Child and Adolescent Development

CHILD
and
ADOLESCENT
DEVELOPMENT
LOOKING AT LEARNERS AT DIFFERENT LIFE STAGES
BRENDA B. CORPUZ, Ph. D

MA. RITA D. LUCAS, Ph. D
HEIDI GRACE L. BORABO, Ph. D
PAZ L. LUCIDO, Ph. D
Child and Adolescent Development

FOREWORD
Setting new benchmarks for teacher education is no mean task. This is so in the instance
of project WRITE (Writing Resources for Innovative Teacher Education) which we initiated
on august 4, 2006 that led to the production and publication of work books and textbooks.
It was a yeoman`s task to gather our colleagues from Luzon, Visayas and Mindanao
and motivate them to get involve in a textbooks writing process. The productive results of our
efforts yielded a prolific partnership as proven by this WRITE publication.
As for its objectives, this Worktext on Child and Adolescent Development: Looking
at Learners at Different Life Stages aims to align the teaching of Child and Adolescent
Development with the new teacher education curriculum that is anchored on the National
Competency-Based Teacher Standards. The Worktext makes use of collaborative, interactive
and “hands-on-minds on” metacognitive activities. These activities also serve as an advocacy
for current trends in education such as reflective education such as reflective education,
multiple intelligence, and multicultural education, interactive and brain-based teaching,
constructivist teaching-learning and authentic assessment.
We gratefully acknowledge Dr. Brenda B. Corpuz, Dr. Ma. Rita D. Lucas, Dr. Heidi L.
Borabo and Dr. Paz I. Lucido for their desire and concern to share their expertise in the teaching
profession.
This Project WRITE publication is one of the latest edition of more than 30 publications
that are inactive circulation throughout the country. We look forward to more publications that
will help improve teacher performance and advance the enhancement of both pre-service and
in-service phases of teacher education.
Onward to Project WRITE!
Milagros L. Borabo, Ph. D

Project Write Coordinator

TABLE OF CONTENTS
Page
Foreword……………………………………………………………………………………iii
Preface………………………………………………………………………………………iv
Part I - INTRODUCTION………………………………………………………………………………1
11 ……………………………………………………………………………………………..1
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..………..………..………….…………………………………………………………………………………………
1 – 1Basic
Unit ……. Concept and Issues On Human Development…..………………….1
………………………………………………………………………………………………111
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Module 1 - Human Development: Meaning, Concepts
And Approaches………………………………....…….2
Module 2 - The Stages of Development And
Development Task…………,……..………….……...14
Module 3 - Issues on Human Development ………..…………30
Module 4 - Research in Child And
Adolescents Development……………………….....36
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Unit 2 – Developmental Theories and Other Relevant Theories.........................53
__________________________________________________________________
Module 5 - Freud’s Psychoanalytic Theory………………...........53
Module 6 - Piaget’s Stages of Cognitive Development…………64
Module 7 - Erickson’s Psycho-Social Theory of
Development………………………………………….…………………...76
Module 8 - Kohlberg’s Stages of Moral Development…..….…..99
Module 9 - Vygotsky’s Socio-Cultural Theory,,,,……………….106
Module 10 - Bronfenbrenner’s Ecological Theory…...……….…113
Part II – Development Of The Learners At Various Stages

................120
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Unit 1 – Pre - Natal Development……….....................................................120
Module 11- Pre – Natal Development…………….........................120
Unit 2 – Infancy and Toddlerhood …..............................................136
Module 12 - Physical Development of Infants
and Toddlers…..............................................................136
Module 13-Cognitive Development of
Infants and Toddlers……………..................................149
Module 14 - Socio – Emotional Development of
Infants and Toddlers………..........................................168
Unit 3 – Early Childhood (The Preschooler) .............................................186
Module 15 - Preschooler’s Physical Development........................186

Module 16 - Cognitive Development of the

Preschoolers...............................................................200
Module 17 - Socio- Emotional Development
of The Preschooler……..............................................224
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UNIT 4 – Middle Childhood (Primary Schooler)…………………………………...239
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Module 18 – Physical Development of The
Primary Pupil...............................................................239
Module 19 – Cognitive Development of The
Primary Schoolers......................................................246
Module 20 – Socio – Emotional Development of
Primary Schoolers.....................................................254
UNIT 5 – Late Childhood (The Intermediate Schooler)…………………………...263

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Intermediate Pupil.....................................................263
Intermediate Pupil…………......................................271
Module 23 – Socio – Emotional Development of
The Intermediate Pupil,,,,,,,,,....................................279
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UNIT 6 - Adolescence (The High School Learner)............................................288
High School Learners……………………..................291
High School Learners…………................................301
Module 26 – Socio – Emotional Development
of The High School Learners..................................312

UNIT 1 Basic Concepts and Issues on
Human Development
-Brenda B. Corpuz, Ph. D
“By virtue of being born to humanity, every human being has a

right the development and fulfillment of his potentialities as a
human being.”
-Ashley Montagu
INTRODUCTION
Every living creature is called to become what it is meant to be. The caterpillar
is meant to become a butterfly; a seed into a full grown herb, bush or tree; and a
human baby into a mature person, the person “who is fully alive, the glory of God” in
the words of St. Irenaeus.
How this development happens is what we learn in our biology class. We have
seen it to be a fantastic process. So wonderful a process that we can`t help but
experience a feeling of awe for the Power or the Force or the Principle (theist call this
Power or Force Principle (God) behind all these.
The process of development involves beginnings and endings. What was this
organism then? What will this organism be?
A number of researches on human development have been conducted. A lot of
theories on human development have been forwarded. Researches on human
development continue as existing theories get corrected, complemented or replaced.
Up to the present several issues on human development are unresolved and so the
search for explanations continue.
In this Unit, you will be acquainted with human development as a process, the
development tasks that come along with each developmental stage and relevant
issues that are raised about human development.

Human Development: Meaning
MODULE 1 Concepts and Approaches

-Brenda B. Corpuz, Ph. D.
All the world’s a stage, and all the men and women merely
players; They have their exits and entrances, and one man in his
time plays many parts…
William Shakespeare
LEARNING INCOMES
At the end of this Module, you should be able to:
 define human development in your own words.
 draw some principles of human development.
 distinguish two approaches to human development.
INTRODUCTION
As you read this textbook and do the activity in your small groups,
you are undergoing the process of development. What principles govern
this development proven? What do experts say about development?
These are the concerns of this Module.
ACTIVITY
1. Here are pictures of Isaiah Zeph, Alleria & Run Mark. Each one is a bundle of
possibilities. Describe what they were-before birth (their point of origin) and who
they will possibly be after birth unto adulthood. What will they possibly become?
Expound on your answers.

ANALYSIS
After listening to the prediction given by each member of the group, answer the
following questions:
1. When you gave your own predictions as to the kind of child, adolescent and adult
Isaiah Zeph, Alleria & Run Mark may become and hypothesized on who they once
were, you were referring to human development. What then is development?
2. Will there be anything common in the pattern of development of Isaiah Zeph, Alleria
& Run Mark? If yes, what?
3. Will there be differences in their development, e.g, pace or rate of development?
What and why?
4. Will the process of development take place very fast or gradually? Expound on your
answer.
5. Do you believe that Isaiah Zeph, Alleria & Run Mark will continue to develop even
in adulthood? Or will they stop developing in adulthood?
ABSTRACT
Meaning of human development
Human development is the pattern of movement or change that begins at
conception and continues through the life span. Development includes growth and
decline. This means that development can be positive or negative (Santrock, 2002).
Some major principles of human development
Here are some major principles of human development:
1. Development is relatively orderly. (http://www.cdipage.com/development.htm)
Isaiah Zeph, Alleria & Run Mark will learn to sit, crawl then walk before they can run.
The muscular control of the trunk and the arms comes earlier as compared to the
hands and fingers. This is the proximodistal pattern. During infancy, the greatest
growth always occurs at the top – the head – with physical growth in size, weight and
future differentiation gradually working its way down from top to bottom (for example,
neck, shoulders, middle-trunk and so on). This is the cephalo-caudal pattern.
By understanding how characteristics develop, we can make relatively accurate
and useful predictions about learners and design effective instructional strategies
based on our knowledge of development (Santrock, 2002).
2. While the pattern of development is likely to be similar, the outcomes of
development processes and the rate of development are likely to vary among
individuals. (http://www.cdipage.com/development.htm) – What were shared in the
small group discussion on what Isaiah Zeph, Alleria & Run Mark may become were
premised on many “ifs”. Meaning if they come from a good home with loving and care
parents they may develop into warm and responsible children, adolescents and adults.
If they come from a deprived environment, they may develop into carefree and
irresponsible adolescents and adults.
Isaiah Zeph may develop faster and more favorably than Alleria & Run Mark
due to differences in hereditary and environment. Since heredity and environment are
different for different people, it seems obvious that individuals will encounter factors
that make them different from other individuals. As a result, we can expect individual
differences in developmental characteristics and variation in the ages when people will
experience events that will influence their development.
3. Development takes place gradually. (http:www.cdipage.com/development.htm)
Isaiah Zeph, Alleria & Run Mark won’t develop into pimply teenagers overnight. It takes
years before they become one. In fact, that’s the way of nature. The bud does not
blossom suddenly. The seed does not germinate overnight. While some changes
occur in a flash of insight, more often it takes weeks, months, or years for a person to
undergo changes that result in the display of developmental characteristics.
4. Developmental as a process is complex because it is the product of
biological, cognitive and socio-emotional processes (Santrock, 2002).
Biological processes involve changes in the individual’s physical nature. The
brains of Isaiah Zeph, Alleria & Run Mark develop. They will gain height and weight.
They will experience hormonal changes when they reach the period of puberty, and
cardiovascular decline as they approach late adulthood. All these show the biological
processes in development.
Cognitive processes involve changes in the individual’s thought, intelligence,
and language. Isaiah Zeph, Alleria & Run Mark develop from mere sounds to a word
becoming two words, the two words becoming a sentence. They would move on to
memorizing their first prayer, singing Bayang Magiliw in every flag ceremony to
imagining what it would be like to be a teacher or a pilot, playing chess and solving a
complex math problem. All these reflect the role of cognitive processes in
development.
Socio-emotional processes include changes in the individual’s relationships
with other people, changes in emotions, and changes in personality. As babies, Isaiah
Zeph, Alleria & Run Mark responded with a sweet smile when affectionately touched
and frowned when displeased and even show temper tantrum when they could not get
or do what they wanted. From aggressive children, they may develop into a fine lady
and a gentleman or otherwise, depending on a myriad of factors. They may fall in love
and get inspired for life or may end up betrayed, deserted and desperate afterwards.
All these reflect the role of socio-emotional processes in development.
These biological, cognitive and socio-emotional processes are inextricably
intertwined. While these processes are studied separately, the effect of one processes
or factor on a person’s development is not isolated from the other processes. If Isaiah
Zeph, Alleria & Run Mark were undernourished and troubled by the thought of father
and mother about to separate, they could not concentrate on their studies and
consequently would fail and repeat. As a consequence, they may lose face and drop
out of school, revert to illiteracy, become unskilled, unemployed and so on and so
forth. See how a biological process, affect the cognitive process which in turn, affects
the socio-emotional processes.
Two approaches to human development
If you believe that Alleria, Run Mark & Isaiah Zeph will show extensive change
from birth to adolescence, little or no change in adulthood and decline in late old age,
your approach to development is traditional. In contrast, if you believe that even in
adulthood developmental change takes place as it does during childhood, your
approach is termed life-span approach.
What are the characteristics of the life-span perspective? Paul Baltes
(Santrock, 2002), an expert in life-span development, gives the following
characteristics:
1. Development is lifelong. It does not end in adulthood. No development stage
dominates development.
2. Development is multidimensional. Development consists of biological, cognitive,
socio-emotional dimensions.
3. Development is plastic. Development is possible throughout the life-span.
4. Development is contextual. Individuals are changing beings in a changing world.
5. Development involves growth, maintenance, and regulation. Growth,
maintenance and regulation are three (3) goals of human development. The goals of
individuals vary among developmental stages. For instance, as individuals reach
middle and late adulthood, concern with growth gets into the back stage while
maintenance and regulation take the center stage.
Principles of child development and learning that inform practice
Below are the principles of child development and learning which are the bases
of developmentally appropriate practice (DAP) in early childhood program for children
from birth through age 8, which were stated in the position paper of the National
Association for the Education of Young Children (2009). They affirm the principles of
human development and characteristics of life-span development approach we just
discussed. Find out which one is a re-statement of the principles of human
development.
1. All the domains of development and earning-physical, social and emotional,
and cognitive are important, and they are closely interrelated. Children’s development
and learning in one domain influence and are influenced by what takes place in other
domains.
2. Many aspects of children’s learning and development follow. Well
documented sequences, with later abilities, skills, and knowledge building on those
already acquired.
3. Development and learning proceed at varying rates from child to child, as
well as at uneven rates across different areas of a child’s individual functioning.
4. Development and learning result from a dynamic and continues interaction
of biological maturation and experience.
5. Early experiences have profound effects, both cumulative and delayed, on a
child’s development and learning; and optimal periods exist for certain types of
development and learning to occur.
6. Development proceeds toward greater complexity, self-regulation, and
symbolic or representational capacities.
7. Children develop best when they have secure, consistent relationships with
responsive adults and opportunities for positive relationships with peers.
8. Development and learning occur in and are influenced by multiple social and
cultural contexts.
9. Always mentally active in seeking to understand the world around them,
children learn in a variety of ways; a wide range of teaching strategies and interactions
are effective in supporting all these kinds of learning.
10. Play is an important vehicle for developing self-regulation as well as for
promoting language, cognition, and social competence.

