalous (S3). No long-
driven largely by the Dibenzopyrenes which are assigned strong po­ term scientific data are available on the frequency of these abnormal­
tencies by Collins et al. (1998) and USEPA (2010), and which were ities, highlighting the value of local expert knowledge as a better in­
detectable in five of the 26 samples tested. We estimated daily intakes dicator of ecosystem state (Jardine 2019). Similarly, Cott et al. (2018)
ranging from ~900 ng of BaP equivalents per day to ~8100 ng of BaP found that methods rooted in traditional knowledge accurately assessed
equivalents per day. These resulted in lifetime cancer risks between the quality of livers in fish by selecting for the most nutritious (high
7 × 10−5 and 6 × 10−4, or an increase between 1 in 100,000 and 1 in lipid levels) and safest (low parasite loading) food. However, our study
10,000 cases. did reveal important differences in knowledge regarding fish abnorm­
ality characteristics and frequencies which may be linked to our sam­
pling process, where individuals with a broad range of relationships to
5. Discussion fishing and fish were interviewed. A more targeted approach to identify
community fishing experts may be needed to address the gap in mea­
This discussion focuses on our main objectives, namely to explore suring historical changes in fish populations acknowledging that these
fish consumption safety, and associated health risks, identified by CLFN individuals may be best suited to hold traditional knowledge in this
staff, local fishers and knowledge holders as important issues of con­ specific area (see Ostertag et al., 2018).
cern. Our intention was not to compare findings of the two studies but
to allow their complementarities to form a single cohesive narrative 5.2. Fish consumption is causing health issues?
resulting from our approach. Through this process, we sought to better
inform fisheries management practices while respecting local knowl­ Interestingly, our study also suggested that oil sands development
edge, culture and rights to access land, water and country foods. We and military activities, including previous DDT use, as well as water
end with a review of the contributions of this study to undertaking withdrawals from municipalities and industry, were having an impact
multiple evidence base fisheries research. on fish consumption safety regardless of toxicity levels and a strong
consensus that fish were safe to eat (S1) reported above. CLFN members

8
N.D. Brunet, et al.
indicated in conversation and during community meetings that high
levels of contamination by oil and military activities on water and fish
were associated with increased incidences of human health issues in­
cluding cancers and digestive issues. The association between industrial
contaminants and the incidence of cancer has been explored in other
Oil Sands communities where cases overall were found to be higher
than expected although causal effects were not clear, which our results
also seem to indicate (Alberta Cancer Board, 2009). We believe that this
widely shared understanding is rooted in some measure of truth, and is
further supported by the PAH results. A justified lack of trust in settler
governments, including provincial fisheries management strategies and
actors may also underpin these views. Other systemic problems ex­
acerbating trust issues were also identified by CLFN members including
poor communication by regional fisheries biologists regarding the
status of local fisheries, misinformation being perpetuated within the
community, and most importantly, a lack of resources invested in re­
search to address local concerns regarding long term human health
impacts of industrial and military activities in the area (see
Westman and Joly, 2019).
Given this, CLFN members were eager to be heard and were
searching for possible explanations for changes in the severity and types
of local health issues experienced by themselves and family. Consuming
fish, although considered relatively safe both locally and according to
our toxicological research, was still considered a possible culprit. A
potential explanation for this could be a widely held community un­
derstanding that finding one deformed fish (externally or internally)
and other subtler cues can be indicators of overall population health
and associated risks for consumption. Similarly, Ostertag et al. (2018)
found that harvesters through extensive experience and observation can
establish if belugas are healthy where scientific tools may fail to detect
obvious issues. Apparent contradictions in traditional vs scientific ap­
proaches to measuring the relative importance of these events posed an
important challenge in applying our approach and are commonly re­
ported (e.g. Cott et al., 2018). In listening to these concerns, we also
learnt that the distrust of government extended to the federal con­
sumption guidelines for fish with regard to a variety of toxins including
Mercury and PAHs. Some felt that these guidelines were not accurate
for traditional daily consumption of country foods including fish, and as
such, doubted, with reason, that heavy fish consumption could not be
linked to systemic health issues in the community
(Health Canada, 2007).
5.3. Towards a Multiple Evidence Base approach in the management of
CLFN fisheries?
Although the human dimension of this study used a social science
tool where responses were predominantly quantified using a reduc­
tionist approach (see Smith, 2012 and Blair and Lovecraft, 2020 for
some criticisms), participants shared valuable local Indigenous knowl­
edge of the current state of fish populations as well as long-term ob­
servations. Combining this in-depth local understanding of natural
processes with our community-led scientific study of fish population
health and toxicology yielded some promising results as with previous
studies such as Ostertag et al. (2018) where both scientific and tradi­
tional indicators have been successfully deployed in monitoring.
