Part Two

English Language Grammar Lecture Seven:

Standard Pattern of the English Sentence Lecture Eight: Types
of Sentence
Lecture Nine: Formal Agreement in the Sentence
Lecture Ten: Common Errors in English
Lecture Eleven: Text Cohesion
 LECTURE SEVEN

THE STANDARD PATTERN OF AN ENGLISH SENTENCE

7.1 INTRODUCTION
When we communicate with other people in speech or writing we always do so by
using one or more units of information. The most basic of these units contains a
complete utterance and is formed according to a certain definite pattern. The unit
we are referring to is the sentence.

OBJECTIVES

At the end of this lecture you should be able to: (i)

Define the sentence;
(ii) Identify a sentence in spoken and written discourse;
(iii) Describe the elements of a standard written English sentence;
(iv) Write accurate sentences following the standard pattern of English
sentence.

7.2 WHAT IS A SENTENCE

In writing, the acceptable convention stipulates that a sentence is a group words
which make sense and which are marked off by a capital letter at the beginning
and a period, a question mark or an exclamation point at the end. While in spoken
language, the boundaries of a sentence are described in Gardener’s definition
(Theory of Speech and Language …… p. 98). A sentence is a word or a set of
words followed by a pause and revealing an intelligible purpose. In the following
sections of this lecture we will focus our attention more on the definition of a
written sentence.

According to the description above, a sentence may be made up of one or more

words. One-word sentences despite being less commonly used are a very
significant phenomenon in normal communication. It is important therefore that
we also examine the types and uses of these one-word sentences.

7.3 ONE-WORD SENTENCES

The commonly used one-word sentences are of the following types:

7.3.1 Exclamations
These are remarks used to signal strong emotion. They express surprise, anger,
fear, joy, gratitude, like. What! Danger! Thanks!

7.3.2 Imperatives
These are remarks that express commands, requests and are used to give orders or
directions. Example, Stop, Look, Quickly, Steady.

7.3.3 Vocatives
These are remarks that refer to particular persons as sentence they are used to draw
someone’s attention like: Mother!. Teacher! Agnes!

7.3.4 Others
These include single word remarks intended to express a variety of intentions like
questions (What? Where? Why? Who? )
Question (Yes! OK!. Sure! True! Certainly
Disagreement (no., impossible., never.)
As you may have correctly figured from the examples shown above, the meanings
of these sentences can only be intelligible in connection with a particular situation
shared by the speakers or with a statement made, or a question asked in another
sentence.
7.4 STANDARD SENTENCE ELEMENTS
A common phenomenon in normal communication are sentences which consist of
more than one word.

7.4.1 What is the Standard Pattern of an English Sentence

Let us now look at the form of such sentences. A Standard English sentence
consisting more than one word by the rule, is comprised of two nuclei or main parts.
One indicating the person or thing about whom or which the sentence is made or a
question is asked and the other containing the statement or the question being made.
The two nuclei constitute the two main parts of a sentence. The part containing
words indicating the thing or person referred to is called the subject of the sentence:
Whereas the other part that contains the statement or the question of the sentence is
called the predicate.

Example 7.1
Subject Predicate
Benson has arrived from the USA My
uncle is allergic to cigarette smoke
France may win the 2006 world cup
Fadhili’s car was stolen last night
The old doctor treated the ailing woman
My sister married young
(you) bring me the report
She chased away the wizards
Who chased the wizards?

In the sentences above we can clearly see the two parts of the sentence. It should
not, however, mean that in every sentence, the subject part must always come
before the predicates as the following examples show the subject of the sentence
does not have a definite place in a sentence. It can occur in the beginning, the
middle or as in the case of question sentences, the subject can appear in the end of
the sentence.

Examples 7.2:
1. In the middle of the night the thief was arrested.
2. There was little water in the pot.
3. Where is the supermarket?
4. Since when has Katembo been captain?
5. Did the prime minister attend the conference in Venezuela?
6. (You) Collect all rubbish from the garden
EXERCISES

Some of the groups of words listed below are sentences while others
are not. Distinguish sentences from mere groups of words. Discuss
your decisions with your colleague.
1. Small children with big stomachs.
2. Walking along the hedges of the compound and admiring goldfish
in the pond.
3. The smoke in the kitchen made me choke.
4. The most respected student in our school.
5. A terrible headache the morning after the party.
6. The young children in our school.
7. David Maillu wrote five books before he was thirty
8. The game of pool is becoming popular in Tanzania.
9. Ghana lost a decisive world cup match to Brazil.
10. Dived in deep sea water and survived.

In writing, a sentence is marked off by a capital letter at the beginning and a

question mark, a fullstop or an exclamation mark at the end. Within these two
boundaries, every sentence ought to contain a subject and a predicate that fit
together to make a statement, ask a question or give a command.

7.4.2 The Subject

The subject is that part of the sentence which has as its headword a nominal that is
either a noun, pronoun, a noun phrase or noun clause. In some cases the subject is
realized as a verbial which acts as a noun, especially the gerund.

Example 7.3:
1. Ahmed asked many questions. (noun)
2. She asked to see her children. (pronoun)
3. The beautiful bride walked gracefully. (noun phrase)
4. Why we intend to see the minister is well explained. (noun clause)
5. Writing stories has been Bertha’s hobby since her school days. (gerund)

TAKE NOTE

The noun clause is not the same as a noun phrase. The two are different.
The noun clause is a dependent clause which is used like a
noun, as a subject or object of the sentence.

Example 7.4:
That John became our leader is a known fact
NOUN CLAUSE

The noun phrase on the other hand is a group of related words in which the noun is
a head word but unlike the clause lacks a subject predicate combination.

Example 7.5:
I saw the slim girl over the wall
NOUN PHRASE

The subject as you may have noted in the examples above may appear as a single
word or as a group of words. When the subject is group of words it is called a
complete subject that is, it is a combination of the headword which is the main
focus of the sentence and modifiers that qualify the head word. The headword of
the subject alone is called the simple subject.

Example 7.6:
The two old men who killed the buffalo were praised.
Complete subject: The two old men who killed the buffalo
Simple subject: men

In the following sentences the complete subject is shown in italics, the simple
subject is shown in bold.

Example 7.7:
1. The two bathrooms at the end of the corridor were quite filthy.
2. My aunt Kylie Atuku is a wonderful woman
3. The three hundred shillings I borrowed were for my fees
4. He new Japanese-made car is broken again
5. The village of Makowa is five miles away

Sometimes you also have a compound subject. This is the subject of a sentence
that is made up by joining together more than one element.

Example 7.8:
1. Fruits, Vegetables and other foodstuffs were cheap this morning.
2. Biscuits, sweets and chocolates are not good for children.
3. Nether History nor Geography was taught in my school.
4. Either Joan or her brother Nesta will be sent to bring the letter.

7.4.3 The Predicate

The predicate, as we have seen earlier, makes a statement about the subject. The
headword of the predicate may be any of the various types of the verb. (We will
study them in detail in the next lecture). These may be a finite verb, a linking verb
or a combination of a finite with a helping verb.

Example 7.9:
1. She failed to keep her appointment. (finite)
2. The guy you see over there is a thief. (linking)
3. The order to vacate has been given today. (finite with helping
verbs)

Like in the case of the subject, the predicate may also be either complete, simple
or compound. The complete predicate is made up of the verb together with all the
words that help it to make a statement about the subject. The verb alone in the
predicate constitutes the simple predicate of the sentence.

In the following sentences the complete predicate is shown in italic and the simple
predicate is in bold face.

Example 7.10:
1. Sarah repairs old diesel automobiles.
2. She quickly closed the door behind her.
3. The book has been very carefully printed.
4. The headache drove Marina nearly mad.

On the other hand the compound predicate is made of two or more verbs when
they are joined together by a conjunction. In the following examples the
compound predicate is shown in italics.

Example 7.11:
1. The villagers caught the thief and beat him up thoroughly
2. Her car was burnt and completely destroyed
3. The tsunami came in the morning and swept our entire village

More on compound subject and compound predicate will be discussed when we

come to the topic of grammatical agreement in sentences.

In the following sentences identify the subject and the predicate. Then distinguish
between simple and complete subject and between simple and complete predicate.

EXERCISES
1. The village in which I was born is called Mwala.
2. Teresita gave me an old coat of hers.
3. The brave captain was shot through the heart.
4. He bit his lips but said nothing.
5. In his right hand she carried a green bottle.
6. The dog at once knew his masters voice.
7. Mastura loved to read magazines and newspapers.

8. Will you decide what men shall live, what men shall die?
9. In a short time he rose to the rank of Colonel.
11. Men, women and children, in a word, the whole population of the township
had turned out to welcome the new president.
12. Write five sentences. Draw a dividing line between the complete subject and
complete predicate. Then draw a line under the simple subject and two lines under
the simple predicate.

Example
An unidentified flying object, appeared suddenly in the eastern sky.

OTHER PREDICATE ELEMENTS

We have said elsewhere that the verb is the most important word in the predicate.
This is because one has to have the verb in order to make a statement about a
subject. Without the verb there can be no statement. In a very simple sentence a
verb can stand alone as a predicate. But in most cases sentence predicates consist of
more words than the verb alone. It may also include other parts like objects,
complements and other words called modifiers whose work is to help describe
other elements.