11. Development and learning advance when children are challenged to
achieved at a level just beyond their current mastery, and also when they have many
opportunities to practice newly acquired skills.
12. Children’s experiences shape their motivation and approaches to learning,
such as persistence, initiative, and flexibility; in turn, these dispositions and behavior
affects their learning and development.
This course is focused on the development of the child and the adolescent, who
are your clientele in basic education. Necessarily, you will be occupied only with the
child and adolescent. So then, of what significance is your understanding of life-span
development, a development that includes the entire human life cycle from conception
to adulthood? You can apply what you will learn about life-span development as you
relate to yourself, to your fellow teachers, to parents of your students, to other
colleagues in the teaching profession and to other education stakeholders. It is
inspiring to note that development is a continues process.
APPLICATION
1.” Growth is an evidence of life”
a. What does this mean?
2. Define development in your own words. Translate the meaning of development in

Filipino and in your local dialect.
3. State the 5 major principles of human development from a life-span perspective.

Give at least one application of each principle in the teaching-process. What have
these principles to do with you as you teach learners?
4. Research further on the cephalocaudal and proximodistal patterns of

development.
a. Illustrate both pattern by a drawing or diagram.
b. How do you apply your knowledge of cephalocaudal and proximodistal patterns of

development in your teaching? Hint: The pencils of pre-K, Kindergarten and Grade 1
pupils are bigger than those of pupils in the higher Grade levels. Does this practice
have something to do with proximodistal patterns of development?

5. Interpret the following quotations in relation to human development:
a. “Every man is in certain respects like all other men, like some other men, no
other man.”
b. “Man is an unfinished project. He is always in the process of becoming.”
6. In the light of researches on human development, which of the two approaches is

closer to the truth traditional or lifespan? Why?
7. If your approach to human development is traditional, are the characteristics of

human development from a life-span perspective acceptable? Explain your answer.
BIG IDEAS
Do the following to ensure mastery of the big ideas presented in this chapter.
1. Meaning of human development _______________________
2. Four principles of human development and their educational implications.
Principles Educational Implication

a.
b.
c.
d.
3. Pattern of development
a. The direction of growth following the cephalocaudal pattern is from___________
______________ to the _________________.
b. The direction of growth following the proximodistal pattern is from
_______________ to the _________________.

4. Two approaches to human development
Traditional vs. Life-span Approach
Concept Approach
Traditional Life-span
Development during
childhood
Development during
adulthood
Developmental stage/s as
focus of study

5. Characteristics of human development from a life-span perspective
Characteristics
of human
development
Socio-
emotional
processes
Cognitive Biological
processes processes
6. In one sentence, write the principle on human development expressed in this

Venn diagram.
7. Discuss the meaning of the quotations written beneath the title of these Unit and
Module. Relate the question to your life.

RESEARCH
Research and read any research on human development. Give an abstract

of the research by stating the:
1.) Problem
2.) Methods
3.) Findings
4.) Conclusions
TEST YOUR UNDERSTANDING
Put a ✔ check before a correct statement and an ✖ before a wrong one. If you put
✖, explain why.
1. Development is a pattern of change.

2. Development is either growth or decline.
3. From both traditional and life-span perspectives development is lifelong.
4. In the development process, there are things that hold true to all people.
5. Individuals develop uniformly.
6. Development is predictable because it follows an orderly process.
7. Development is unidimensional.
8. Development takes place in a vacuum.
9.The effect of biological process on development is isolated from the effect
of cognitive and socio-emotional processes.
REFLECTION
Guide Questions:
1. You are a bundle of possibilities. You are meant to develop like any other living
thing or else you will rut. Remember “Growth is an evidence of life.” If you are alive,
then you must be growing and developing. Are you on your way to development?

2. As a teacher, you are a facilitator of the development of learners. Read and reflect
on how one great teacher played a role in the fantastic development of a child. Here
is a true-to-life story of Teddy emailed to me by a dear friend.
As he stood in front of her 5th grade class on the very first day of school, she told
the children an untruth. Like most teachers, she looked at her students and said that she loved
them all the same. However, that was impossible. Because there in the front row, slumped in
his seat, was a little boy named Teddy Stoddard.
Mrs. Thompson had watched Teddy the year before and noticed that he did not
play well with the other children, that his clothes were messy and that he constantly needed a
bath. In addition, Teddy could be unpleasant. It got to the point where Mrs. Thompson would
actually take delight in making his paper with a broad red pen, making bold X’s and then
putting a big “F” at the top of his papers.
At the school where Mrs. Thompson taught, she was required to review each
child’s past records and she put Teddy’s off until last. However, when she reviewed his file,
she was in for a surprise.
Teddy’s first grade teacher wrote, “Teddy is a bright child with a ready laugh. He
does his work neatly and has good manners... He is a joy to be around...’ His second grade
teacher wrote, ‘Teddy is an excellent student, well-liked by his classmates but he is troubled
because his mother has a terminal illness and life at home must be a struggle. His third grade
teacher wrote, ‘His mother death has been hard for him. He tries to do his best but his father
doesn’t show much interest, and his home life will soon affect him if some steps aren’t taken.
Teddy’s fourth grade teacher wrote, ‘Teddy is withdrawn and doesn’t show much interest in
school. He doesn’t have many friends and he sometimes sleeps in class.
By now, Mrs. Thompson realized the problem and she was ashamed of herself. She
felt even worse when her students brought her Christmas presents wrapped in the heavy,
brown paper that he got from a grocery bag. Mrs. Thompson took pains to open it in the
middle of the other presents. Some of the children started to laugh when she found a
rhinestone bracelet with some of the stones missing, and a bottle that was one-quarter full of
perfume... But she stifled the children’s laughter when she exclaimed how pretty the bracelet
was, putting it on, and dabbing some of the perfume on her wrist. Teddy Stoddard stayed
after school that day just long enough to say, ‘Mrs. Thompson, you smelled just like my Mom
used to.’

After the children, she cried for at least an hour. On that very day, she quit
teaching reading, writing and arithmetic. Instead she began to teach children. Mrs.
Thompson paid particular attention to Teddy. As she worked with him, his mind seemed to
come alive. The more she encouraged him, the faster he responded. By the end of the year,
Teddy had become one of the of the smartest children in the class and, despite her lie that she
would love all the children the same, Teddy became one of her ‘teacher’ pets.’
A year later, she found a note under her door, from Teddy, telling her that she was
the best teacher he ever had in his whole life.
Six years went by before she got another note from Teddy. He then wrote that he
had finished high school, third in his class, and she was still the best teacher he ever had in
his life.
Then four years passed and yet another letter came. This time he explained that
after he got his bachelor’s degree, he decided to go a little further. The letter explained that
she was still the best and favorite teacher he ever had. But now his name was a little
longer.... The letter was signed, Theodore F. Stoddard, M.D.
The story does not end there. You see there was yet another letter that spring.
Teddy said he had met this girl and was going to be married. He explained that his father
died a couple of years ago and he was wondering if Mrs. Thompson might agree to sit at the
wedding in the place that was usually reserved for the mother of the groom. Of course, Mrs.
Thompson did. And guess what? She wore that bracelet, the one with several rhinestones
missing. Moreover, she made sure she was wearing the perfume that Teddy remembered his
mother wearing on their last Christmas together.
They hugged each other and Dr. Stoddard whispered in Mrs. Thompson’s ear.
‘Thank you, Mrs. Thompson for believing in me. Thank you so much for making me feel
important and showing me that I could make a difference.’
Mrs. Thompson, with tears in her eyes, whispered back. She said, ‘You have it all
wrong. You were the one who taught me that I could make a difference. I didn’t know how to
teach until I met you.’
(For you that don’t know, Teddy Stoddard is the doctor at Iowa Methodist in Des Moines that
has the Stoddard Cancer Wing.)

REFLECTION
Write down your reflection.
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2
The Stages of Development and
MODULE Developmental Task
Who are you?” asked the caterpillar. Alice replied rather shyly, “I – I hardly know, Sir,
just at present ---- at least I know who I was when I got up this morning, but I must have
changed several times since then.”
-Lewis Carroll
LEARNING OUTCOMES
 define developmental tasks in your own words.

 identify developmental stages of learners in different curriculum year levels.
 describe the developmental tasks in each stage.
 state for yourself how these developmental tasks affect your role as a facilitator of
learning.
INTRODUCTION
For every developmental stage, there is an expected developmental task. What

happens when the expected developmental tasks are not achieved at the corresponding
developmental stage? How can you help children achieve these developmental tasks?
ACTIVITY
Study the pictures and the descriptions below each set of pictures, then answer
the following questions.
1. Do the pictures suggest the respective developmental stages?
2. Symbolize each developmental stage. Give a symbol that stands for the developmental
task for each stage.
3. If you were given a chance. Which developmental stage would you like to be in? Why?
Share your answers with your small group.
4- Week Human Embryo 7-8 Week Human Embryo

Pre-natal period
Referring to pre-natal development. Santrock (2002) asked the following questions

succinctly:
“How from so simple a beginning do endless forms develop and grow and mature?
What was this organism, what is it now, and what will it become? Birth’s fragile moments
arrives, when the newborn is an threshold between two worlds.”
Infancy (from birth to 2 years)
As newborns we were not empty-headed organisms. We cried, kicked, coughed,

sucked, saw, heard and tested. We slept a lot and occasionally we smiled, although the
meaning of our smiles was not entirely clear. We crawled and then we walked, a journey of a
thousand miles beginning with a single step. …Sometimes we conformed, sometimes others
conformed to us. Our developmental was a continuous creation of complex forms, and our
helpless kind demanded the meeting eyes of love. We split the universe into two halves: “me
and not me.” And we juggled the need to curb our own will with becoming what we could will
freely. (Santrock, 2002)
Early Childhood (3 to 5 years)
In early childhood, our greatest untold poem was being only four years old. We
skipped, played, and ran all day long, never in our lives so busy, busy becoming something

we had not quite grasped yet. Who knew-our thoughts, which worked up into small
mythologies all our own. Our thoughts and images and drawings took wings. The blossoms of
our heart, no wind could touch. Our small world widened as we discovered new refuges and
new people. When we said “I” we meant something totally unique, not to be confused with any
other.” (Santrock, 2002)
Middle and Late Childhood (6-12 years)
“In middle and late childhood, we were on a different plane, belonging to a generation
and a feeling properly our own. It is the wisdom of human development that at no other time
we are more ready to learn than at the end of early childhood’s period of expansive
imagination. Our thirst was to know and to understand. Our parents continued to cradle our
lives but our growth was also being shaped by successive choirs of friends. We did not think
much about the future or the past, but enjoyed the present.” (Except for a few words, the
paragraph is taken from Santrock 2002)
Adoloscence (13-18 years)
“In no order of things was adolescence, the simple time of life for us. We clothed
ourselves with rainbows and went ‘brave as the zodiac’, flashing from one end of the world to
the other. We tried on one face after another, searching for a face of our own. We wanted our
parents to understand us and hoped they would give up the privilege of understanding them.
We wanted to fly but found that first we had to learn to stand and walk and climb and dance.
In our most pimply and awkward moments we became acquainted with sex. We played
furiously at adult games but were confined to a society of our own peers. Our generatition was
the fragile cable by which the best and the worst of our parents’ generation was transmitted to
the present. In the end there were two but lasting bequests our parents could leave us- one
being roots, the other wings. (Santrock, 2002)

Early adulthood (19-29 years)
Early adulthood is a time for work and a time for love, sometimes leaving little time for
anything else. For some of us, finding our place in adult society and committing to a more
stable of life take longer than we imagine. We still ask ourselves who we are and wonder if it
isn’t enough just to be. Our dreams continue and our thoughts are bold but at some point we
become more pragmatic. Sex and love are powerful passions in our lives – at times angels of
light, at other times of torment. And we possibly will never know the love of our parents until
we become parents ourselves. (Santrock, 2002)
Middle adulthood (30-60 years)
In middle adulthood what we have been forms what we will be. For some of us, middle
age is such a foggy place, a time when we need to discover what we are running from and to
and why. We compare our life with what we vowed to make it. In middle age, more time
stretches before us and some evaluations have to be made, however reluctantly. As the
young/old polarity greets us with a special force, we need to join the daring of youth with the
discipline of age in a way that does justice to both. As middle aged adults we come to sense
that the generations of living things pass in a short while and like runners hand on the torch of
life. (Santrock 2002).