Importantly, we found that the use of varied approaches and
knowledge types within this community driven effort contributed to
furthering our understanding of the tangible expression of a Multiple
Evidence Base approach (Tengö et al., 2014, 2017). According to
Tengö et al. (2014), this approach “proposes parallels where in­
digenous, local, and scientific knowledge systems are viewed to gen­
erate different manifestations of valid and useful knowledge” (p. 580).
Further, Berkes (2008) argues that both science and Indigenous
knowledge are “legitimate in [their] own right, within [their] own
context; each has its own strengths…in parallel enriching one another
as needed” (p. 292). This understanding attempts to overcome the
9
The Extractive Industries and Society xxx (xxxx) xxx–xxx
many decades of failed ‘integration’ (Cruikshank, 2005; Cuerrier et al.,
2015) by breaking down the dichotomous view of traditional versus
scientific knowledge which compartmentalises worldviews and, ac­
cording to many, perpetuates exclusion and oppression (Agrawal, 1995;
Nadasdy, 1999). Although achieving this in practice is challenging
given the institutional frameworks within which environmental mon­
itoring is embedded, there has been progress in this area
(Yunupingu and Muller, 2009)
A Multiple Evidence Base approach has many strengths, including:
the acknowledgement of power asymmetries between Indigenous
knowledge and science (Derkzen and Bock, 2007); and the recognition
that each knowledge system cannot be fully translated into one another
(Tengö et al., 2012). For example, in Australia, the concept of ‘caring
for Country’ is often translated into ‘Indigenous land and sea manage­
ment’; which often neglects that “Country encompasses biophysical,
spiritual, cultural, kinship relation, survival, and ancestral domains”
(Austin et al., 2018: p. 377). Other examples of other Indigenous-led
approaches to knowledge co-production are also documented: Two-
Eyed Seeing (Bartlett et al., 2012); Ethical Space (Ermine, 2007); Two-
Way Knowing in Australia (Muller, 2012; Preuss and Dixon, 2012) and
more recently, ScIQ in Nunavut, Canada (Aaluk et al., 2019). These
approaches are much more than a matter of using different knowledge
types: they often focus on the revitalization of Indigenous ontologies
and epistemologies in order to support the consideration of Indigenous
identity and livelihoods (Bang et al., 2013; Kovach, 2010;
Johnson et al., 2016). In our work, emerging challenges with regard to
differences between scientific findings and traditional knowledge were
confronted openly and resolved through dialog, at times tense. Al­
though likely imperfect, the resulting shared understanding provided
our central narrative validated by CLFN members during community
meetings and through the development of this manuscript.
In Eastern parts of Canada, Mi'kmaq communities and organizations
are also developing capacity building strategies in order to decolonize
Indigenous resource management (McMillan and Prosper, 2016). A
community driven research organization was created to promote co-
learning in all aspects of community life and environmental governance
with a mandate to integrate scientific research with Mi'kmaq knowl­
edge acquisition, utilization and protection (UINR, 2009). A common
theme in these recent efforts has been the emphasis on Indigenous ca­
pacity building to design and implement environmental management
strategies on traditional lands. Our experiences during this study con­
firm that strong community capacity and leadership in research can
lead to more meaningful outcomes when navigating the use of different
ontologies in developing a single monitoring plan (Thompson et al.,
2020).
In conclusion, our study revealed that many areas of convergence
exist between community needs, experiences and knowledge, and the
results of western science based toxicological and population studies in
developing a community-led fish monitoring program. These areas of
agreement could provide the basis for shared dialog, negotiation and
understanding between the many actors involved in regional fisheries
management as communities such as Cold Lake First Nations respond to
the many forces of change affecting their traditional territory, culture
and economy for years to come.
Funding
Funding provided through a research agreement with the
Government of Alberta, Environment and Parks: 18GRAEM22 to D.C.
Natcher. Additional financial support provided by the University of
Saskatchewan and the University of Guelph.
Acknowledgments
We would first like to thank Nicole Jacko who undertook most of
the interviews in CLFN and Nicole Nicholls for local project design and
N.D. Brunet, et al. The Extractive Industries and Society xxx (xxxx) xxx–xxx

coordination, undertaking a few surveys and for commenting ex­ Derkzen, P., Bock, B., 2007. The construction of professional identity: symbolic power in
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Ermine, W., 2007. The ethical space of engagement. Indigenous Law J. 6 (1), 193–203.
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Freudenburg, W.R., 1992. Vulnerable localities in a changing world economy. Rural.
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