7.4.4 The Object (0)

In some sentences we observe that the verb is followed by nouns or noun substitutes
that denote agents who are affected by the action of the verb, directly or
indirectly. Such nominal words are collectively called objects of the sentence.

Examples 7.12:
Carlos wrote a long letter.
Carlos wrote my mother a long letter.

In the sentences above a long letter is the element that is directly affected by the
action denoted by the verb. Whereas my mother is not that much affected.

In these examples a long letter is the direct object of the sentence and my mother
is the indirect object.

7.4.5 Direct Object (Od)

The direct object is the element in the sentence that tells us who or what directly
receives the action done by the subject and expressed by the verb.

Examples 7.13:
1. She bought an apple for twenty cents.
Verb Od
2. My father built a big house in Mafia.
Verb Od
3. He wrote the book last year.
Verb Od

The direct object is usually represented by a noun or a noun substitute such as a

pronoun, a gerund or a noun clause. It answers the question “who”, “what” about
the verb.

Examples 7.14:
1. I met President Kabila in Kisangani
Od
(The direct object is a noun Kabila; it answers the question WHO?)
2. In met him last year.
Od
(The direct object is a pronoun him; it answers the question WHO?)

3. Allan enjoys swimming at Koko beach.

Od
(The direct object is a gerund swimming. It answers the question
What)
4. I heard all what you said last night.
Od
(The direct object is a noun clause what you said. It answers the question
WHAT?

7.4.6 Indirect Object (Oil)

Sometimes, as we said earlier, the verb may have two objects, one which directly
receives the action of the verb and the second one which denotes to whom or for
whom the action is done.

Examples 7.15:
We bought Margareta a kilo of meat
Od

In this sentence meat is actually what was bought. It is the element that receives
the direct action of the verb hence is the direct object. But note that the meat was
bought for Margareta. This element is the indirect recipient of the verb action. It
is the indirect object.

Examples 7.16:
1. The children sang us their national anthem.
Oi Od
(The indirect object answers the question FOR WHOM?
2. Jafaar sent Amina a golden ring.
Oi Od
(The indirect object answers the question TO WHOM?
EXERCISES

Identify the subject, direct object and indirect object in the following
sentences. Discuss your decisions with your colleague.
1. Give me an hour and you will have the results.
2. The wind swept the smell of freshly roasted meat to our huts.
3. You must tell Katiza what your views are.
4. They bought the old man a new walking stick.
5. The retreating battalion sold us their weapons.
6. Domina showed them the secrets of the caves
7. Ask the Prime Minister your questions.
8. Aminata told Chama all her secrets
9. Heroes Day celebration gives us pride of our past
10. Madina cooked aunt Cecilia a delicious meal.
11. Madina cooked aunt Cecilia a delicious meal.

7.4.7 Complement
Not all predicates denote action some predicates denote existence of something
(like is, are) or indicate appearances or state of being (like look, seem, appear,
feel).
In predicates that denote existence, appearance or state of being, the nominal
words that follow the verb function to complete the descriptions of the subject or
the objects. In this way we have the subject complements and the object
complement.

(a) Subject Complements

These are words which add the description of the subject but are located on the
other side of the verb. The verb that joins a subject and its complement is called a
linking verb. Its function is to link or join a subject to some further description of
itself that is not included in the subject.

Examples 7.17:
John is a member of parliament.
(Here member of parliament describes the subject John.)
After lunch the children fell ill.
(In this sentence ill describes a state of being of the subject children.)
The soup tastes bitter.
(The complement bitter describes a feeling emanating from drinking the soup.)

(b) Object Complements

These are always nouns or adjective words which come immediately after direct
objects and help complete the description of the direct object.

Examples 7.18:
Zarina called her dog Domingo.
(The word Domingo qualifies the object dog)

Jose always liked his shorts dyed blue.

(dyed blue compliments the object shorts.)

Hamdani liked to keep his hair short.

(short describes the object hair.)
EXERCISES

Identify subject complements and object complements in the

sentences below:
1. In the evenings the compound was quiet and frightening.
2. We found Loba’s commodities cheap
3. I was often late to the evening classes.
4. In the morning I like my tea warm.
5. He fastened the ropes tight.
Write three sentences which have subject complements and three
sentences with object complements. Discuss your answer with your
colleague

SUMMARY

A sentence is a group of words which makes sense. It is able to

make sense because it is patterned in two parts of information. There
is a part which names the thing that is talked about, called the subject
and the part that makes a statement about the thing named called the
predicate. In writing, the sentence is marked off by a capital letter at
the beginning and a period, a question mark or an exclamation point
at the end. The subject and the object of the sentence can either be simple,
complete or compound. Other elements of the sentence are the object which can
be either direct or indirect and the complement which may also be complement of
the subject or complement of the
object.

LECTURE EIGHT

TYPES OF SENTENCES

8.1 INTRODUCTION
The main focus of this lecture is the understanding that the many sentences that we
hear or use everyday in our speech or writing differ in many ways and can be
classified accordingly. In this lecture we are going to learn the main criteria for
classifying sentences and identify the different types of sentences.

OBJECTIVES

At the end of this lecture you should be able to:

(i) Identify the main criteria for classifying sentences:
(ii) Classify sentences according to different categories of
classification:
(iii) Identify different types of sentences from written discourses: (iv)
Construct sentences of different type
8.2 SIGNIFICANCE OF SENTENCE TYPES
Knowledge of the types of sentences is important in improving your skill of
communication. It would make you be aware of the structure of sentences of
different varieties of texts you will be required to read and the ones you will be
required to write. Awareness of sentence types will thus increase your scope of
styles of sentences you may use in writing your academic essays and research
papers.

8.3 CLASSIFICATION OF SENTENCES

8.3.1 Criteria for Classifying Sentences
There are different bases upon which one may classify sentences. For the purpose
of this lecture we will examine two important criteria of classifying sentences.
These are the criterion of purpose of the sentence and the criterion of structure of
sentence. By purpose we mean what the sentence purports to say and by structure
we mean how it is constructed.

When we examine sentences from the criterion of purpose we can identify four
types of them: declarative, interrogative, imperative and exclamatory sentences.
And if we categorize sentences on the basis of their structure we come up with
simple, compound, complex and compound-complex sentences.

8.4 SENTENCE TYPES ACCORDING TO PURPOSE

Let us now examine one by one, types of sentences on this category.

8.4.1 Declarative Sentences

These are sentences that make statements. They are used to give information by
expressing facts, opinions or propositions. The statements in so doing may be
affirmative or negative that is they may state a fact or negate it.
Example 8.1
Sarah came yesterday. (affirmative)
Sarah did not (didn’t) come yesterday. (negative)

Negative sentences are characterized by a negative word, usually not.

Example 8.2
Rosana drove me home. (affirmative)
Rosana did note (didn’t) drive me home. (negative)

I will go home alone. (Affirmative)

I will not (won’t) go home alone. (negative)

In conclusion, one may say that declarative sentences are simply statements.
In writing they end with a full stop.

8.4.2 Interrogative Sentences

These sentences ask questions. They are used to seek information or request
permission. In writing they end with a question mark (?)

Example 8.3:
What is the most popular film?
Did the car cost you much?
Can I visit aunt Lisa this week?
How much did the car cost you?
As you can notice from the examples above, of all the questions that we ask there
have only two forms of asking. The first form is represented by the sentence.
Did the car cost you much? In this form of interrogative question the answer
elicited will be Yes/No. This type of sentences is called polar interrogative
sentence. It is referred to as polar because the answer it seeks to obtain is of
extreme nature, either ‘yes’ or ‘no’ other examples of polar interrogative sentences
are:

Example 8.4:
Do you like tea in the morning?
Can you do me a favour?
Should we visit aunt Lisa today?

Polar interrogative sentences usually begin with an auxiliary verb (can, should, do,
is, would)

The second type of interrogative sentences are called WH-Interrogative sentences.

These usually open with an interrogative pronoun (where, when, how, why, who)
and the answers expected are always a piece of information.

Example 8.5:
How did you come here?
When will we go to visit aunt Lisa?
Who spoke to the general manager of this office?
Why did you shoot him down?
Sometimes a question may take the form of a statement, especially when an
affirmative answer is expected:

(You have come alone?)

(You asked to see my ID?)

8.4.3 Imperative Sentences

These are sentences that express commands or requests. They are used to give
orders or directions. When a request is intended and not a command usually the
word ‘please’ is added.

Example 8.6:
Put your books on the shelf. (command)
Show your identity card, please .(request)
Come in everyday. (command)
You all take your seats, please. (request)

8.4.4 Exclamatory Sentences

These are sentences that connote strong feelings or emotions. They are used to
express anger, fear, shock, surprise joy and some other emotions. Exclamatory
questions always end with an exclamation mark (!)

Example 8.7:
Watch out, the roof is falling!
The lion has come out of its cage!
I don’t want to see you!
EXERCISES

Identify the type of the each of the following sentences. For

interrogative sentences state whether they are polar interrogatives or
wh-interrogatives.
1. Don’t speak to me like that again!
2. You didn’t see him in Tanga.
3. Didn’t you see him in Tanga?
4. The tea she served me was stale.
5. The mango trees are in full bloom?
6. From Dar es Salaam we drove south east to Utete
7. Would you show me your passport please?
8. Don’t fool with mother nature.
9. Nothing will ever change my mind now.
10. When did you arrive?