Late adulthood (61 years and above)
“The rhythm and meaning of human development eventually wend their why to late
adulthood, when each of us stands alone at the heart of the earth and “suddenly it is evening”.
We shed the leaves of youth and are stripped by the winds of time down to the truth. We learn
that life is lived forward but understood backward. We trace the connection between the end
and the beginning of life and try to figure out what this whole show is about before it is over.
Ultimately we come to know that we are what survives of us. (Santrock, 2002).
Analysis
1. How many developmetal stages were described? How do these stages compare to
Havighurst’s developmental stages given below.
Havighurst has identified six major age periods:

1. infancy and early childhood (0-5 years),
2. middle childhood (6-12 years),
3. adolescence (13-18 years)
4. early adulthood (19-29 years),
5. middle adulthood (30-60 years), and
6. later maturity (61+)
2. What is an outstanding trait or behavior pf each stage?
3. What task/s is/are expected of each developmental stage?
4. Does a developmental task in a higher level require accomplishment of the lower level
developmental tasks?

5. Refer to Havighurt’s Developmental Tasks given in the table on the next page. Match the
descriptions given by Santrock. Are Havighurst and Santrock saying the same thing?
ABSTRACTION
Infancy and Middle Adolescence Early Middle Later Maturity

early Childhood (6- (13-18) Adulthood Adulthood (61-and over)
Childhood 12) (19-29) (30-60) 1.Adjusting to
(0-5) 1.Learning 1.Achieving 1.Selecting a 1.Helping decreasing
1.Learning physical skills mature mate teenage strength and
to walk neccssary for relations with 2.Learning to children to health
2.Learning ordinary games both sexes live with a become happy 2.Adjusting to
to take solid 2.Building a 2.Achieving a partner and retirement and
foods wholesome masculine or 3.Starting a responsible reduced income
3.Learning attitude toward femanine social family adults 3.Adjusting to
to talk oneself role 4.Rearing 2.Achieving death of spouse
4.Learning 3.Learning to 3.Accepting children adult social and 4.Establishing
to control get along with one’s physique 5.Managing a civic relations with
the age mates 4.Achieving home responsibility one’s own age
elimination 4.Learning an emotional 6.Starting an 3.Satisfactory group
of body appropriate sex independence occupation career 5.Meeting social
wastes role of adults 7.Assuming achievement and civic
5.Learning 5.Developing 5.Preparing for civic 4.Developing obligations
sex fundamental marriage and responsibility adult leisure 6.Establishing
differences skills in reading, family life time activities saisfactory living
and sexual writing, and 6.Preparing for 5.Relating to quarters
modesty calculating an economic one’s spouse
6. Acquiring 6.Developing career as a person
concepts concepts 7.Acquiring 6.Accepting the
and necessary for values and an physiological
language to everyday living ethical system changes of
describe 7.Developing to guide middle age
social and conscience, behavior 7.Adjusting to
physical morality, and a 8.Desiring and aging parent
reality scale of values achieving
7.Readiness 8.Achieving socially
for reading personal responsible
8.Learning independence behavior
to 9.Devloping
distinguish acceptable
right from attitudes toward
wrong and society
developing
a
conscience

Concept of developmental tasks
In each stage of development a certain task or tasks are expected of every individual.
Robert Havighurst defines developmental task as one that “arises at a certain period in our
life, the successful achievement of which leads to happiness and success with later tasks
while failure leads to unhappiness, social disappoval, and difficulty with later tasks.”
(Havighurst, 1972).
Developmental stages
The eight (8) developmental stages cited by Santrock are the same with Havighurst’s
six (6) developmental stages only that Havighurst did not include prenatal period. Havighurst
combined infancy and early childhood while Santrock mentioned them as two (2) separate
stages. These developmental stages are described more in detail in the next paragraphs.
The developmental tasks (Santrock, 2002)
Let’s describe the developmental tasks as described by Santrock and compare them
to those listed by Havighurst himself.
1. Prenatal period (from conception to birth) – It involves tremendous growth- from a single
cell to an organism complete with brain and behavioral capabilities.
2. Infancy (from birth to 18-24 months) – A time of extreme dependence on adults. Many
psychological activities are just beginning –laguage, symbolic thought, sensorimotor
coordination and social learning.
3. Early childhood (end of infancy to 5-6 years (Grade 1) – These are the preschool years.
Young children learn to become more self-sufficient and to care for themselves, develop
school readiness skills and spend many hours in play peers.
4. Middle and late childhood (6-11 years of age, the elementary school years) – The
fundamental skills of reading, writing and arithmetic are mastered. The child is formally
exposed to the larger world and its culture. Achievement becomes a more central theme of
the child’s Achievement becomes a more central theme of the child’s world and self-control
increases.
5. Adoloscence – (10-12 years of age ending up to 18-22 years of age) Begins with rapid
physical changes – dramatic gains in height and weight, changes in body contour, and the
development of sexual characteristics such as enlargement of the breast, development of
pubic and facial hair, and deepening of the voice. Pursuit of independence and identity are
prominent. Thought is more logical, abstract and idealistic. More time is spent outside of the
family.
6. Early adulthood (from late teens or early 20s lasting through the 30’s) – It is a time of
establishing personal and economic independence, career development, selecting a mate,
learning to live with someone in an intimate way, starting a family and rearing children.
7. Middle adulthood (40 to 60 years of age) – It is a time of expanding personal and social
involvement and responsibility; of assisting the next generation in becoming competent and
mature individuals; and of reaching and maintaining satisfaction in a career.

8. Late adulthood (60s and above) It is a time for adjustment to decreasing strength and health,
life review, retirement, and adjustment to new social roles.
APPLICATION
1. Answer this question with a learning partner. What are the implications of these
developmental tasks to your role as a facilitator of learning? Let’s pay particular attention to
the stages that correspond to schooling – early childhood, middle and late childhood and
adolescence.
Let’s do #1. Early Childhood – What are preschool teachers supposed to do with
preschoolers? Help them develop readiness for school and not to be too academic in teaching
approach. They ought to give much time for preschoolers to play. Or perhaps help preschooler
develop school readiness by integrating children’s games in school activities.
# 2 – Middle and Late childhood
Elementary school teachers ought to help their pupils by
_________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________
# 3 – Adoloscence
_________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________
High school teachers ought to help their students by
2. Allow small groups to do each of the following:
a. Come up with an object to symbolize each period or stage of development.
b. Do a multimedia presentation of the outstanding characteristics and developmental tasks

of each developmental stage. You may use the text of Santrock found under each collage of
pictures in the ACTIVITY PHASE of this lesson.
c. Sing an appropriate song for each developmental stage.
3. Discuss the meaning of the quotation beneath the title of the lesson. Relate it to the stages
of development.
BIG IDEAS
1 Complete this unfinished sentence.
Developmental tasks are _________________.
2. Show the developmental stages by means of a diagram inclusive of the ages. Write also
the outstanding characteristic trait and developmental task of each developmental stage.
Test Your Understanding

I Put a check (✔) beside those statements that are correct and an (✖) beside those that are
wrong. If your answer is an ✖, explain why.
_____1. Developmental tasks are only for the first 3 stages of human development.
_____2. Failure of achieving developmental tasks in an earlier stage also means failure for
the learner to master the developmental task in the next stage.
_____3. Preschool age corresponds to early childhood stage.
_____4. Adolescence is middle and late childhood stage.
_____5. Teenage is middle childhood
_____6. Mastery of fundamental skills is a major concern during early childhood.
_____7. Play is a great need of children in middle childhood.
_____8. Preparing children for school readiness is the major concern of middle
Childhood.
REFLECTION
1 Reflect on your early childhood. middle and late childhood days. Were you able to acquire
the developmental tasks expected of early, middle, late childhood and adolescence. What
facilitated your acquisitions of the ability to perform such tasks? Write your reflections.
_________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________
2 Having mastered the developmental tasks of early childhood middle and late childhood and
adolescence, reflect on what you should do as a teacher to facilitate your students acquisition
of these developmental tasks. Write down your reflections.
_________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________

Issues on Human Development
MODULE 3 -Brenda B. Corpuz, Ph. D.
The interaction of heredity and environment is so extensive that to ask which

is more important, nature or nurture, is like asking which is more important
to a rectangle, height or width.
-William Greenough
LEARNING OUTCOME
At the end of this Module, you should be able to take an informed stand/position
on the three (3) issues on development.
INTRODUCTION
Each of us has his/her own informal way of of looking at our own and other
people’s development. These paradigms of human development while obviously
lacking in scholastic vigor, provide us with a conceptual framework for understanding
ourselves and other. Scholars have come up with their own models of human
development. Back up by solid research, they take stand on issues on human
development.
ACTIVITY
(This is supposed to be assigned at least more than one week before the
scheduled debate)
Small group Debate
Divide the class into 3 small groups, Let the groups choose their topic for
debate. Here are the topics and issues:
1.Nature versus Nurture – Which has a more significant influencer on human

development? Nature or nurture? Nature refers to an individual’s biological
inheritance. Nurture refers to environment experiences.
2. Continuity versus Discontinuity – Does development involve gradual, cumulative

change (continuity) or distinct changes. (discontinuity). To make it more concrete, here
is a question: Is our development like that of a seedling gradually growing into an
acacia tree? Or is it more like that of a caterpillar becoming a butterfly?
3. Stability vs. Change – Is development best described as involving stability or as

involving change? Are we what our first experiences have made of us or do we develop
into someone different from wo we were at an earlier point in development?
Report to the whole class that transpire in your small group debates.

ANALYSIS
After every small group presentation to the whole class the teacher facilities the
whole class discussion and asks the following:
1. Who are pro-nature? Pro-nurture? Are there additional reasons you can give in favor
of nature/nurture? Who are neither for nature nor nurture? Why?
2. Who go for continuity? Discontinuity? Can you give additional arguments do defend
continuity/discontinuity? Who are in between continuity and discontinuity? Why?
3. Who claims stability is more correct than change? Change is more correct than
stability?
ABSTRACTION
The issues presented can be translated into questions that have sparked
animated debate among develop mentalists. Are girls less likely to do well in math
because of their ‘feminine’ nature or because of society’s ‘masculine’ bias? How
extensively can the elderly be trained to reason more effectively? How much, if at all,
does our memory decline in old age? Can techniques be used to prevent or reduce
the decline? For children who experienced a world of poverty, neglect by parents, and
poor schooling in childhood, can enriched earlier in their development (Santrock,
2002)?
Based on the presentations, each one has his/her own explanation for his/her
stand on the developmental issues. What is the right answer? Up to this time. The
debate continues. Researchers are on-going. But let me tell you the most life-span
develop mentalists recognize that extreme positions on these issues are unwise.
Development is not all nature or all nurture, not all continuity or discontinuity and not
all stability or all change (Lerner, 1998 as quoted by Santrock, 2002). Both nature and
nurture, continuity and discontinuity, stability and change characterize our life-span
development. … The key to development is the interaction of nature and nurture
rather than either factor alone (Rutter, 2001 as quoted by Santrock. 2002). In other
words, it is a matter of “both-and” not “either-or”. Just go back to quote beneath the
title of this lesson and the message gets crystal clear.
To summarize. Both genes and environment are necessary for a person even
to exist. Without genes, there is no person; without environment, there is no person
(Scarr and Weinberg, 1980, quoted by Santrock, 2002). Heredity and environment
operate together -or cooperate and interact – to produce a person’s intelligence,
temperament, height, weight… ability to read and so on.
If heredity and environment interact, which one has a greater influence or

contribution, heredity or environment? The relative contributions of heredity and
environment are not additive. So we can’t say 50% is a contribution of heredity and
50% of environment. Neither is it correct to say that full genetic expression happens
once, around conception or birth, after which we take our genetic legacy into the word

to see how far it gets us. Genes produce proteins throughout the life span, in many
different environments. Or they don’t produce these proteins, depending on how harsh
or nourishing those environments are. (Santrock, 2002).
APPLICATION
Let’s find out where you can apply what you learned from it discussion of
these developmental issues.
1. Convinced of the interactive influence of heredity and environment on the
development of children, prepare for a PowerPoint presentation for parents to show
them how crucial their role is in the development of their children. Remember that
heredity is already fixed. Their children have been born and they have passed on these
inherited trails at conception and that they cannot do anything anymore to change
them. So concentrate on how they can contribute to their children’s favorable
development by creating the environment conducive to development. Like heredity,
environment is complex. It includes nutrition as early as conception, parenting, family
dynamics, schooling. Neighborhood quality and biological encounters such as viruses,
birth complications, and even biological events in cells.
Do not lose sight of the objective of your PowerPoint presentation. At the end
of your PowerPoint presentation, the parents should go home very much convinced of
their role in the development of their children and get very much inspired to do their
part.
2. Do the same presentation (in # 1) to a class in General Psychology where they

discuss the nature-nurture debate or to a group of student teachers.
3. Discuss the implications of this statement:
“The frightening part about heredity and environment is that we, parents, provide both.”
4. Here is an interesting article titled “How the First Nine Months Shape the Rest of
Your Life” from October 4, 2010 Issue of Time Magazine. Read, analyze then answer
the following questions:
 Does the article agree that heredity, environment and individual’s choice are
the factors that contribute to what a person may become? Read that paragraph
that tells so.
 Read the 4th paragraph again. Focus your attention on the highlighted word,
PERMANENTLY. Relate this to the issue on stability versus change issue on
p. 31. Does the word PERMANENTLY convince you that we are what our first
experience have made of us (stability)? Explain your answer.

How the First Nine Months Shape the Rest of Your Life
What makes us the way we are? Why are some people predisposed to be
anxious, overweight or asthmatic? How is it that some of us are prone to heart
attack, diabetes or high blood pressure?
There’s a list of conventional answers to these questions. We are the way

we are because it’s in our genes. We turn out the way we do because of our
childhood experiences. Or our health and well-being stem from the lifestyle choices
we make as adults.
But there’s another powerful source of influence you may not have
considered: your life as a fetus. The nutrition you received in the womb; the
pollutants, drugs and infections you were exposed to during gestation; your mother’s
health and state of mind while she was pregnant with you all these factors shaped
you as a baby and continue to affect you to this day. This is the provocative
contention of a field known as fetal origins, whose pioneers assert that the nine
months of gestation constitute the most consequential period of our lives,
PERMANENTLY (Underscoring, mine) influencing the wiring of the brain and the
functioning of organs such as the heart, liver and pancreas. In the literature on the
subject, which has exploded over the past 10 years you can find references to the
fetal origins of cancer, cardiovascular disease, allergies, asthma, hypertension,
diabetes, obesity, mental illness. At the farthest edge of fetal-origins research,
scientists are exploring the possibility that intrauterine conditions influence not only
our physical health but also our intelligence, temperament, even our sanity.
As a journalist who covers science, I was intrigued when I first heard about
fetal origins. But two years ago, when I began to delve more deeply into the field, I
had a more personal motivation: I was newly pregnant. If it was true that my actions
over the next nine months would affect my offspring for the rest of his life, I needed
to know more.
Of coure, no woman who is pregnant today can escape hearing the message
that what she does affects her fetus. She hears it at doctor’s appointments, sees it in
the pregnancy guidebooks: Do eat this don’t drink that, be vigilant but never
stressed. Expectant mothers could be forgiven for feeling that pregnancy is just a
nine-months slot, full of guilt and devoid of pleasure, and this research threatened to
add to the burden.
But the scientists I met weren’t full of dire warnings but of the excitement of
discovery – and the hope that their discoveries would make a positive difference.
Research on fetal origins is prompting a revolutionary shift in thinking about where
human qualities come from and when they begin to develop. It’s turning pregnancy
into a scientific frontier: The National Institutes of Health embarked last year on a
multidecade study that will examine its subjects before they’re born. And it makes

the womb a promising target for prevention, raising hopes of conquering public-
health scourges like obesity and heart disease through interventions before birth
Time Magazine, October 4,2010
BIG IDEAS
Complete the sentence
1. With regard to the nurture-nature, continuity-discontinuity and change-stability

controversies, the wiser stand is
TEST YOU UNDERSTANDING
As far as our discussions are concerned, which statement is correct and

which one is wrong? Put a check (✔) before the correct statement and mark (❌) the
wrong one. If you mark a statement is, explain why.
_____ 1. Heredity exerts a greater influence on human development than

environment.
_____ 2. What has been experienced in the earlier stages of development can no
longer be changed.
_____ 3. From the prespective of life-span developmentalist, later experiences are
the key determinants of a person’s development.
RESEARCH
1. Read the published book The Nurture Assumption, by Judith Harris (1998).
2. State in not more than 2 paragraphs the thesis of Judith Harris book.
3. a. Watch “Lonely Only” in your YouTube. Only Children: Debunking the Myths
About
Single Children.
b. In 1896 Granville Stanly Hall described only children as “deficient on the social
side”, “petted”, “humored”, “indulged”, and “spoiled”. Today many consider this a
MYTH-WHAT DO YOU THINK?
For related articles, refer to TIME Magazine, Juy 19, 2010 issue. State in not
more than 10 sentences the position expressed in the YouTube and in the “ Time
Magazine.
4. Read on Fetal Origin.

REFLECTION
1. Relate what you learned here to your personal development. Reflect on your
own personal development. What has helped you become the person that you
are now? Is what you have become a product of the name interaction of
heredity and environment? Or is what you have become a product of both
heredity and environment interacting and what you decided or determined
yourself to become? (Self-determination or freedom is a third factor). Write
your reflections.

Human Development: Meaning
4
Concepts and Approaches
MODULE -Maria Rita D. Lucas, Ph. D.
-Brenda B. Corpuz, Ph. D
LEARNING OUTCOMES
• explain the basic principles of research.
• demonstrate appreciation of the role of teachers as consumers and producers of

development research.
• read researchers on child and adolescent development and make simple research abstract
of researchers read.
INTRODUCTION
You may have a separate 3-unit course on research. This module is not intended to be
substitute for that three-unit course. It is simply meant to supplement what you got or will still
get in the Research course.
As you may have noticed, most if not all of what is presented about the development of the
child and the adolescent are products o research. It might interest you to know how these
concepts/theories were arrived at. Or after having been exposed to a number of researchers
cited in this Course, hopefully, you may be so inspired that you, too, would like to start
conducting researchers on you own or join a group for speech.
ACTIVITY
STATEMENT YES NO
Research is only for those who plan to
take master’s degree or doctorate.
Research is easy to do.
Research is all about giving

questionnaires and tallying the
responses.
Research with one or two respondents
is not a valid responders.

Teachers, because they are busy are
their own research. It is not their task
to conduct research.
There is no need to go into research
because a lot of researches have
already been conducted.
Students are mere users of knowledge
arrived at by research. It is not their
task to conduct research.
Students do not possess the
qualifications to conduct research
It is not worth conducting research
considering the time and money it
requires.
Read each statement below. Do you agree/disagree with each statement? Put a check  to
indicate your answer.
ANALYSIS
Share your answers among classmates. The teacher will designate the right side of
the room as the “Yes” side and the left as the “No” side. The teacher will read each statement
and the students will move to the right or left side of the room based on their answers. Teacher
will process each question by encouraging students to explain their answers.
ABSTRACTION
Your answers to the short questionnaire indicate your basic attitude about research.
As a pre-service teacher. It is important to have a positive regard for research. Best practices
in education are usually borne out of research. Research inform practice.
All of the topics discussed in this book is in one way or another, a product of research.
Research is a very reliable means for teachers to learn about child and adolescent
development. When conducted in an appropriate and accurate manner, it becomes a strong
basis for making decisions about the things you will do as an effective teacher.
Teachers as Consumer/End Users of Research
Research gives teachers and also policy-makers important knowledge to use in
decision-making for the benefit of learners and their families. Well-informed teachers are able
to use and intergrate the most authoritative research findings. Research enables teachers to
come up with informed decisions related to educational policies, curriculum, effective
teaching-learning processes, and even those involving research, too. It can help us, teachers,
to be more knowledgeable about how to fit our teaching with the developmental levels of our
learners.
Teachers as Researchers
The conduct of research does not only belong to thesis and dissertation writers. It is
for students and teachers, too. Let us learn how to conduct research by finding out the different
research principles and the research methods and designs with focus on child and adolescent
development.
The Scientific Method
One important principle in research is adherence to the scientific method since
research is a systematic and logical process. As such, researchers basically follow the
scientific method. Dewey gave us 5 steps of the scientific method. They are as follows.

Identify and define the problem
Determine the hypothesis
Collect and analyze the data
Formulate conclusions
Apply conclusions to the original hypothesis.
Research Design Description Strengths Weaknesses

Case Study An in-depth look at an It provides information Need to exercise caution
individual about an individual’s when generalizing from
fears; hopes, fantasies the information; the
traumatic experiences, subject of a case study is
upbringing, family unique, with a genetic
relationships, health and make-up and
anything that helps a experiences no one else
psychologist understand shares; involves
that person’s judgements of unknown
development (Santrock, reliability, in that usually
2002) no check is made to see
if other psychologists
agree with other
observation (Santrock,
2002)
Correlational Study A research design that Useful because the more Because correlational
determines association strongly two events are research does not
correlated, the more we involve the manipulation
can predict one from the of factors, it is not a
other dependable cause
(Kantowitz, et al 2001
cited by Santrock, 2002)
Experimental A research design that The only true reliable Experimental research is
determines cause-effect method of establishing limited to what is
relationship The cause and effect. observable, testable, and
experimental method manipuble.
involves manipulating
one variable to determine Failure to achieve
if changes in variable randomization may limit
cause changes in the extent to which study
another variable. This sample is representative
method relies on of the parent population
controlled methods, and, with it,
random assignment and generalizability of the
the manipulation of findings of the study.
variables to test a
hypothesis. Experimentation with
humans is subject to a
number of external
influences that may dilute
the study results.
(Donnan 2000)
A further limitation of
experimental research is
that subjects may
change their behavior or
respond in a specific
manner simply because

of awareness of being
observed.
Hawthorne effect
(Haughey, 1994, Clifford,
1997)
Naturalistic Observation A research design that One of the advantages of This disadvantages of
focuses on children’s this type of research is naturalistic observation
experiences in natural that it allows the include the fact that it
settings researcher to directly can be difficult to
observe the subject in a determine the exact
This does not involve any natural setting. cause of a behavior and
intervention of the experimementer
manipulation on the part cannot outside variables.
of the researcher. This
technique involves
observing subjects in
their natural
environment. This type of
research is often utilized
in situations where
conducting lab research
is unrealistic, cost
prohibitive or would
unduly affect the
subject’s behavior.
Longitudinal This research design Allows them to record They are expensive and
studies and follows and monitor time-consuming.
through a single group developmental trends.
over a period of time. The longer the study
The same individuals are lasts, the more subjects
studied over period of drop-out they move, get
time, usually several sick, lose interest, etc.
years or move. Subjects can bias the
outcome of a study,
because those who
remain may be dissimilar
to those who drop out.
Cross-sectional A research strategy Allow them to record and It gives no information
which individuals of monitor develop mental about how individuals
different ages are trends. The researcher change or about the
compared at one time. does not have wait for stability of their
the individuals to grow up characteristics.
or become older. (Santrock,2002)
Sequential This is the combined Allows them to record It complex, expensive
cross-sectional and and monitor development and time consuming.
longitudinal approaches trends. It provides
to learn about life-span information that is
development (Schaie, impossible to obtain from
1993 cited by Satrock , cross-sectional or
2002). This starts with a longitudinal approaches
cross-sectional study that alone (Santrock,2002)
includes individuals of
different ages. A number
of months or years after
the initial assessment,
the same individuals are
tested again-this is the
longitudinal aspect of the