8.5 SENTENCE TYPES ACCORDING TO STRUCTURE

As stated in the beginning of this lecture the classification of sentences according
to structure identifies the following types:

8.5.1 Simple Sentence (S)

A simple sentence is a construction that contains only one clause which is
independent; i.e. able to stand alone grammatically.

Example 8.8:
The Prime Minister met with his cabinet for hours.

The term simple does not refer to shortness of the construction or simplicity of
structure; since a simple sentence may consist of several phrases. It may even
have compound subject and compound verb. The simplicity is based on the
number of clauses it contains. Such a construction can have a single clause
containing a subject and one main verb that together form a complete and clear
message.

Example 8.9:
The lion roared.
The principal secretary of the Ministry of Finance decided to prosecute all
defaulters of the newly introduced tax, VAT.
The naughty nursery school kids wanted toys from the missionary nuns.

These sentences are simple as they each contain only one independent clause and no
appended clauses.
8.5.2 Compound Sentences (Cd)
This is construction that consists of two or more independent clauses usually
joined together by a coordinating conjunction like and, but no, or for, yet, so.
Sometimes the clauses of the compound sentences are joined by a comma (,) a
colon (:) or a semicolon (;).

Example 8.10:
1. The sun burnt the earth but some crops thrived.
2. My father came home early and entered the house quietly.
3. The couple were in a hurry, she looked up the papers for advertisements, he
drove around inquiring and they finally located a house that suited them.

8.5.3 Complex Sentence (Cx)

This is the sentence that is composed of an independent clause and one or more
dependent clauses. An independent clause is one which can stand by itself as a
complete sentence. While a dependent clause cannot stand by itself to make
sense. A dependent clause is introduced by subordinating conjunction. In the
examples below the dependent clauses are shown in italic.
Example 8.11:
1. He came to see us because he wanted to borrow some money from us.
2. Halima asked us if we approved of what she had said.
3. Although Alinze was reputed to be the best wrestler of the land, he was
shamefully dethroned by an amateur athlete.

8.5.4 Compound-Complex (Cc)

This is a sentence that combines together the features of the compound sentence
and those of the complex sentence. The compound-complex sentence thus is
made up of two or more independent clauses and a least one dependent clause. In
the examples below, dependent clauses are shown in italics.

Example 8.12:
1. The soldiers came to our house, forced the door open and took whatever
document they saw.
2. After Musa had arrived home, the rain started to fall and it went on raining
until past midnight.
3. Salima met Twaha in town but she did not tell him what had happed back
home.

EXERCISES

Classify the following sentences as simple (s), complex (Cx),

compound (Cd) or compound-complex (Cc).
1. The bride herself remained cheerful throughout the party.
2. The morning went by quickly with the temperature rising to 95
degrees.
3. Hamza claimed that by staying awake at night, he could prepare
himself better for the examinations.
4. What we heard was not the sound of a big lorry but the noise of an elephant
pulling down a hut.
5. After we had talked for about an hour Celina began to fall asleep.
6. Roxanne had a choice between majoring in history or English.
7. The president will address the nation tonight because tomorrow is a public
holiday.
8. Have you ever imagined what you would do if you won a ten million
shillings lottery?
9. It is upsetting to see so many women, who could work, begging
for food for their children.

10. The street children represent a burden on the country and whoever
finds a solution to this problem deserves our praise.

11. Write two sentences of your own for each of the following sentence
types: declaratives, interrogative, imperative,
exclamatory, simple compound, complex and compound-
complex.
SUMMARY

Knowledge of the types of sentences is important in improving your

skill of communication. When you are aware of the structure and
purpose of sentence types, you will increase your scope of styles of
sentences you may use in writing your academic essays and research
papers.
Sentences can be classified along two criteria. On the criterion of
sentence purpose we identify the declarative, interrogative, imperative
and exclamatory sentences, while on the criterion of sentence structure
we identify the simple, compound, complex and compound - complex
sentences.
REFERENCES

Day, Susan, (1989), Reading and the writing Process. Macmillan

Publishing Company. New York.
Fennell, Francis, (1987), Collegiate English Handbook. Irwin
Homewoods. Illinois
Gere, A.R. (1988), Writing and Learning. Macmillan Publishing
Company. New York.
Howell, J. and D. Memering, (1986), Brief Handbook for Writers
Prentice-Hall Englewood Cliffs New Jersey

Lannon, John, (1988); The writing Process. Scott, Foresman and

Company. Boston.
Stoddard, TD et al, (1985), Effective Writing: A Practical Grammar
Review.
Zandvoort, R.W., (1962), A Handbook of English Grammar.
Longman’s Green and Co. Limited London.
 LECTURE NINE

FORMAL AGREEMENT IN THE SENTENCE

9.1 INTRODUCTION
The words that combine to form sentences that we write or speak everyday do so
by following definite conventions. This lecture intends to guide your into looking at
the principles which relate words-one to another, to produce intelligible sentences.
A number of such relationships exist in sentences hence a single lecture like
this one cannot exhaustively examine all the grammatical relations. However, for
the purpose of this lecture, we are going to examine only three kinds of formal
agreement principles which we consider to be of relevance toward enhancing
communication ability. The three types are: agreement of subject and verb;
agreement of pronoun (or possessive adjective) and its antecedent, and the
agreement of demonstrative adjectives, and the nouns that they correspond with.
agreement of demonstrative adjectives and the nouns that they correspond with.
OBJECTIVES

At the end of this lecture you should be able to: (i)

Define formal agreement;

(ii) Formulate sentences with correct formal agreement of subject and verb;

(iii) Construct sentences with appropriate formal agreement of pronoun and its
antecedent;

(iv) Write sentences with appropriate formal agreement of

demonstrative adjectives and the nouns they represent.
9.2 MEANING OF FORMAL AGREEMENT
The term formal agreement is used to refer to the grammatical relationship that
ought to exist between one word or phrase and another word or phrase that is
closely connected to it in a sentence. Such could be the relationship that exists
between a subject and a verb or a pronoun and its antecedent. Formal agreement
also referred to as concordial agreement, states the rules by which different
elements of the sentence are grammatically related one to another.

9.3 AGREEMENT OF SUBJECT AND VERB

The subject-verb agreement specifies the kind of relationship that should exist
between the subject of the sentence and its verb. It states how number and person
of the subject should be matched with that of the verb. By number we mean
whether the subject is singular or plural and by person we mean whether the
subject is in first, second or third person.

9.3.1 Agreement of Person and Number

In order to see how the verb agrees in person and number with its subject it is
helpful first to carefully study the following table showing different persons and
number.

FIRST PERSON SECOND PERSON THIRD PERSON

CASE Singular Plural Singular Plural Singular Plural
SUBJECTIVE I We You You She/He/It They
OBJECTIVE Me Us You You Her Them
Him
It
POSSESSIVE My Our Your Your Her Their
His
It
Table 1:1 Possessive and Subjective Case Pronouns
In this table only the person in the subjective and possessive cases are relevant to our
present discussion.

The main principle guiding how the subject and verb ought to match may be
summarized as follows: when the subject is plural its verb must be plural. When the
subject is in first, second or third person, the verb must match it.

Following below is an elaboration of this general principle. The suffix –s (or –es) on
the subject noun generally denotes that the noun is plural. The absence of the suffix
–s (or –es) on the subject noun generally denotes that the noun is singular.

Example 9.1:
Singular Verb Plural Verb
kicks (-s) kick breaks
(-s) break tries (-es)
try
does (es) do

Likewise the suffix –s (or –es) on the verb in the present tense usually signifies
that the verb is singular. The absence of the suffix –s (or –es) on the verb usually
tells that the verb is in plural.

Example 9.2:
Singular Noun Plural Noun
lesson (+s) lessons
valley (+s) valleys
mango (+es) mangoes
glass (+es) glasses

Principle 1: In the present tense singular subject nouns which usually do not end
in –s must accompany singular verbs which usually do end in –s
Example 9.3:
The hunter kills wild pig

Singular subject has no –s ending Singular verb has –es ending

The shed needs repair.

The bus passes very early.
The soldier walks many miles every day

The absence of the suffix –s (or –es) after the nouns shade, bus and soldier denotes
that all these subject nouns are singular. The suffix –s on needs, walks and then
suffix –es on passes show that all these verbs in the third person are singular.
Principle 2: Plural subject nouns which usually do end in –s (or –es) must be
accompanied by plural verbs which usually do not end in –s (or –es).

Example 9.4
The hunters kill wild pigs

Plural subject has s ending Plural verb has no -s ending

The shades need painting

The buses pass very early
The soldiers walk many miles everyday

The -es in shades, buses and -s in soldiers indicate that these subject nouns are all
plural. Similarly, the absence of the -s (or -es) on the verbs need, pass and walk
shows that they are all in plural.

TAKE NOTE

When singular subject nouns are followed by such expressions as well as, with,
accompanied by, together with they will take singular verbs. This is because the
phrases introduced by such expressions are not part of the subject. They are simply
elements which are introduced between the subject and the verb.

Example 9.5:
WRONG: The teacher, as well as the pupils were trapped in the cave
CORRECT: The teacher, as well as the pupils was trapped in the cave. WRONG:

Salma, accompanied by Dora were seen entering the night

club.

CORRECT: Salma accompanied by Dora was seen entering the night club.

Note that some nouns do not use the suffix –s to form plural forms. No matter
what the form is, a plural subject must require a plural verb. Following below are
some of the nouns which are not pluralized by adding the suffix –s.

Example 9.6: People

speak freely. Children
dream a lot.
Men come to see her daily
Oxen pull ploughs
EXERCISES

1. For each of the following sentences, identify the subject and

tell its person and number.
(a) The pollution of water resources is preceding rapidly.
(b) Some students question whether literature has any relevance
to them.
(c) A female student called out at night saying there was a thief
in the compound.
(d) A dog and a cat are seldom friends.
(e) Alina walked into the meeting hall late.
(f) When I am tired I go to sleep early.
(g) You seem to understand the trick well. (h)
They sang together the whole night.
(i) There song that moved us most was “I salute you”.
(j) My sister along with her friends danced throughout the night.
2. Choose the verb that matches well with the subject of each sentence in the
following passage.
People (says, say) that Domina, accompanied by Bertha (were, was) seen walking
quickly towards Kalima forest. The two girls are now reported missing. The
police are questioning Albert on the disappearance of the girls. But Albert, with
his two children (do, does) not know why he is held responsible for this incidence.
The common belief is that Albert, as well as his children (were, was) in position to
note the unusual behaviours of the two girls. However, so far neither the police
nor Albert himself (are, is)
willing to talk about the incidence.

9.4 AGREEMENT OF COMPOUND SUBJECTS

A compound subject, as noted in lecture one, is a subject that is formed by joining
together more than one element. The common way of forming compound subject
is by joining two or more nouns, pronouns or normal phrases. Here we are going
to look at how different forms of compound subjects pattern with verbs to form
grammatically accurate sentences.

9.4.1 Compound Subjects Formed by Conjuctions, and, both

Principle 3: When and and both are used, consider these subjects as plural even
when the elements forming it are all in singulars use a plural verb.

Example 9.7:
Sakina and Sebba are coming tonight.
Both her car and van have been stolen.
Karachi and Dar es Salaam are the world’s dirtiest cities.
9.4.2 Compound Subjects Formed By Conjuction or
Principle 4: When the conjunction or is used to form the subject, it implies a
choice of either one of the elements as a separate entity. This being the case, when
the separate entities are in singular form, considers the subject as singular. Use a
singular verb.

Example 9.8:
Adam or Aden is called in by the principal.
A poet or a singer was entertaining the guests.
A car or a house shows that one in rich.
Asha or Lisa does better work.

Principle 5: However, when the compound subject uses or and each of the
entities is in plural form, consider it a plural subject; use a plural verb.

Example 9.9:
Wives or husbands are wanted by the counselor.
Trains or buses were appropriate means of transport.
Cars or houses show that one is rich.

9.4.3 Compound Subjects Formed By either….. or and neither ….. nor

In this type of compound subjects, the verb patterns with the person and number
of the element which is nearest to it. This order of forming agreement is called the
rule of proximity which states in general that, the subject part nearest to the
predicate verb determines the person and number of the subject.
Example 9.10:
Either the sisters or John is coming home tonight.
Either John or the Sisters are coming tonight.

Neither the sisters nor John is coming home tonight.

Neither John nor the Sisters are coming home tonight.

Either Agata nor the boys sing in the chair.

Either the boys or Agata sings in the chair.

9.5 AGREEMENT IN SUBJECTS FORMED BY COLLECTIVE NOUNS

When the subject is a collective noun, agreement patterning depends on the
intention of the speaker. If the noun is considered as one unit, use a singular verb. If
the noun is considered as a group of individuals acting separately, use a plural verb.

Example 9.11:
The committee was meeting in the director’s office.
The committee were not able to reach a consensus.

Our team was defeated last night.

The team were playing a disorganized game.

The audience was shocked by the play.

The audience were shocked by the play.

9.6 AGREEMENT IN SUBJECTS FORMED BY NOUNS WITH

SUMMATION PLURALS
Nouns with summation plurals denote entities or things consisting of two parts of
the same size or which look similar. Such nouns are always expressed as plurals.
For example; spectacles, trousers, jeans, wages, goods, scales, pajamas,
binoculars, archives, scales, pants, bowels. These subject nouns always require
plural verbs.

Example 9.12:
My trousers are torn

Note this sentence is different from my pair of trousers is torn.

The difference is that in the second sentence the subject is a pair which is third
person singular. It thus necessitates the use of the singular verb is.

Example 9.13:
Our wages are ridiculously low.
The goods in the warehouse were spoilt by the rain.
The bowels were to be emptied immediately.
9.7 AGREEMENT OF PRONOUN AND ITS ANTECEDENT
A pronoun used in the sentence has to relate to the noun it represents. When
pronouns are used ambiguously they bring about a distortion or even complete loss
of meaning.
1. In matching the relationship between the pronoun and its antecedent observe
that person and number of the pronoun does not differ from that of the antecedent.

Example 9.14:
The football player put his boots in a blue bag.
ANTECEDENT PRONOUN
Third person, singular Third person, singular

The children lost their way in the forest.

ANTECEDENT PRONOUN
Third person plural Third person plural

John and I began our journey early.

ANTECEDENT PRONOUN
First person plural First person plural

2. When two or more antecedents are joined by and use a plural pronoun to
refer to them.

Example 9.15:
Emma and Rauna have sold their houses.
Mr. Erick and I have registered our names.

3. If two or more antecedents are joined by or or nor use a singular pronoun to

refer to them.

Example 9.16:
Neither Madina nor Nesta has finished her work.
Either Teddy or Halima has paid her rent.

4. If none of the antecedents joined by or or nor is singular and the other is

plural, make the pronoun agree with the antecedent nearest to the verb.

Example 9.17:
Neither John nor the two girls have given their evidence.
Neither the two girls nor John has given his evidence

EXERCISES
In the following sentences identify any errors in agreement in accordance with
formal usage and make appropriate corrections. Discuss answers with your
colleagues.
1. A thousand shillings are more than my family can afford to pay as rent.
2. Among my favourite novels are King Solomon’s mines by
Athol Fuggard.
3. Either the mayor or his counsellors was ill-informed about the
Kitopeni project.
4. The burden of VAT have fallen on the shoulders of the consumers.
5. The source of our problem are overpopulation and
unemployment.
6. Each of the visitors have a special request to make.
7. There is a good many reasons for the tension between the
Congo and Rwanda.
8. The people to be addressed is the villagers themselves.
9. Neither the children nor their teacher are to be blamed.
 LECTURE TEN

COMMON ERRORS IN ENGLISH

10.1 INTRODUCTION
The term English error refers to the mistakes of language grammar that speakers
or writers of English make. Very few people if there are any, can claim that they
can speak or write in any language without making grammatical errors. However,
for discourse to be able to make sense, it must be grammatically correct. Your
written work will be judged on the level how it is perceived to be correct. A state of
grammatical correctness is therefore the standard which all language users
strive to achieve in our speech or writing. Readers expect us to write discourses
whose sentences are complete and accurate.
The grammatical errors that speakers and writers of English make are as vast as
the language itself. The errors belong to different categories of grammar. In this
lecture we are going to examine just some of these categories and see how errors are
made in them. The errors which many English language users or have a high
incidence of occurrence in speech and written discourses.

OBJECTIVES

At the end of this lecturer, you should be able to:

(i) Identify and correct fragmented and confused sentences; (ii)
Identify and correct sentences with agreement faults;
(iii) Identify and correct sentences with pronoun errors;
(iv) Identify and correct sentences with faulty modification.

10.2 SENTENCE FRAGMENTS

A complete sentence as we saw in lecture one has to have a subject and a
predicate. A sentence fragment is an incomplete construction. It is structurally
simply a part of a sentence that is made to look like a whole one.

Example 10.1:
(i) To avoid children hurting themselves.
(ii) Showing an ability to escape danger.
(iii) The water boiling in the pot.
(iv) Can neither read nor write well

Each of the fragments above looks like a sentence as each begins with a capital
letter and ends with a full-stop; and each gives information. But none of them is a
sentence. The first two fragments invite the question ‘what about it’ implying that
the information they contain is incomplete. In the structure of the sentence they
can function only as qualifiers of the subject. The third construction can function
only as subject or object of a sentence. The fourth fragment invites the question
‘who’ as it mentions a performance (negatively) without identifying the actor.

? What are the causes of sentence fragments?

Sentence fragments often are caused by wrong use of punctuation marks.

Example 10.2:
Fragmented: The minister spoke forcefully. To convince his audience of the
need for VAT.
Corrected: The minister spoke forcefully to convince his audience of the need
for VAT
The wrongly placed full-stop in the first construction cuts off the second part into
a fragment which makes the construction look disorganized.

Another cause of fragmented sentence is overloading of information making the

construction too long. In a long sentence it is possible for the writer to omit a
word that is strategic to the structure of the sentence. The following example
shows this.

Fragmented: One of the big names in African history, Professor B. Ogot who
developed a profound interest in African pre-history, especially in the conditions
which precipitated the communal mode of life.

This construction is incomplete because it lacks a predicate, the part that makes a
statement about the person that is mentioned. The whole construction is simply a
nominal phrase.