design. At this later time,
a new group of subjects
is assessed at each
grade level.
Action Research Action research is a Appropriate in a Typically takes place in
reflective process of particular setting when one organization only at
progressive problem the purpose of study is a particular time and
solving led by individuals “to create changes and could not be interpreted
working with others in gain information and within different
teams or as part of a processes and outcome organisations in the
“community of practice” of the strategies used” same way. Therefore,
to improve the way they (Hunt 1987) research findings are
address issues and solve hard (imposible) to
problems (Wikipedia the Uses different methods, generalize.
free encyclopedia) can get the best out of
the different methods If research participants
In the context of teaching employed, if done well. do not feel they
action researches of understand and ‘own’ the
teacher’s stem form their Stakeholders are research project, this
own questions about and included throughout and could lead to potential
reflections on their so researchers are more conflict of interest
everyday classroom likely to make a between the researcher
practice. ‘difference’. and those participating in
the organization, but also
between the researcher
with some participants,
on the one hand and
other members of the
organization, on the
other.
Simpy explained, identifying the research problem is the first step. This is followed by
stating a tentative answer to the research problem called the hypothesis. The hypothesis is
also reffered to as an”educated guess”. How correct is your “educated guess” or “hypothesis”?
If you research problem is concerned with determining the cause of an effect or phenomenon
you have to gather and analyze data derived from experiment. This is true with experimental
research. However, if your research problem is concerned with describing data and
characteristics about the subjects or phenomenon you are studying, you do not need to
perform an experiment. This is descriptive research. After analyzing the data, you formulate
your conclusions. Compare your conclusions to your original hypothesis to find out if your
original hypothesis is correct or not. If your original hypothesis jibes with your finding and
conclusion, affirm your hypothesis. If your original hypothesis does not jibe with your finding
and conclusions, reject your original hypothesis.
Research Design
Researchers that are done with high level of quality and intergrity provide us with valuable
information about child and adolescent development. To be able to conduct quality research,
it is important that you know various research design and different data- gathering
techniques used by developmental researchers. Some are given and described below.

Data-Gathering Techniques
Data-Gathering Technique Definition/Description

1. Observation Observations can be made
in either laboratories or
materialistic settings in
naturalistic observation,
behavior is observed in the
real world like classrooms,
home in neighborhood.
2. Physiological Measures Certain indicators of
children’s development
such as, among others,
heart rate, hormonal levels,
bone growth, body weight,
and brain activity are
measured.
3. Standardized Tests These are prepared test that
asses individuals
performance in different
domains. These tests are
administrated in a consistent
manner.
4. Interviews and Involve asking the
Questionnaires participants to provide
information about
themselves based on the
interview or questionnaire
given by the researcher.
Gathering of date may be

conducted through a printed
questionnaire, over the
telephone, by mail, in
person, or on-line.
Information is obtained by
utilizing standardized
procedures so that every
participant is asked the

same questions in the same
manner. It entails asking
participants for information
in some structured format.
5. Life-History Records These are records of
information about the a
lifetime chronology of events
and activities. They often
involve a combination of
data records on education,
work, family, and residence.
These include public
records or historical
documents or interviews
with the respondent.
Ethical Principles
To serve the genuine purposes of research, teacher researchers are subject to ethical
principles. Just as we have the Code of Ethics that governs the behavior of teachers, there
also exist ethical standards that guide the conduct of research. These ethical standards serve
as reminders that as researchers, we should strive to protect the subjects of our study and to
maintain the integrity of our research. Details of these ethical principles are found in
documents such as the following:
Ethical standards of the American Educational Research Association
http:/www.aera.net/uploadedFiles/About_AERA/Ethical_Standards/EthicalStandards.pdf
Ethical Standards for Research with Children- Society for Research in Child Development
(USA) http:/www.scrcd.org/index.php?option=com_context&task=view&id=68&Itemid=110
Standards of the American Psychological Association Concerning Research
http:/www.lcsc.edu/policy/Policy/1.112a.PDF
We invite you to read and reflect on them.
Common among three standards given above are the following considerations for researchers
conducted with young children and other vulnerable population which enumerated by the
National Association for the Education of Young Children (NAEYC)
Some keys are:
Research procedures must never harm children, physically or psychologically.
Children and their families have the right to full information about the research in which they
may participate including possible risks and benefits. Their decisions to participate must be
based on what is called “informed consent:. There must be informed consent procedures with
research particpants.

Children’s questions about the research should be answered in a truthful manner and in ways
that children can understand. Researchers must be honest and clear in their communication.
There should be respect for privacy. Information obtained through research with children
should remain confidential. Researchers should not disclose personal information or the
identity of participants in written or oral reports and discussions.
Impact of Teacher’s Research Involvement on Teachers
Research itself has proven that teachers have everything to gain and nothing to lose
when they get involved in the research process. Evidence suggests that:
Teachers who have been involved in research may become more open and committed to
professional deFindinfvelopment (Oja &Pine 1989; Henson 1996;Keyes 2000;Rust 2007)
Participating in teacher research also helps teachers become more deliberate in their decision-
making and actions in the classroom.
Teacher research develops the professional dispositions of lifelong learning, reflective and
mindful teaching, and self-transformation (Mills 2000; Stringer 2007)
Engaging in teacher research at any level may lead to rethinking and reconstructing what it
means to be a teacher or teacher educator and consequently, the way teachers relate to
children and students.
Teacher research has the potential to demonstrate to teachers and prospective teachers that
learning to teach is inherently connected to learning to inquire (Borko, Liston & Whitcomb
2007)
Teacher involvement in the conduct of teacher research shows a shift from thinking about the
teacher research as something done to teachers to something done by teachers (Zeichner
1999, Lampert 2000)
APPLICATION
The class may be divided into groups. Except this Module on Research, divide the
Modules in this book among the groups. Go over the Module of the Unit assigned to your
group and look for statements of research findings. If the research designs and the data-
gathering techniques were not identified, identify to the best of your ability what must have
been used in the researches. The table below make your task easier.
Unit/Module Statement of Page Research Data-

Research Design Used Gathering
Finding Techniqui

2. A Research Abstract- A research abstract is a brief summary that appears at the
beginning of the article. It has the following parts:
• Title
• Researcher/s
• Date of Research
• Introduction
• Methods
• Findings/Results of the Study
• Conclusions and Recommendations
• References
The first three (3) are self-explanatory and so need no further explanation.
The introduction, as the title implies, introduces a concise review of research
relevant to the topic, theoretical ties, and one or more hypotheses to be tested. The
method section consists of a clear description of the subjects evaluated in the study,
the measures used and the procedures that were evaluated in the study, the
measures used and the procedures that were followed. The results section reports
the analysis of the data collected. The conclusions and recommendations state the
author/s answers to the specific problems of the study and suggestions on next
steps based on the findings and conclusions of the study. Methods, Findings/Results
of the Abstract. The last part of the abstract is the references. These include
bibliographic information for each source cited in the research report.

Surf the internet for samples of research abstracts/researches then
using the matrix given below, write the problem, the research methodology,
the findings and conclusions.
.
Problem Research Methodology
Source: (bibliographical entry format)

_____________________________________
_____________________________________
_____________________________________
Findings _____________________________________ Conclusion
_____________________________________ s

BIG IDEAS
1. Quality research adheres to the scientific method.

2. For research on child and adolescent development to serve its ultimate purpose,
researchers must be governed by ethical principles.
3. There are various research design and data-gathering technique to use depends on
the nature of the research problem and objective/s of the research.
4. Teachers are both producers of knowledge when they conduct research and are
consumers or end users of knowledge when they utilize research findings to improve
instruction.
5. Research has a transformative effect on teachers self-understanding and on their
classroom practice. It enables teachers to develop a better understanding of
themselves, their classrooms and their practice through the act of reflective inquiry.
SYPNAPSE STRENGTHENERS
Group research
You may want to replicate a research that you came across with in your readings of
readings of research abstracts (APPLICATION #2 above). Or you want to research a
research problem you consider to be relevant and significant. Has it checked by your
teacher? With your teacher as research adviser, conduct a research on the approved
problem. Your teacher may set aside a day or two for the research presentation by group.
The research group may take turn serving as panel of reactors during the research
presentation. For evaluation, you may use the Scoring Rubric below for the research paper
and the Research Presentation Rubric for your presentation.

Rubric for Research Papers
Title of Research Paper
___________________________________________________
Name__________________________________Date_______
Performa Distinguis Proficient Intermedi Novice Possi Sco
nce hed ______Poi ate Points ble re
Element ______ nts ____Point
Points s
Purpose •Establishe •Focused •An •Limited
and Focus s and on a attempt to awarenes
maintains purpose; establish s of
clear focus, evidence and audience
evidence of of voice maintain and/or
distinctive and/or purpose purpose
voice and suitable and
/or tone communic
appropriate ate with
tone. the
audience.
Developm •Depth and •Depth of •Unelabora •Minimal
ent of complexity idea ted idea idea
Ideas of ideas developme developme developm
supported nt nt; ent and/or
by rich, supported unelaborat unrelated
engaging, by ed and/or details
and/or elaborated, repetitious
pertinent relevant details
details; details.
evidence of
analysis,
refelction
and insight

Reference •Use of •Use of •Some •Few
s references references references reference
indicate indicate s
substantial ample
research research
Organizati •Careful •Logical •Lapses in •Random
on and/or organizatio focus or weak
suitable n and/or organizati
organizatio coherence on
n
Sentence •Variety of •Controlled •Simplistic •Incorrect
Structure sentence and varied and/or and/or
structure sentence imprecise wording
and length structure language and/or
sentence
structure
Language •Precise •Acceptabl •Simplistic •Incorrect
and/or rich e, effective and/or and/or
language language imprecise ineffective
language wording
and/or
sentence
structure
Grammar •Control of •Few •Some •errors in
and surface errors in errors in grammar
Formattin features grammar grammar and
g to length and/or format
and format that
complexity do not
interior
with

Freud`s Psychoanalytic Theory
MODULE 5 -Maria Rita D. Lucas, Ph. D.
LEARNING OUTCOMES
At the end of this module, you should be able to:
 Explain Freud’s views about child and adolescent development.
 Draw implications of Freud’s theory to education.
INTRODUCTION
Freud’s views about human development are more than a century old. He can
be considered the most well-known psychologist because of his very interesting
theory about the unconscious and also about sexual development. Although a lot of
his views were criticized and some considered them debunked, (he himself recanted
some of his earlier views). Freud’s theory remains to be one of the most influential in
psychology. His theory sparked the ideas in the brilliant minds of other theorists and
thus became the starting point of many other theories, notable of which is Erickson’s
psychosocial theory in module 7.
ACTIVITY
1. Recall a recent incident in your life when you had to make a decision. Narrate
the situation below. Indicate what the decision was about, the factors that
were involved and how you arrived at your decision.
________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________
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ANALYSIS
What factors influenced you in making your decision?
Which of the following did you consider most in making your decision: what will
make you feel satisfied, what is most beneficial or practical, or what you believed
was the most moral thing to do? Elaborate your answer.
________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________

________________________________________________________________
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ABSTRACTION/GENERALIZATION
As a person grows, the personality is also formed. Many psychologist present
different views about how personality develops. As mntioned. Freud presents a
very interesting theory about personality. Its components and development. Read
on and hopefully it will also somehow lead you to understand more your own
personality.
As you read through Freud’s theory, fill out the graphic organizer below to
highlight the important concepts:
• EROGENOUS ZONE
• DESCRIPTION OF THE STAGE
ORAL STAGE • FIXATIONS
• EROGENOUS ZONE
ANAL STAGE • FIXATIONS
• EROGENOUS ZONE
PHALLIC STAGE • FIXATIONS
• EROGENOUS ZONE
LATENCY STAGE • FIXATIONS
• EROGENOUS ZONE
GENITAL STAGE • FIXATIONS
Freud’s stages of Psychosexual Development