EXERCISES
From the following list of word groups distinguish sentences from fragments.
1. The bank manager stood behind the car which was parked at the entrance of
the bank.
2. Decided to put more stamps on the envelope.
3. But the revels rejected the proposals made by the Kabila government.
4. To seek the views of the public about the white paper.
5. The people who want to join our club.
6. Sarah had no time to go to see her brother.
7. After spending six hours in the military prisons.
8. Behind the window of the backyard room.
9. That can play for several hours.
10. Whenever I see fatty meat hanging on the butchery windows.
10.3 CORRECTING SENTENCE FRAGMENTS
Before you are able to correct a sentence fragment you must be able to determine
the structure of the fragment. The most important question to ask yourself is: does
the sentence have a subject and predicate? If one aspect is missing be sure the
construction is a fragment and you have to supply the missing part to complete the
construction.

? How can we correct sentence fragments?

As there are several kinds of fragments, there is no one uniform method of

correcting them. Each type of fragment is thus treated differently, as it will be
shown in the following examples.

10.3.1 Prepositional Phrase Fragments

Avoid punctuating off a prepositional phrase from the words they modify.

Example 10.3
Wrong: We waited patiently. In the empty hall
Prepositional phrase

In the empty hall is a sentence fragment that can be corrected by removing the full
stop mark that sets it off from the rest of the sentence. The correct sentence
should read. We waited patiently in the empty hall.

Example 10.4:
Wrong: This is a fact. According to Karl Marx.
Correct: This is a fact according to Karl Marx.

Wrong: The gun exploded. In front of the spectators.

Correct: The gun exploded in front of the spectators.

10.3.2 Dependent Clause Fragments

Do not separate a dependent clause from its independent counterpart. The two
work together to complete the sense of the sentence.

Example 10.5:
Wrong: An incident occurred this morning. After the bridge had collapsed
CLAUSE DEPENDENT
Correct: An incidence occurred this morning after the bridge had collapsed

Wrong: We are certain the children had caused fire. Because they were
playing with matches.
Correct: We are certain the children had caused fire because they were playing
with matches.

It is also possible to correct this fragment by turning the dependent clause into a
second independent clause as follows.

Example 10.6:
Correct: We are certain the children had caused fire. We had seen them
playing with matches. (INDEPENDENT CLAUSES)

Wrong: Uncle Malinga had been a wealthy man. Although he died poor.

Also correct: Although uncle Malinga had been a wealthy man he died poor.

10.3.3 Verbal Phrase Fragments

Verbal phrases of all kinds (infinitives, gerunds and participle phrases) should not
be set off from the words they modify.

Example 10.7:
Wrong: The UNITA rebels are fighting. To remove the government of Angola.
(INFINITIVEPHRASE)

Correct: The UNITA rebels are fighting to remove the government of Angola.

Wrong: Peering through the window. I saw Jack running (GERUND).

Correct: Peering through the window, I saw Jack running.
Wrong: Twice elected to the Presidency. Wakil wanted a third term. (
PARTICIPLE)
Correct: Twice elected to the Presidency Wakil wanted a third term.
Also correct: Having been elected twice to the Presidency, Wakil wanted a
third term.
10.3.4 Absolute Construction Fragments
Avoid setting off absolute constructions from the clauses they modify. Use a
comma to join them.

Example 10.8:
Wrong: Her hands in red gloves. The first lady waved to the people.
(ABSOLUTE CONSTRUCTION)
Correct: Her hands in red gloves, the first lady waved to the people.

Wrong: His second attempt failing. Dr. Katima left the country quietly.
Correct: His second attempt failing, Dr. Katima left the country quietly.
Also correct: Having failed in his second attempt, Dr. Katima left the
country quietly.

Wrong: Her face looking tired. Jasmine went for a walk.

Correct: Her face looking tired, Jasmine went for a walk.
Also correct: Jasmine went for a walk with her face looking tired.

10.3.5 Compound Predicate Fragments

A compound predicate is a predicate that is made up of more than one verb.
Avoid punctuating off the verbs of the sentence. Use a coordinating conjunction
to join them together.

Example 10.9:
Wrong: The boy picked up a stone. And threw it to the advancing
Policemen.
Correct: The boy picked up a stone and threw it to the advancing policemen.
Wrong: The magician created many illusions. And astounded his audience.
Correct: The magician created many illusions and astounded his audience.
Wrong: The clothes were bought. Donated to the war victims.
Correct: The clothes were bought and donated to the war victims.

Identify fragments in the following sentences. State what type of fragment it is,
then correct the segment by attaching it to the main sentence.
EXERCISES

Identify fragments in the following sentences. State what type of

fragment it is, then correct the segment by attaching it to the main
sentence.

1. Although the air conditioner was working. Jane still felt sweaty
in the room. She wondered if she had a fever.

2. When Marina got into her bedroom. She discovered that she had left the
window open. The beddings and carpet were soaked. Since it had rained all
afternoon.
3. After playing in rain water all morning. The boy looked like a toy. His mother
gave him a hot, perfumed bath.
4. Sadiki chopped off the grass. That hanged over the windows.
When a green snake slid out of the grass. He dropped the cutter and ran away.
5. Because he had eaten and drunk too much at the picnic. He had to go home
early. His stomach felt like a volcano that was about to erupt.
6. The dog eyed me with suspicion. Not knowing whether its master was at
home. I hesitated to open the door.
7. Glistering with sweat. The dancers heaved and jumped up and down. We
immensely employed the shows.
8. Agatha is pleased with the new medicine she is taking.
Claiming that it calms her pain quickly.
9. I have worked at many jobs in the past. Among them, policeman,
but driver and kitchen hand.
Vernon walked quickly to the bank. To have his check cashed.
Otherwise, he would have no money for the weekend.

10.4 AGREEMENT FAULTS

Having seen the sentence fragment in rather a detailed way, let us now look at the
area of grammatical agreement to see what common errors people make there.

? What is Agreement Faulty?

An agreement fault is any one of a wide range of grammatical errors which violets
the logical relationship between parts of speech in a sentence or one which fails to
show correspondence in the form of one word with another to indicate number,
person or gender. Agreement fault refers also to the inconsistency observed
among the various components of a sentence; such as the verb not agreeing with
the subject or a pronoun not agreeing with its antecedent.

10.5 CORRECTING AGREEMENT FAULTS

We can conveniently specify the methods of correcting errors of agreement by
looking at the various different types of agreement faults that commonly occur in
sentences. The following are some of them.

10.5.1 Incorrect Subject-Verb Agreement

In faults of this kind, the form of a subject and the form of the verb in a sentence
do not agree. Such constructions do not follow the principle that singular subjects
must take singular verbs, and plural subjects must take plural verbs. Below are
situations that can lead to difficulties with subject-verb agreement.

(a) Singular subjects and present tense verbs

In the present tense, singular subjects except for I and Your require an -s or
-es ending on regular verbs.

Example 10.10:
Wrong: Our child play on the field.
Correct: Our child plays on the field.

Wrong: The rain usually fall in the morning.

Correct: The rain usually falls in the morning.

TAKE NOTE

This rule does not apply to irregular verbs. These have special verb forms that
do not use the –s and es endings. Like have, is,

(b) Compound Subjects

When the subject of a sentence is a combination of singular words thus the subject
is plural and requires a plural verb.

Example 10.11:
Lina sings well. (Singular)
Lina and Stella sing well. (Plural)
However, when singular subjects are joined with or they take a singular verb.
EXAMPLES
Lina or Stella sings well (Singular).
A policeman or a judge comes home (singular).

(c) False Subjects

These occur when the writer mistakes or forgets the actual subject of a sentence
and makes the verb agree with a wrong word, usually one that is closer to the verb.

Example 10.12:
Wrong: One of the shops in our street close late.
Correct: One of the shops in our street closes late.
The faulty in the first sentence is that it mistakes the subject to be shops (plural)
instead of one of the shops (singular).

Wrong: The smell of the mangoes are refreshing.

Correct: The smell of the mangoes is refreshing.

Note: The first sentence perceives the subject to be mangoes instead of smell.

(d) Postponed Subjects

These are sentence subjects which occur following the verb. As in the normal
cases, the postponed subject should determine the form of the verb.

Example 10.13:
Entering the hall is the military general.
Verb Subject

Entering the hall are the military generals.

Verb Subject

About to sing now is Nana Moskouri.

Verb Subject
About to sing now are Nana and Georges.
Verb Subject

Also sentences which begin with the words there or here are a similar
phenomenon of postponed subject constructions.

Example 10.14:
Here is hiding a big python.
Verb Subject

Here are hiding huge pythons.

Verb Subject

There is a policeman across the road.

Verb Subject
There are policemen across the road.
Verb Subject
EXERCISES

Change the infinitives shown in brackets into the correct forms of the
present tense verb.
1. The head teacher in each of the schools (to report) directly the
District Education Officer.
2. The colour of the chemicals (to change) frequently.
3. Each of the players (to have) a pair of stockings.
4. Behind the door (to stand) the statue of the king.
5. Each man and woman in the room (to need) fresh air.
6. Elina is the only one of the board members who (to give)
consideration to our needs.
7. A trouser and a shirt (to be) all you need.
8. The branches of the mango tree (to shake) in the wind.

10.6 RUN-TOGETHER SENTENCES

Run-together sentences are the reverse of sentence fragments which were
discussed earlier on. The difference between them is that, whereas sentence
fragments contain too little, run-together sentences contain too much. A run-
together sentence carries two or more sentences in a form meant to express one
sentence. The sentences below are run-together constructions.

Example 10.15:
The vehicle had broken down the journey was aborted.
People were listening to the minister was addressing the really.

10.6.1 Correcting Run-Together Sentences

Run-together sentences can be corrected by using anyone of the following
methods.

10.6.2 Combine the Run-Together Sentence by using Subordinating Words

Example 10.16
After the vehicle had broken down, the journey was aborted.
People were listening to the minister as he was addressing the rally.
10.6.3 Divide the Run-Together Sentence by Using a Full Stop (Period)

EXAMPLE 10.17:
The vehicle had broken down. The journey was aborted.
People were listening to the minister. He was addressing the rally.

10.6.4 Divide the Run-Together Sentence by Using a Semicolon

Example 10.18:
The vehicle had broken down; the journey was aborted.
The minister was addressing the rally; people were listening to him.

10.6.5 Divide the Run-Together Sentence by Using a Coordinating Word

Example 10.19:
The vehicle had broken down and the journey was aborted.
The minister was addressing the rally and people were listening to him.

EXERCISES

Correct each of the following run-together sentences by using all

of the four methods discussed above.
1. The Chairman closed the meeting we went home.
2. Gossiping was the only way of passing time in our school we
gossiped a lot.
3. I am sure the children burnt the house I sow them playing with
matches.

10.7 FAULTY PARALLELISM

A non-parallel sentence is one that contains a pair or a series of items that do not
fit with the main part of the sentence. In a non-parallel sentence, the structure is
not balanced as the items in a pair or a series are not expressed in parallel. Non-
parallel sentences are confusing to readers because they cannot help readers to
predict and follow meaning clearly. The following are examples of non-parallel
constructions:

Example 10.20:
Salima likes to read, singing and to dance (Two infinitives and a gerund) In
the afternoon she locks her door, goes out and jogged on the sea shore.
(Two habitual condition verbs, one past tense verb)

10.7.1 Correcting Non-Parallel Sentences

Non-parallel sentences can be corrected by changing the items in the series so that
they all are expressed in the same form.

Example 10.21:
Salima likes to read, to sing and to dance. (All infinitives)
or
Salima likes reading, singing and dancing.(All gerunds)
In the afternoon she locked her door, went out and jogged on the sea shore. (All
past tense verbs).
or
In the afternoon she locks her door, goes out and jogs on the sea shore. (All
habitual condition verbs).
EXERCISES

1. Revise the following sentences so that all items in a series are

expressed in the same form
(i) The children spent their holidays traveling, camping and at
the beach.
(ii) Power, good health and having lots of money were
Mustafa’s primary ambitions.
(iii) Allan liked visiting her neighbours more than writing his
assignments or to his laboratory experiments.
(iv) Every time you buy a new electric appliances, remember
to check its voltage, to assess its power resistance and noting its year of
manufacture.
(v) Reaching the main entrance, Dick turned back, saw
Marina and greets her.
2. The following paragraph has mixed up tenses. Select the tense
you find more suitable and rewrite the paragraph.
Hyena, one of a large family of dog-like animals is a native of the
savannah plains of Africa. It resembled a dog and has sports like

a leopard. The hyena liked to hide in dark isolated places during the day. At night
it comes out to look for food. The hyena fed on small animals and left out bones.
Nowadays the hyena is also found in the subcontinent of India and the plains
of Central
America.

10.8 PRONOUN REFERENCE ERRORS

Following below are rules of correcting some of the common errors of pronoun
use.

10.8.1 Use a Singular Pronoun to an Indefinite Singular Pronoun

Indefinite pronouns refer to words such as; one, anyone, everyone, anybody, each,
neither, either.
Example 10.22:
Each bridge has its own design.
Neither of the boys came in with his parents
Either of the boxes had its top smashed in.

10.8.2 Use a Plural Pronoun to Refer to Antecedents Joined by the Word

And
Example 10.23:
You and I will take our leave in September
Johnson and his wife have taken their luggage.

10.8.3 Use a singular pronoun to refer to singular antecedents joined

by or or nor

Example 10.24:
It is Juma or Sadiki who lost his money
Sakina or Rebecca is coming with her singers.

However, the situation changes when or or nor joins a singular antecedent to

another that is plural. The pronoun should agree with the antecedent closer to it.

Example 10.25:
Neither Albert nor his sister had their letters replied.
Neither the sisters nor Albert had his letter replied.
10.8.4 Ambiguous Pronouns
When a pronoun seems to refer to more than one antecedent, it is ambiguous.
Avoid using pronouns ambiguously.

Example 10.24:
Sheila put a cat in a basket but it fell down. (it could be referring to a basket
or a cat)

Carrie went in to see her mother but she came out immediately.

(She may be referring to Carrie or her mother).

These two sentences could be revised as follows:
Sheila put a cat in a basket but the cat fell down.
As soon as she went in to see her mother, Carrie came out.
or
Carrie’s mother came out immediately after Carrie had gone in to see her.
10.8.5 Vague Pronouns
A vague pronoun does not refer to a specific antecedent.

Example 10.25:
The teacher wants us to eat samolina with guests something I find very difficult.
(Does something meant to refer to eating samolina or eating with the guests.
(The
antecedent is unclear).

House rent was raised without notice, which surprised all of us.
(The pronoun which does not refer to anything that is stated in the sentence. It is
vague reference. These errors could be corrected by revising sentences in the
following ways.
The teacher wants us to eat samolina with the guests but we find eating semolina
difficult.
or
The teacher wants us to eat samolina with the guests but we are not used to eating
with guests.
or
House rent was raised without notice. We found thing surprising.
House rent was raised without notice, a fact which surprised everybody.

10.9 Overuse of Pronouns

Using too many pronouns in one sentence makes the sentence sound repetitious
and may result into producing an immature.

Example 10.26:
Robert knew that he should tell the truth, he believed he should do so to clear
himself but he kept quiet for he was unsure what would happen to him.
This could be revised as follows:

Robert knew and believed that he should tell the truth to clear himself but he kept
quiet because he was unsure what would happen to him.

10.9 FAULTY MODIFICATION

A modifier is a single word, phrase or clause that limits, describes or defines
some elements of a sentence. The common modifying words are adjectives
and adverbs. When modifiers are used appropriately they can add power, interest
and precision to your writing. However, there are some problems in the use of
modifiers. Discussed below are some of common errors related to modification.

10.9.1 Misplaced Modifiers

These are modifiers which are not placed close enough to the words they are
meant to modify. All modifiers should be placed immediately before the words
they modify.

Do not allow modifiers to stay too far away from the words they are meant to
modify as this may produce confusing (and sometimes unintentionally amusing)
sentences.

Example 10 27:
Wrong: A young group of girls was called in.
Correct: A group of young girls was called in.

Wrong: The baby is being attended by Mr. Amos who was born this morning.
Correct: The baby who was born this morning is being attended by Mr. Amos.

TAKE NOTE
Always make sure that adverbs such as nearly, merely, hardly, almost, scarcely,
refer clearly and logically to the words they modify.

Consider the following uses and misuses of adverbs.

We saw only the teacher in the class room. (FORMAL)
We only saw the teacher in the classroom. (INFORMAL)
Salma nearly chocked until she fainted. (ILLOGICAL)
Salma chocked until she nearly fainted. (CLEAR)
We almost recited the whole alphabet chart. (MISPLACED)
We recited almost the whole alphabet chart. (CLEA

EXERCISES
Change the following sentences by placing adverbs nearer the words they
modify.
1. Adam almost seemed annoyed.
2. Mv. Ujamaa just docked here last week.
3. She merely refused my invitation because she wanted to go out.
4. The patient needed the nurse to bandage his wounds badly.
5. You will only will receive your reports after the examinations are
marked and recorded.
6. For a year I almost did not know that Juma was sick.
7. We scarcely planted any crops last year.
8. The bandits nearly terrorized the villagers for two hour.
TAKE NOTE

Make sure that modifying phrases refer clearly to the words they
modify.

Consider the following uses and misuses of modifying clauses.

That woman gave me chocolates in blue dress. (ILLOGICAL)
That woman in blue dress gave me chocolates. (CLEAR)
That poison attracts rats with the smell of cheese. (ILLOGICAL)

That poison with the smell of cheese attracts rats. (CLEAR) Consider the
following uses and misuses of modifying clauses.
Felicia bought an egg from her neighbour that was rotten.
(ILLOGICAL)
Felicia bought an egg that was rotten from her neighbour. (CLEAR) A dog is a
good company that is trained well. (ILLOGICAL)
A dog that is trained well is a good company well. (CLEAR)
There is a sparrow in the cage that sings well. (ILLOGICAL)
In the cage there is a sparrow that sings well. (LOGICAL)
EXERCISES

In the following sentences place the modifying phrases nearer the

words they modify.
1. The football fans stormed the stadium with their club colours up.
2. The bulb exploded after the children has left the room with a loud
Burst.
3. The audience watched the women dancers with admiring eyes.
4. Thomas was rescued after the nearly drowned by the his mother.
5. The astronauts looked forward to landing on the moon for several
Years.
6. The president announced that he would confer with his cabinet at
His press conference last night.
7. Stella dropped out of school after those years attendance last
Friday.
8. She gave me the book to mend with a torn cover.
9. We watched the match on TV that our team lost.
10. Karina bought a car from a dealer that had been painted blue.
11. She uses hair colouring on her hair which she bought in Paris.