Freud is the most popular psychologist that studied the development of
personality, also probably the most controversial. His theory of psychosexual
development includes five distinct stages. According to Freud, a person goes through
the sequence of these five stages and along the way there are needs to be met.
Whether these needs are met or not, determines whether the person will develop a
healthy personality or not.The theory is quite interesting for many because Freud
identified specific erogenous zones for each stage of development. This are specific
“pleasure areas” that become focal points for the particular stage. If needs are not met

along the area, a fixation occurs. As an adult, the person will now manifest behaviors
related to this erogenous zone.
Oral stage (birth to 18 months). The erogenous zone is the mouth. During the
oral stage, the child is focused on oral pleasures (sucking). Too muc or too little
satisfaction can lead to an Oral Fixation or Oral Personality which is shown in an
increased focus on oral activities. This type of personality may be oral receptive, that
is, have a stronger tendency to smoke, drink alcohol, overeat, or oral aggressive, that
is, with a tendency to bite his or her nails, or use curse words or even gossip. As a
result, these persons may become too dependent on others, easily fooled, and lack
leadership traits. On the other hand, they may also fight these tendencies and become
pessimistic and aggressive in relating with people.
Anal stage (18 months to 3 years). The child’s focus of pleasure in this stage
is the anus. The child finds satisfaction in eliminating and retaining feces. Through
society’s expectations, particularly the parents, the child needs to work on toilet
training. Let us remember that between one year and a half to three years the child’s
favorite word might be “No!”. Therefore, a struggle might exist in the toilet training
process when the child retains feces when asked to eliminate, or may choose to
defecate when asked to hold feces for some reason. In terms of personality, fixation
during this stage can result in being anal retentive, an obsession with cleanliness,
perfection, and control; or anal expulsive where the person may become messy and
disorganized.
Phallic Stage (ages 3 to 6). The pleasure or erogenous zone is the genitals.
During the preschool age, children become interested in what makes boys and girls
different. Preschoolers will sometimes be seen fondling their genitals. Freud’s studies
led him to believe that during this stage boy develop unconscious sexual desire for
their mother. Boys may fear that their father will punish them for these feelings. Thus,
the castration anxiety. These feelings comprise what Freud called Oedipus Complex.
In Greek Mythology, Oedipus unintentionally killed his father and married his mother
Jocasta.
Psychoanalyst also believed that girls may also have a similar experience,
developing unconscious sexual attraction towards their father. This is what is referred
to as the Electra Complex.
According to Freud, out of fear of castration and due to the strong competition
of their father. Boys eventually decide to identify with them rather than fight. By
identifying themselves as males and develop masculine characteristics and identify
themselves as males and repress their sexual feelings toward their mother. A fixation
at this stage could result in sexual deviances (both overindulging and avoidance) and
weak or confused sexual identity according to psychoanalysts.
Latency Stage (age 6 to puberty). It’s during this stage the sexual urges remain
repressed. The children’s focus is the acquisition physical and academic skills. Boys
usually relate more with boys and girls with girls during this stage.
Genital Stage (puberty onwards). The fifth stage of psychosexual development
begins at the start of puberty when sexual urges are once again awakened. In the

earlier stage, adolescents focus their sexual urges towards the opposite sex peers,
with the pleasure centered on genitals.
Freud’s Personality Components
Freud described the personality structures as having three components, the id,
the ego, and the superego. For each person, the first to emerge is the id, followed by
the ego, and last to develop is the superego.
While reading about the three components, use the graphic organizer below to
put your notes and questions about them.
ego
id superego
One’s
Personality
The id. Freud says that a child is born with the id. The id plays a vital role in
one’s personality because as a baby, it works so that the baby’s essential need are
met. The id operates on the pleasure principle. It focuses on immediate gratification
or satisfaction of its needs. So whatever feels good now is what it will pursue with no
consideration for the reality, logically or practicality of the situation. For example, a
baby is hungry. It’s id wants food or milk. So the baby will cry. When the child needs
to be changed, the id cries. When the child is uncomfortable, in pain, too hot, too cold,
or just wants attention, the id id speaks up until his or her needs are met.
Nothing else matters to the id except the satisfaction of its own needs. It is not
oriented towards considering reality nor the needs of others. Just see how babies cry

any time of the day and night! Absolutely no regard of whether mommy is tired or
daddy is sleeping. When the id was something, it wants it now an it wants it fast!
The ego. As the baby turns into a toddler and then into a preschooler, he/she
relates more with the environment, the ego slowly begins to emerge. The ego operates
using the reality principle. It is aware that others also have needs to be met. It is
practical because it knows that being impulsive or selfish can result to negative
consequences later, so it reasons and considers the best response to situations. As
such, it is the deciding agent of the personality. Although it functions to help the id
meet its needs, it always takes into account the reality of the situation.
The superego. Near the end of the preschool years, or the end of the phallic
stage, the superego develops. The superego embodies a person’s moral aspect. This
develops from what the parents, teachers and others persons who exert influence
impart to be good or moral. The superego is likened to conscience because it exerts
influence on what one considers right and wrong.
The Three Components and Personality Adjustment

Freud said that a well-adjusted person is one who has strong ego, who can help
satisfy the needs of the id without going against the superego while maintaining the
persons’s sense of what is logical, practical and real. Of course, it is not easy for the
ego to do all that and strike a balance. If the id exerts too much power over the ego,
the person becomes too impulsive and pleasure-seeking behavior takes over one’s
life. On the opposite direction, one may find the superego so strong that the ego is
overpowered. The person becomes so harsh and judgemental to himself and others’
actions. The person’s best effort to be good may still fall short of the superego’s
expectations.
The ability of a learner to be well-adjusted is largely influenced by how the
learner was brought up. His experiences about how his parents met his needs, the
extent to which he was allowed to do the things he wanted to do, and also how he was
taught about right and wrong, all figures to the type of personality and consequent
adjustment that a person will make. Freud believed that the personality of an individual
is formed early during the childhood years.
Topographical Model
The unconscious. Freud said that most what we go through in our lives,
emotions, beliefs, feelings, and impulses deep within are not available to us at a
conscious level. He believed that most of what influence us is our unconscious. The
Oedipus and Electra Complex mentioned earlier were both buried down into the
unconcoius, out of our awareness due to the extreme anxiety they caused. While these
complexes are in our unconscious, they still influence our thinking feeling and doing in
perhaps dramatic ways.

The conscious. Freud also said that all that we are aware of is stored in our
conscious mind. Our conscious mind only comprises a very small part of who we are
so that, in our everyday life, we are only aware of a very small part of what makes up
our personality; most of what we are is hidden and out of reach.
The subconscious. The last part is the preconscious or subconscious. This is
the part of us that we reach if prompted, but is not in our active conscious. Its right
below the surface, but still “hidden” somewhat unless we search for it. In_formation
such as our telephone number, some childhood memories, or the name of your best
childhood friend is stored in the preconscious.
Because the unconscious is so huge, and because we are only aware of the very small
conscious at any given time, Freud used the analogy of the iceberg to illustrate it. A
big part of the iceberg is hidden beneath the waters’ surface.
The water, may represent all that we are not aware of, have not experienced,
and that has not been made part of our personalities, referred to as the nonconscious.
Conscious
Preconscious
superego
Nonconscious
Ego*
Unconscious
Id
*Note: Ego is freefloating
in all three levels.
APPLICATION
1. Freud use the case study method to gather the data he used to formulate his
theories. Among the many case studies, five really stood out as bases of his
concepts and ideas. Do further reading of these case studies and write a
reaction paper on one of these case studies focusing on how he explained the
personality development of the individuals in the case studies.

From your internet search engine, just type Freud’s case studies. It will be easy
to find a pdf file which you can readily download.
2. Note Freud’s ideas about hypnosis, free association and interpretation of

dreams. Do you think his ideas are still useful today? Explain your views.

RESEARCH CONNECTION
Read a research that is related to Freud`s Theory. Fill out the matrix below.
.

_____________________________________
_____________________________________
_____________________________________
_____________________________________ s

SYNAPSE STRENGTHENERS
Visit the library of Congress in Washington DC, through its virtual museum. Visit
the walls that contain very interesting pictures, documents and information about the
most controversial psychologist of all time, Sigmund Freud!
You won’t need a passport, just follow these steps:
1. Go www.loc.gov
2. Click “Exhibitions”
3. Click “view all exhibits”
4. Go to “Sigmund Freud: Conflict and Culture”
5. Seat back and enjoy the virtual tuor! The pictures and write-ups are so
interesting!!!!
As in any visit to a museum, it would be good to take some notes. Make notes
of the following and add your own ideas and comments as well….
Describe Freud’s family background. Describe the composition of his family.
What do you think was it like for Freud growing up in this family?
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REFLECTION
5- Minute Non-Stop Writing begins… NOW
From the module on Freud`s Psychoanalytic, I learned that….

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Piaget`s Stages of Cognitive
MODULE 6 Development
Maria Rita D. Lucas, Ph. D
The principle goal of education is to create men who are

capable of doing new things, not simply of repeating what other
generations have done- men who are creative, inventive and
discoveries.
-Jean Piaget
LEARNING OUTCOMES
 Describe Piaget`s stages in your own words.

 Conduct a simple Piagetian Task interview with children.
 Match learning activities to the learners` cognitive stages.
INTRODUCTION
Jean Piaget`s Cognitive Theory of Development is truly a classic in the field of
educational psychology. This theory fueled other researches and theories of
development and learning. Its focus is on how individuals construct knowledge.
ACTIVITY
Read the situation below. The class may choose to dramatize each of the
situation before analysis is done.
1. It`s Christmas and Uncle Bob is giving “aguinaldo” to the children. Three
year-old Karen did not want to receive the one-hundred-peso bill and
instead preferred to receive four 20 peso bills. Her ten year-old cousins were
telling her it`s better to get the one hundred bill, but they failed to convince
her.
2. Siblings, Tria, 10; Enzo, 8; and Riel, 4 were sorting out their stuffed animals.
They had 7 bears, 3 dogs, 2 cows and 1 dolphin. Mommy, a psychology
teacher, enter and says “Good thing you`re sorting those. Do you have more
stuffed animals or more bears?” Tria and Enzo says “stuffed animals.” Riel
says,” Bears.”
3. While eating on her high chair, seven-month old Liza accidentally dropped
her spoon on the floor. She saw mommy pick it up Liza again drops her new
spoon, and she does this several times more on purpose. Mommy didn`t
like it at all but Liza appeared to enjoy dropping the spoons the whole time.

ANALYSIS
1. On situation 1: why do you think did Karen prefer the 20-peso bill?
_______________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________
2. On situation 2: why do you think Riel answered “Bears?” What does this say about how
she thought to answer the question?
_______________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________
3. On situation 3: why do you think baby Liza appeared to enjoy dropping the spoons?
_______________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________
ABSTRACTION
The children in the situations presented above were of different ages and so
also should apparent differences in the way they thought. They were in different stages
of cognitive development. Perhaps no one has influenced the field of cognitive
development more than Jean Piaget. As you read through this module you will come
to understand cognitive development of children and adolescents and also identify
ways of applying this understanding in the teaching learners.
For sixty years, Jean Piaget conducted research on cognitive development. His
research method involved observing a small number of individuals as they responded
to cognitive tasks that he designed. These tasks were later known as Piagetian task.
Piaget called his general theoretical framework “genetic epistemology” because

he was interested in how knowledge developed in human organisms. Piaget was
initially into biology and he also has a background in philosophy. Knowledge from both
these disciplines influenced his theories and research of child development. Out of this
researches, Piaget came up with the stages of cognitive development.
Piaget examine the implications on his theory not only to aspects of cognition
but also to intelligence and moral development. His theory has been applied widely to
teaching and curriculum design specially in the preschool and elementary curricula.
Basic Cognitive Concepts

Schema. Piaget used the term “schema” to refer to the cognitive structures by
which individuals intellectually adapt to and organize their environment. It is an
individual`s way to understand or create meaning about a thing or experienced. It is
like the mind has a filling cabinet and each drawer has folders that contain files of
things he has had an experience with. For instance, if a child sees a dog for the first
time, he creates his own schema of what a sig is. It has four legs and a tail. It barks.