12. I took a bus at Kigogo that was traveling upcountry.

13. Rigobert secured a job after he graduated from the University which lasted
Twenty years.
14. The new house was next to the creek with three bedrooms.

10.9.2 Squinting Modifiers

A squinting modifier is one that appears to modify either the preceding word or
the following word. It ‘squints’ so to
say, at the words on its right and left and leaves the reader puzzled or confused.

Example 10.28:
Squinting: His doctor tells him everyday to do some exercises.
Correct: His doctor everyday tells him to do some exercises.
Correct: His doctor tells him to do some exercises everyday.

Squinting: The probe team which was studying the matter yesterday
submitted its findings.
Correct: The probe teach which was studying the matter submitted its
findings yesterday.
Correct: The probe team which spent yesterday studying the matter
submitted its findings.
EXERCISES

Recast the following sentences to eliminate squinting modifiers.

Discuss your answers with a colleagues.
1. The motorcycle he was riding happily lost control.
2. The president said today taxes would be cut.
3. I promised Sitna I would meet her at the corner with the
story book.

4. The soldiers who were beating at the wall widely began shooting.

5. The wax sculpture she was making slowly began to melt at midday.

10.10 DANGLING MODIFIERS

These are modifiers which are not clearly attached to anything in a sentence. A
dangling construction may be a phrase, or clause that either modifies nothing in
the sentence or that appears to modify a word to which it is not logically related.

There are several types of dangling constructions. If not avoided these may affect
your writing by producing ineffective or even misleading sentences.

10.10.1 Correcting Dangling Modifiers

(a) Avoid dangling participles
A dangling participle very often obscures the proper subject of the sentence which it
intends to modify.

Example 10.29:
Wrong: Walking down the road, beautiful flowers can be seen.
In this sentence the subject is not mentioned. Who walks down the road; not the
beautiful flowers of course:
Correct: Walking down the road, we could see beautiful flowers.

Wrong: Taking a bath in the river, a crocodile jumped in.

Correct: Taking a bath in the river, I saw a crocodile jump in.

You can correct a dangling participial phrase by making clear the noun it intends
to modify.
EXERCISES

Revise the following sentences by eliminating the dangling participial

phrases. Discuss your answers with a colleague.
1. Kilimanjaro mountain is impressive, viewing it from the Place.
2. Knowing little about Asian customs, our tour there was a flop.
3. Hiding in backyard, the police arrested the fugitive.
4. The movie was boring showing only red Indians being Killed.
5. Driving at high speed, suddenly the road took an
Unexpected turn to the left.

10.10.2 Provide a Subject to a Dangling Gerund

A gerund is a verb form which ends with an -ing and is used as a noun. You must
identify the actor clearly in the main clause in order to avoid producing confused
or meaningless sentences.

Example 10. 30:

Dangling: After scoring a goal the crowd roared. Correct:
After scoring a goal I heard the crowd roar. Dangling:
Before leaving the house, the door was fastened. Correct:
Before leaving the house I fastened the door.

Dangling: While viewing the parade, planes flew overhead.

Correct: While viewing the parade we saw planes flying over head.
EXERCISES

Revise the following sentences by providing an actor to the

dangling gerund phrases. Discuss your answers with a colleague.
1. On hearing the news, tears of joy filled his eyes.
2. While parking the bag, a pillow was forgotten.

3. Upon opening the door, the dog jumped out.

4. By eating hard foodstuffs, the doctor recommended an
operation for him.
By visiting many villages, many traditional medicines were
discovered.

10.10.3 Avoid Dangling Infinitives

An infinitive is a verb form that is usually preceded by to and used as a noun,
adjective or adverb. Like in the other verbials discussed previously, dangling
infinitive phrases must be provided with a subject in its main clause.

Example 10.31:
Dangling: To swim well, practice is necessary.
Correct: To swim well, one needs to practice.
Dangling: To mend a punctured tyre, The wheel must be removed.
Correct: If you wish to mend a punctuated wheel, you must
remove the wheel.
EXERCISES

Revise the following sentences by providing the actor to eliminate

dangling infinitive phrases. Discuss your answers with a colleague.
1. To become a professional boxer, many hours of training are
required.
2. To eliminate poverty, cash crops have to be grown extensively.
3. To find vaccination for malaria, many researches have to be
conducted.
4. To impress a prospective customer, use of polite language is
necessary.
5. To guarantee safety from burglars, the front door lock had to be
changed.
REFERENCES

Day, Susan, (1989), Reading and the Writing Process Macmillan

Publishing Company. New York.
Fennell, Francis, (1987), Collegiate English Handbook.
Gere, A.R. (1988), Writing and Learning Macmillan Publishing
Company. New York.
Howell, J. and D. Memering, (1986), Brief Handbook for Writers
Prentice-Hall Englewood Cliffs New Jersey.
Lannon, John, (1988), The Writing Process. Scott, Foresman and
Company. Boston.
Stoddard, TD et al, (1985), Effective Writing: A Practical Grammar
Review.
Zandvoort, R.W., (1962), A Handbook of English Grammar.
Longman’s Green and Co. Limited London.

LECTURE ELEVEN

TEXT GRAMMAR: COHESION

11.1 INTRODUCTION
When people communicate using language they usually do so by using a string of
sentences. To use the language effectively both in speaking and writing, we must
ensure that our language "holds together" into a coherent, and thereby intelligible
whole. Coherence itself is product of many different factors, which combine to
make every paragraph, every sentence, and every phrase contribute to the meaning
of the whole piece. Coherence in writing is much more difficult to sustain than
coherent speech simply because writers have no nonverbal clues to inform them if
their message is clear or not. Therefore, writers must make their patterns of
coherence much more explicit and much more carefully planned.

OBJECTIVES

At the end of this lecture, you should be able to; (i)

Describe text cohesion;
(ii) Mention types of interclausal cohesive ties;
(iii) Identify cohesive ties used in authentic text materials

11.2 TEXT AND TEXTUALITY

For the words to convey sensible message, they have to be joined together into a
unified whole. A passage of meaningfully linked words is what we refer to as
text. When we speak of a text therefore, we refer to any passage, spoken or
written, of whatever length that forms a meaningful unified whole. The question
that is put first is: what are the features that distinguish text from a collection of
unrelated sentences? According to the famous linguist Michael Halliday, every
text has to have a texture. A text derives its texture from the fact that it functions
as a unit with respect to its environment. The concept of Texture is entirely
appropriate to express the property of 'being a text.’ A text has texture, and this is
what distinguishes it from being something that is not a text. There are certain
linguistic features that contribute to textual unity. The unity of text is described by
the concept of cohesion. Cohesion is a semantic concept which refers to relations of
meaning that exist within the text and that define it as text. Cohesion occurs where
the interpretation of some element in the discourse is dependent on that of another
element. Formulated in other words, cohesion implies semantic resources for
linking a sentence with that has gone before it. Cohesion helps to create text by
making it possible for discourse to unfold .

This unit aims at surveying the text phenomenon cohesion by describing it using a
number of authentic language texts.

11.3 WHAT IS COHESION?

As described in the previous section, the term cohesion refers to relations of
meaning that exist within a text and that define it as text. Text as we know is
made up of a series of ideas realized as a collection of unrelated sentences. For these
unrelated ideas to form unified meaning, they have to be linked together into a
unified whole. This is the concept of cohesion. It explains how the different
parts and units of a text are able to be semantically linked. Text cohesion is
facilitated by the use of content text-structuring words commonly known as
cohesive ties (also cohesive devices).

11.4 COHESIVE TIES

Cohesive ties or devices are text elements that are used to tie pieces of text
together in specific ways. One of the earliest accounts concerning the role of
interclausal cohesive ties was proposed and described the linguists Michael Halliday
and Rukaya Hassan. According to Halliday and Hasan (1976), cohesion is
displayed in the ties that exist within text between a presupposed item and a
presupposing item. For example, in the sentences Rukia makes good meals. Last
night she cooked matoke. The pronoun she in the second sentence is the
presupposing item. And Rukia in the first sentence is the presupposed item.
Halliday and Hasan claim that text derives texture, i.e., coherence, from these
cohesive ties. Hence they suggest that: “The concept of ties makes it possible to
analyze a text in terms of its cohesive properties and give a systematic account of its
patterns of texture.”

Halliday and Hasan present a taxonomy of various types of cohesive ties or

relations in five main groups:
(a) Reference
including antecedent anaphor relations, the definite article the, and demonstrative
pronouns;

(b) Substitution
including such various pronoun-like forms as one, do, so, etc,

(c) Conjunction
Involving words like and, but, yet, etc., and

(d) Lexical Cohesion

Which has to do with repeated occurrences of the same or related lexical items,
and

(e) Ellipsis
Which involves the omission of items like words or phrases in a clause.

Specifically Halliday and Hassan (1976) have identified and described five major
types of grammatical cohesive ties for English language.

11.4.1 Ties of Reference

Reference elements establish a semantic relationship between them, in which one
of the elements provide the other with the meaning. There are two basic types of
reference. The first is reference to the “shared world” outside of the text. This is
called exophoric reference. The second one is reference to elements in the text.
This is called endophoric reference. Only the second one is purely cohesive,
although both of them are important to create texture. Within endophoric
references there are two types: if they refer to preceding elements they are called
anaphoric; if they refer to following elements they are called cataphoric.