It`s furry. The child then “puts this description of a dog “on file” in his mind. When he
sees another similar dogs, he “pulls” out the file (his schema of a dog) in his mid, looks
at the animal at the animal, and says “four legs, tail, barks, furry… “That`s a dog!”
Assimilation. This is the process of fitting a new experience into an existing or

previously created cognitive structure or schema. If the child sees another dog, this
time a little smaller one, he would make sense of what he is seeing by adding this new
information (a different looking dog) into his schema of a dog.
Accommodation. This is the process of creating a new schema. If the same

child now sees another animal that looks a little bit like a dog, but somehow different.
He might try to fit it into his schema of a dog, and say “Look mommy, what a funny
looking dog. Its bark is funny too!” with mommy`s further descriptions, the child will
now create a new schema, that of a goat. He now adds a new file in his filling cabinet.
Equilibration. Piaget believed that people have the natural need to understand
how the world works and to find order, structure and predictability in their life.
Equilibration is achieving proper balance between assimilation and accommodation.
When our experiences do not match our schemata (plural of schema) or cognitive
structures, we experience cognitive disequilibrium. This means there is a
discrepancy between what is perceived and what is understood. We then exert effort
through assimilation and accommodation to establish equilibrium once more.
Cognitive development involves a continuous effort to adapt to the environment

in terms of assimilation and accommodation. In this sense, Piaget`s theory is similar
in nature to other constructivist perspectives of learning like Bruner and Vygotsky.
Piaget`s Stages of Cognitive Development

Stage 1. Sensori-motor Stage. The first stage corresponds from birth to
infancy. This is the stage when a child who is initially reflexive in grasping, sucking
and reaching becomes more organized in his movement and activity. The term
sensori-motor focuses on the prominence of the senses and muscle movement
through which the infant comes to learn about himself and the world. In working with
children in the sensori-motor stage, teachers with appropriate objects to play with.
Object permanence. This is the ability of the child to know that an object still
exists even when out of sight. This ability is attained in the sensory motor stage.
(Please prefer to Unit 2, Module 13 for more notes)
Stage 2. Pre-Operational Stage. The preoperational stage covers from about

two to seven years old, roughly corresponding to the preschool years. Intelligence at
this stage is intuitive in nature. At this stage, the child can now make mental
representations and is able to pretend, the child is now ever closer to the use of
symbols. This stage is highlighted by the following:
Symbolic Function. This is ability to represent objects and events. A symbol
is a thing that represents something else. A drawing, a written word, or a spoken word

comes to be understood as representing a real object like a real MRT train. Symbolic
function gradually develops in the period between 2 to 7 years, Riel, a two-year may
pretend that she is drinking from a glass which is really empty. Though she already
pretends the presence of water, the glass remains to be a glass. At around four years
of ae, Nico, may, after pretending to drink from an empty glass, turns the glass into as
rocket ship or a telephone. By the age of 6 or 7 the child can pretend play with objects
that exist only in his mind. Enzo, who is six, can do a whole ninja turtle routine without
any costume nor “props”. Tria, who is 7 can pretend to host an elaborate princess ball
only in her mind.
Egocentrism. This is the tendency of the child to only see his point of view and
to assume that everyone also has his same point of view. The child cannot take the
perspective of others. You see this in five-year-old boy who buys a toy truck for his
mother`s birthday. Or a three-year-old girl wo cannot understand why her cousins call
her daddy “uncle” and not daddy.
Centration. This refers to the tendency of the child to only focus on one aspect
of a thing or event and exclude other aspects. For example, when a child is presented
with two identical glasses with the same amount of water. However, once water from
one of the glasses is transferred to an obviously taller but narrow glass, the child might
say that there is more water in the taller glass. The child only focused or “centered”
only one aspect if the new glass, that it is a taller glass. The child was not able to
perceive that the new glass is also narrower. The child only centered on the height of
the glass and excluded the width in determining the amount of water in glass.
Irreversibility. Pre-operational children still have the inability to reverse their

thinking, they can understand that 2 + 3 is 5. But cannot understand that 5-3 is 2.
Animism. This is the tendency of children to attribute human like traits or

characteristics to inanimate objects. When at night, the child is asked, where the sun
is, she will reply “Mr. Sun is asleep.”
Transductive reasoning. This refers to the pre-operational child`s type of

reasoning that is neither inductive or deductive. Reasoning appears to be from
particular to particular i.e., if A Causes B, then B causes A. For example, since her
mommy comes home every day around six o` clock in the evening when asked why it
is already night, the child will say “because my mom is already home.” (For more notes
on the cognitive development of the toddler, refer to Unit 2.)
Stage 3. Concrete-Operational Stage. This stage is characterized by the

ability of the child to think logically but only in terms od concrete objects. This covers
approximately the ages between 8-11 years or the elementary school years, the
concrete operational stage is marked by the following:
Decentering. This refers to the ability of the child to perceive the different
features of objects and situations. No longer is the child focused or limited to one

aspects or dimension. This allows the child to e more logical when dealing with
concrete objects and situations.
Reversibility. During the stage of concrete operations, the child can now follow
that certain operations can be done in reverse. For example, they can already
comprehend the commutative property of addition, and that subtraction is the reverse
of addition. They can also understand that a ball of clay shaped into a dinosaur can
again be rolled back into ball of clay.
Conservation. This is the ability to know that certain properties of objects like
numbers, mass, volume, or area do not change even if there is a change in
appearance because of the development of the child`s ability of decentering and also
reversibility, the concrete operational child can now judge rightly that the amount of
water in a taller but narrower container is still the same as when the water was in the
shorter but wider lass. The children progress to attain conservation abilities gradually
being a pre-conserver, a transitional thinker and then a conserver.
Seriation. This refers to the ability to order or arrange thins in a series based
on one dimension such as weight, volume, or size.
Stage 4. Formal Operational Stage. In the final stage of formal operations
covering ages between 12 and 15 years, thinking becomes more logical. They can
now, solve abstract problems and can hypothesize. This stage is characterized by the
following:
Hypothetical Reasoning. This is the ability to come up with different

hypothesis about a problem and to gather and weigh data in order to make a final
decision or judgement. This can be done in the absence of concrete on objects. The
individuals can now deal with “What if” questions.
Analogical reasoning. This is the ability to perceive the relationship in one
instance and then use that relationship to narrow down possible answers in another
similar situation or problem. The individual in the formal operations stage can make
an analogy. If United Kingdom is to Europe, then Philippines is to _______. The
individual will reason that since the UK is found the continent of Europe then the
Philippines is found in what continent? Then Asia is his answer. Through reflective
thought and even in the absence of concrete objects, the individual can now
understand relationships and do analogical reasoning
Deductive Reasoning. This is the ability to think logically by applying a general

rule to a particular instance or situation. For example, all countries near the north pole
have cold temperatures. Greenland is near the North pole. Therefore, Greenland has
cold temperature. From Piaget`s findings and comprehensive theory, we can derive
the following principles:
1. Child will provide different Explanations of reality at different stages of

cognitive development,

2. Cognitive development is facilitated by providing activities or situations that
engage learners and require adaptation (i.e., assimilation and
accommodation).
3. Learning materials and activities should involve the appropriate level of
motor or mental operations for a child of given age avoid asking students to
perform tasks that are beyond their current cognitive capabilities.
4. Use teaching methods that actively involve students and present
challenges.
APPLICATION
This activity focuses on a story involving the interaction of family members.
Choose a story you want to use for this activity. It can be from a story you have read
or a movie or “telenovela” that you watched or plan to watch. Use the matrix below to
relate the characters to Piaget`s stages of cognitive development.
Title of Story/Movie: _______________________________________
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Character Piaget`s Connection

Description
Father What is his stage of Cognitive Development?
Examples: Cite instances why you say he is in this
stage? (what he thought of, how he thought, his reactions
and attitudes)

Mother What is his stage of Cognitive Development?
and attitudes)
Children What is his stage of Cognitive Development?

1. Examples: Cite instances why you say he is in this
and attitudes)

Other Characters What is his stage of Cognitive Development?
and attitudes)
Organize a talk show. Four students volunteer (or will be assigned by teacher)
to act as Piaget. Student 1 will be interrogated on Stage 1 of Piaget; student 2, on
stage 2; student 3 on stage 3; and student 4 on stage 4. The students acting as Piaget
should master the stages assigned to them to enable them to answer question from
classmates.
The students should use the pronoun You when they ask the question and the
four students acting as Piaget must use the pronoun I when they answer the questions.

APPLICATION
Read a research that is related to Piaget`s theory. Fill out the matrix below.

_____________________________________
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Findings Conclusion
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s

REFLECTION
From the module on Piaget`s Stages of Cognitive Development, I learned

that….
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7
Erikson`s Psycho-Social Theory of
MODULE Development
-Maria Rita D. Lucas, Ph. D.
"Healthy children will not fear life if their elders have integrity enough not to fear
death."
-Erik Erikson
LEARNING OUTCOMES
At the end of this module you should be able to:
•Explain the 8 Stages of Life to someone you care about.
•Write a short story of your life using Erikson's stage as framework.
•Suggest at least 6 ways on how Erikson's theory can be useful for you as a future
teacher.
INTRODUCTION
Erikson's stages of psychosocial development is a very relevant, highly
regarded and meaningful theory. Life is a continuous process involving learning and
trials which help us to grow. Erikson's enlightening theory guides us and helps to tell
us why.
ACTIVITY
Erik Erikson's Stage Theory of Development Questionnaire
This contains selected items from Rhona Ochse and Cornelis Plug's self-report
questionnaire assessing the personality dimensions associated with Erikson's first 5
stages of psychosexual development. It can serve to make the stages personally
relevant to you.
Indicate how often each of these statements applies to you by using the
following scale:
0= never applies to you
1= occasionally or seldom applies to you
2= fairly often applies to you
3= very often applies to you

Read the instructions at the
end before putting scores
here.
Stage 1. Trust Vs. Mistrust Score
1. I feel pessimistic about the future of humankind.
2. I feel the world's major problems can be solved.
3. I am filled with admiration for humankind.
4. People can be trusted.
5. I feel optimistic about my future.
Total score Stage 1
Stage 2: Autonomy Vs. Shame and Doubt Score

6. When people try to pursuade me to do something
I don't want to, I refuse.
7. After I have made a decision, I feel I have made a
mistake.
8. I am unnecessarily apologetic.
9. I worry that my friends will find fault with me.
10. When I disagree with someone, I tell them.
Total score in stage 2
Stage 3: Initiative Vs. Guilt Score

11. I am prepared to take a risk to get what I want.
12. I feel hesitant to try out a new way of doing
something.
13. I am confident in carrying out my plans to a
successful conclusion.
14. I feel what happens to me is the result of what I
have done.
15. When I have difficulty in getting something right,
I give up.
Total score in stage 3

Stage 4: Industry Vs. Inferiority Score
16. When people look at something I have done, I
feel embarrassed.
17. I get a great deal of pleasure from working.
18. I feel too incompetent to do what I would really
like to do in life.
19. I avoid doing something difficult because I feel I
would fail.
20. I feel competent.
Total score in Stage 4
Stage 5: Identity Vs. Identity Diffusion Score

21. I wonder what sort of person I really am.
22. I feel certain about what I should do with my life.
23. My worth is recognized by others.
24. I feel proud to be the sort of person I am.
25. I am unsure as to how people feel about me.
Stage 6: Intimacy Vs. Isolation Score

26. I feel that no one has ever known the real me.
27. I have a feeling of complete "togetherness" with
someone.
28. I feel it is better to remain free than to become
commited to marriage for life.
29. I share my private thoughts with someone.
30. I feel as though I am alone in the world.