Below are presented some of the several linguistic items which can create
reference;

(a) Personal Reference

Personal pronouns (subject and object), possessive determiners and pronouns. We
can use pronouns in a way that ties them to certain nouns in the text. This occurs
when a pronoun refers across a clause boundary to the referent noun. There are
two ways of using pronouns for grammatical reference.

Anaphoric pronoun. The anaphoric pronoun ties that point back to a previously
established referent noun.

Example 11.1:
I could tell that my mother was upset by the look she had on her face.
In the sentence above we can see that “she” refers back to “my mother” which is
mentioned earlier on the sentence.

Cataphoric pronoun. This pronoun ties portions of text by referring forward to

the referent noun rather than back to noun.

EXAMPLE. When she called me, Amina had not yet seen the examination result’s.
Table 2: Personal and Possessive Pronouns
FIRST PERSON SECOND THIRD PERSON
 CASE PERSON
Singular Plural Singular Plural Singular Plural
SUBJECTIVE I We You You She/He/It They
OBJECTIVE Me Us You You Her Them
Him
It
POSSESSIVE My Our Your Your Her Their
His
It

(b) Demonstrative Reference

Demonstrative pronouns are words which point to the thing they modify,
specifying its position in space or time. These can also function as interclausal
cohesive ties by making reference to an item that is described earlier on the text.
These include ‘this’ and ‘these’ which specify closer position; ‘that’ and ‘those’
specify more remote position.

EXAMPLE. The pupils came to the school rather late, this really upset Mrs. Udomo.
Demonstrative determiners include location adverbs (here, now, there, then).

(c) Comparative Reference

A comparative can provide a tie to a referent and most of them are used for
anaphoric reference. These include adjectives in comparative degree and certain
adjectives and adverbs
(same, identical, equal, similar, additional, other, different, else,
identically, similarly, likewise, so, such, differently, otherwise).

Comparative reference also includes transition words. These are words or phrases
that introduce a sentence and indicate its relationship to the previous sentence.
Example 11.2:
The opportunity cost of producing an additional tape is the number of bottles of
cola we must forgo. Similarly, the opportunity cost of producing an additional
bottle of cola is the quantity of tapes we must forgo.

There are many different transition signals. There are transition signals to indicate
sequence; logical divisions of an idea; time; example; comparison; contrast;
addition; opposition and conclusion.

11.4.2 Ties of Substitution

Substitution refers to a class of items. Substitution can be seen as tying the marker
and group together and this forms a more cohesive text. Substitutions can be made
for nominal, verbs, and clauses.

Example 11.3:
You do what you can to ease your pain. ‘ I know how you feel, ‘ your friends
don’t: ‘
In this sentence ‘don’t ‘ substitutes ‘know how I feel’.

(a) Ellipsis
Ellipsis is the omission of elements normally required by the grammar which the
speaker/writer assumes are obvious from the context and therefore need not be
raised. Hence we can think of ellipsis as a zero tie because it is not actually said in
the text. We can use it to create ties to nouns, verbs and clauses.

There are basically three types of ellipsis: nominal, verbal and clausal.
(i) Nominal ellipsis means the omission of a noun head.
Example 11.4:
He bought a red car, but I liked the blue.
The word ‘car’ is ellipsed.

(ii) Verbal ellipsis involves the omission of the verb head while the auxiliary
element remains explicit.
A: Will you come to the party?
B: Yes, I will. (…come to the party)

(iii) Clausal ellipsis represents the omission of a part of the clause. For instance,
the subject-pronoun element is frequently omitted, especially in spoken texts.

(b) Substitution
Is a half way point between reference and ellipsis. It involves nouns, verbs and
clause elements, as for ellipsis, but instead of omitting them, they are substituted
by a pro-form: one(s), do, so/not, same.

Example 11.5:
He bought a red car, but I liked the blue one.
The word ‘car’ is substituted by ‘one’

11.4.3 Conjunction
The fourth type of creating cohesion is through conjunction. Conjunctions reflect
the writer’s positioning of one point in relation to another in creating a text, thus
they are used to signal “a relationship between segments of the discourse” which
is the specific function of conjunctions. We have to note however that
conjunctions have not been defined as away of simply joining sentences. Their
role in the text is wider than that, because they provide the listener/reader with
information for the interpretation of the utterance; that is why some linguists
prefer to describe them as discourse markers.
Conjunctions can be categorized according to the meaning they express in relating
clauses. Although language allows for limitless means of relating ideas, we will
normally encounter four different kinds of logical relations that conjunctions can
express. Some of these cannot cross more than one clause, but others can. The
following are some common types.

(a) Additive
This is by far the most common of the logical relationships; it involves the simple
addition of information similar to what has already been mentioned. At their most
basic, additive conjunctions link two or more parallel parts of speech

(b) Adversative
These are conjunctive logical relations that expresses the opposition of their
meanings.

(c) Causal
These relations are used to express a cause or a reason for what is said in the main
clause. Where the relation between the subordinate clause and the main clause is
one of cause and effect. For example, Therefore, and because

(d) Temporal
These are conjunctive links that show time or transition in the clauses.

Example 11.6:
My sister, four years younger than I, comes down from her bedroom, asks
frantically what that smell is, then goes past and outside. Then she’s back,

Proper use of conjunctions is important to writers as they help the writers to signal
the links between ideas.

11.4.4 Lexical Ties

There are several types of lexical ties. They can cross short or large pieces of
discourse.

(a) Repetition
The repetition of the same lexical item stem strengthens the text cohesion. See
how the words ‘poems’ and ‘dismissing’ are used in the following text.

Seventeen years ago I sent my first manuscript book of poems to a university Press
for review. They were family poems, mostly, the book itself a pale version of
Joyce’s portrait of the Artist as a Young man. Months later the word came back in
effect dismissing not only the poems, but—what to me was unforgivable
dismissing the very existence of the world I’d written about

(b) Collocation
Collocation can tie the lexical items together. That is, when we think of a war, we
also think of the soldiers, the wounded, and the death. Note the cohesion created
by collocation in the following paragraph.

But then I remember that I left my blue-collar world long ago. Sure, I still mow
my lawn, weed the garden, paint the house. But I have my card fixed, my house
cleaned, my kitchen rebuilt by carpenters, my washing machine repaired, my
antenna removed, all by members of the working class, all jobs my father and
two of my three brothers still do for themselves .

SUMMARY
A text is any piece of language, spoken or written, of whatever length, which forms a
unified whole. A speaker of a language can easily distinguish between a text and a
collection of sentences. This is because texts have texture, that is, the quality of
functioning as a unity.

For a text to have texture it must include “ties” that bind it together. These
“ties” are called cohesive ties and, given that cohesion is expressed partly
through the grammar and partly through the vocabulary, there are different types of
cohesive ties, such as: reference, substitution, ellipsis, conjunctionand lexical
cohesion.

These ties produce cohesion. Cohesion “refers to relations of meaning that exist
within the text, and that define it as a text.” (Halliday & Hasan,
1976:4). There is cohesion when the interpretation of an element in the text is
dependent on that of another, that is, “cohesion is a semantic relation between an
element in the text and some other element that is
crucial to the interpretation of it.”
EXERCISES

Read the following text and then answer the questions that follow after it.

At around one pound for a large fruit, the pineapple is no longer the
special-occasion fruit it was in my childhood. (If there is a pineapple in
the fruit bowl, then it must be Christmas.) More recently, in the lush,
tropical heat of Zanzibar, the fruit became a daily ritual during a beach-
bum holiday. Armed with a plump pineapple, chosen for its ripeness
and stripped of its inedible skin by the stallholder’s fearsome
machete, we would wander far along the deserted beach to make the
most of the fruit and its sticky juice.
Six months later, in the frost-covered gardens of Versailles, the statues and urns
wrapped up for the winter, such a fruit seemed even more welcome, cheering us up
as our teeth chattered and we dripped juice into the snow as we walked. It is this
fruit’s impeccable timing, turning up sweet and gold in the depths of winter, that
probably makes it so popular.

1. Identify the antecedents which the highlighted pronouns represent

2. What type of cohesive ties do the underlined phrases belong to?

REFERENCES

Hatch, Evelyn. (1994); Discourse and Language Education. New

York: Cambridge University Press.
Mariani, Paul. (1994); Class. In Robert Park and Jay Parini (Eds.),
American Identities: Contemporary Multicultural Voices. (pp 139-
150). Hanover: Middlebury College Press. Carrell,Patricia (1982);
Cohesion Is Not Coherence TESO
QUARTERLY 16 (479-488)
Halliday, M.A.K & Hassan, R. (1976) Cohesion in English. Longman.
London
Hassan, R. (1984) Coherence and Cohesive Harmony. In J. Flood (Ed)
Understanding Reading Comprehension. International Reading Association.
Campbell, Kim (1995); Coherence, Continuity and Cohesion: Theoretical
Foundations for Document Design. Hillsdale. Erlbaum Connor, Ulla (1984); A
Study of Cohesion and Coherence in English as
Second Language. Papers In Linguistics 17: (301-316)
Blass, Regina (1986); Cohesion, Coherence and Relevance. Notes on
Linguistics 34. (41-64)