Introduction to the 8 stages:
1. Erikson's "psychosocial" term is derived from the two source words namely
psychological (or the root, 'psycho' relating to the mind, brain, personality, etc.) and
social (external relationships and environment), both at the heart of Erikson's theory.
Occasionally you'll see the term extended to biopsychosocial, in which "bio" refers to
life as in biological.
2. Erikson's theory was largely influenced by Sigmund Frued. But Erikson extended
the theory and incorporated cultural and social aspect into Freud's biological and
sexually-oriented theory.
3. It's also interesting to see how his ideas developed over time, perhaps aided by his
own journey through the 'psychosocial crisis' stages model that inder pinned his work.
4. Like other influential theories, Erikson's model is simple and well designed. The
theory is a basis for broad or complex discussion and analysis of personality and
behavior, and also for understanding and for facilitating personal development of self
and others. It can help the teacher in becoming more knowledgeable and at the same
time understanding of the various environmental factors that affect his own and his
student personality and behavior.
5. Erikson's eight stages theory is tremendously powerful model. It is very accessible
and obviously relevant to modern life, from several different perspective for
understanding and explaining how personality and behavior develops in people. As
such Erickson's theory is useful for teaching, parenting, self-awareness, managing
and coaching, dealing with conflict, and generally for understanding self and others.
6. Various terms are used to described Erickson's model, for example Erikson's
biopsychosocial or bio-psycho-social theory (bio refers to biological, which in this
context means life): Erikson's human development cycle or life cycle, and variations
of these. All refer to the same eight stages psychosocial theory, it being Erikson's most
distinct work and remarkable model.
7. The epigenetic principle. As Boeree explains "this principle say that we develop
through a predetermined unfolding of our personalities in eight stages. Our progress
through each stage is in part determined by our success, or lack of success, in all the
previous stage. A little like the unfolding of a rose bud, each petal opens up a certain
time, in a certain order, which nature, thought its genetics, has determined. If we
interfere in the natural order of development by pulling a petal forward prematurely or
out of order, we ruin the development of the entire flower."
Erikson's theory delved into how personality was formed and believed that the earlier
stages served as a foundation for the later stages. The theory highlighted the influence
of one's environment, particularly on how earlier experiences gradually build upon the
next and result into one's personality.
8. Each stage involve a psychosocial crisis of two opposing emotional forces is
'contrary dispositions'. Each crisis stage relate to a corresponding life and stage and

its inherent challenges. Erikson's used the words 'syntonic' for the first-listed 'positive'
disposition in each crisis. (e.g.,Trust) and 'dystonic' for the second-listed 'negative'
disposition (e.g.,Mistrust). To signify the opposing or conflicting relationship between
each pair of forces or disposition, Erikson connected them with the word 'versus'.
9. If a stage is managed well, we carry away a certain virtue or psychosocial strength
which will help us through the rest of the stages of our lives. Successfully passing
through each crisis involves 'achieving' a healthy ratio or balance between the two
opposing dispositions that represent each crisis.
10. On the other hand, if we don't do so well, we may develop maladaptation and
malignancies, as well as endanger all our future development. A malignancy is the
worse of the two. It involves too little of the positive and too much of the negative
aspect of the task, such as a person who can't trust others. A Maladaptation is not
quite as bad and involves too much of the positive and too little of the negative , such
as a person who trusts too much.
11. The crisis stages are not sharply defined steps. Elements tend to overlap and
mingle from one stage to the next and to the preceding stages. It's a broad framework
and concept, not a mathematical formula which replicates precisely across all people
and situations.
12. Erickson was keen to point out that the transition between stages is 'overlapping'.
Crisis stages connect with each other like inter-laced fingers, not like a series of neatly
stacked boxes. People don't suddenly wake up one morning and be in a new life stage.
Changes don't happen in regimented clear-cut steps. Changes are graduated, mixed-
together and organic.
13. Erikson also emphasized the significance of 'mutuality' and 'generativity' in his
theory. The terms are linked. Mutuality reflects the effects of generations on each
other, especially among families, and particularly between parents and children and
grandchildren. Everyone potentially affects everyone else's experiences as they pass
through the different crisis stage. Generativity, actually a named disposition within one
of the crisis stages (Generativity v Stagnation, stage seven), reflect the significant
relationship between adults and the best interests of children - one's own children, and
in a way everyone else/s children-the next generation, and all the following
generations.
Now you are ready to go over the eight stages. As you read, enjoy filling
up the concept map we made, found at yhe beginning of each stage. This will
help ypu remember the important terms in each stage and how these terms are
interrelated . Use the side margins to write your thoughts about the stage and
how they connect to your own life now and as a future teacher.

THE EIGHT PSYCHOSOCIAL STAGES OF DEVELOPMENT :
Stage One
STAGE 1
TOO MUCH TOO MUCH
PSYCHOSOCIAL CRISIS MALIGNANCY

MALADAPTATION
VIRTUE
Psychosocial Analysis
The first stage, infancy, is approximately the first year or year and half of life.
The crisis is trust vs. mistrust. The goal is to develop trust without completely
eliminating the capacity for mistrust. If the primary caregivers, like the parents can give
the baby a sense of familiarity, consistency, and continuity, then the baby will develop
the feeling that the world is a safe place to be, that people are reliable and loving. If
the parents are unreliable and inadequate, if they reject the infant of harm it, if other
interests cause both parents to turn away from the infant's needs to satisfy their own
instead, then the infant will develop mistrust. He or she will be apprehensive and
suspicious around people.
Maladaptation/Malignancy
Please understand that this doesn't mean that the parents have to be perfect. In fact,
parents who are overly protective of the child, who are there the minute the first cry
comes out, will lead that child into the maladaptive tendency which Erikson calls
sensory maladjustment: Overly trusting, even gullible, this person cannot believe
anyone would mean them harm, and will use all the defenses as their command to
find an explanation or excuse for the person who did him wrong. Worse, of course, is
the child whose balance is tipped way over in the mistrust side. They will develop the
malignant tendency of withdrawal, characterized by depression, paranoia, and
possibly psychosis.
Virtue
If the proper balance is achieved, the child will develop the virtue of hope, the strong
belief that, even when things are not going well, they will work out well in the end. One
of the signs that a child is doing well in the first stage is when the child isn't overly
upset by the need to wait a moment for the best satisfaction of his or her needs: Mom
or Dad doesn't have to be perfect: I trust them enough to believe that, if they can't be
here immediately, they will be here soon: things may be tough now, but they will work

out. This is the same ability that, in later life, gets us through disappointments in love,
our careers, and many other domains of life.
Stage Two
Stage 2
TOO MUCH TOO MUCH
MALADAPTATION PSYCHOSOCIAL CRISIS

MALIGNANCY
VIRTUE
Psychosocial Crisis
The second stage is early childhood, from about 18 months to 3-4 years old.
The task is to achieve a degree of autonomy while minimizing shame and doubt. If
mom and dad, or caregiver permits the child, now a toddler, to explore and manipulate
his or her environment, the child will develop a sense of autonomy or independence.
The parents should not discourage the child, but neither should they push. A balance
is a required. People often advise new parents to be "firm but tolerant" at this stage,
and the advice is good. This way, the child will develop both self-control and self-
esteem. On the other hand, it is rather easy for the child to develop instead a sense of
shame and doubt. If the parents come down hard on any attempt to explore and be
independent, the child will soon give up with the belief that he/she cannot and should
not act in his/her own. We should keep in mind that even something as innocent as
laughing at the toddler's efforts can lead the child to feel deeply ashamed and to doubt
his/her abilities.
There are other ways to lead children to shamed and doubt. If you give
children unrestricted freedom and no sense of limits, or if you try to help children do
what they are not good for much. If you aren't patient enough to wait for your child to
tie his or her shoe-laces, your child will never learn to tie them. And will assume that
this is too difficult to learn!
Nevertheless, a little "shame and doubt" is not only inevitable, but beneficial.
Without it, you will develop the maladaptive tendency Erikson calls impulsiveness a
sort of shameless willfulness that leads you, in later childhood and even adulthood, to
jump into things without proper consideration of your abilities. Worse, of course, is too
much shame and doubt, which leads to the malignancy. Erikson calls
compulsiveness. The compulsive person feel as if their entire being rides on
everything they do, and so everything must be done perfectly. Following all the rules
precisely keeps you from mistakes, and mistakes must be avoided at all costs. Many
of you know how it feels to always be ashamed and always doubt yourself. A little
more patience and tolerance with your own children may help them avoid your path.
And give yourself a little slack, too!
Virtue
If you get the proper, positive balance of autonomy and shame and doubt, you will
develop the virtue of willpower or determination. One of the most admirable -- and
frustrating-- things about two -- and three-year-olds is their determination. "Can do" is
their motto. If we can preserve that "can do" attitude (with appropriate modesty to
balance it) we are much better off as adults.
Stage Three
STAGE THREE
TOO MUCH TOO MUCH
MALADAPTION PSYCHOSOCIAL CRISIS

MALIGNANCY
VIRTUE
Psychosocial Crisis
Stage three is the early childhood stage, from 3 or 4 to 5 or 6. The task is to
learn initiative without too much guilt. Initiative means a positive response to the
world's challenges, taking on responsibilities, learning new skills, feeling purposeful.
Parents can encourage initiative by encouraging children to try out their ideas. We
should accept and encourage fantasy and curiosity and imagination. This is a time for
play, not for formal education. The child is now capable, as never before, of imagining
a future situation, one that isn't a reality right now. Initiative is the attempt to make that
non-reality a reality.
But if children can imagine the future, if they can plan, then they can be
responsible as well and guilty. If my 2 years old flushes my watch down the toilet. I
can safely assume that there were no "evil intentions". It was just a matter of a shiny
object going round and round and down. What fun! But if my 5 year old does the same
thing... Well, she should know what's going to happen to daddy's temper, and what

going to happen to her! She can guilty of the act and she can begin to feel guilty as
well. The capacity for moral judgment has arrived.
Erikson is, of course, a Freudian, and as such, he includes the Oedipal
experience in this stage. From his perspective, the Oedipal crisis involves the
reluctance a child feels is relinquishing his/her closeness to the opposite sex parent.
A parent has the responsibility, socially, to encourage the child to "grow up -- you're
not a baby anymore-- But if this process is done too harshly and too abruptly, the child
learns to feel guilty about his/her feelings.
Too much initiative and too little guilt means a maladaptive tendency Erikson
calls ruthlessness. The ruthless is to be heartless or unfeeling or be "without mercy".
The ruthless person takes the initiative alright. They have their plans, whether it's a
matter of school or romance or politics or career. It's just that they don't care who they
step on to achieve their goals. The goals are the only signs of weakness. The extreme
form of ruthlessness is sociopathy.
Ruthlessness is bad for others, but actually relatively easy on the ruthless
person. Harder on the person is the malignancy of too much guilt, which Erikson calls
inhibition. The inhibited person will not try things because "nothing ventured, nothing
lost" and, particularly, nothing to feel guilty about. They are so afraid to start and take
a lead on a project. They fear that if it fails, they will be blamed.
Virtue
A good balance leads to the psychosocial strength of purpose. A sense of
purpose is something many people crave for in their lives, yet many do not realize that
they themselves make their purposes, through imagination and initiative. I think an
even better word for this virtue would have been courage, the capacity for action
despite a clear understanding of your limitations and past failings.
Stage Four
STAGE FOUR
TOO MUCH TOO MUCH
MALADAPTATION PSYCHOSOCIAL CRISIS MALIGNANCY
VIRTUE

Psychosocial Crisis
Stage four is the school-age stage when the child is from about 6-12. The task
is to develop a capacity for industry while avoiding an excessive sense of inferiority.
Children must "tame the imagination" and dedicate themselves to education and to
learning the social skills their society requires of them. There is a much broader social
sphere at work now: the parents and other family members are joined by teachers and
peers and other members of the community at large. They all contribute. Parents must
encourage. Teachers must care, peer must accept. Children must learn that there is
a pleasure not only in conceiving a plan, but in carrying it out. They must learn the
feeling of success, whether it is in school or on the playground, academic or social.
A good way to tell the difference between a child in the third stage and one in
the fourth stage is to look at the way they play games. Four years old may love games,
but they will have only a vague understanding of the rules, may change them several
times during the course of the game, and be very unlikely to actually finish the game,
unless it is by throwing the pieces at their opponents. A seven year old, on the other
hand, is dedicated to the rules, consider them pretty much sacred, and is more likely
to get upset if the game is not allowed to come to its required conclusion.
If the child is allowed too little success, because of harsh, teachers or rejecting
peers, for example, then he or she will develop instead a sense of inferiority or
incompetence. Additional sources of inferiority, Erikson mentions, are racism, sexism,
and other forms of discrimination. If a child believes that success is related to who you
are rather than to how hard you try, then why try?
Too much industry leads to the maladaptive tendency called narrow virtuosity.
We see this in children who aren't allowed to "be children" the ones that parents or
teachers push into one area of competence, without allowing the development of
broader interests. These are the kids without a life: child actors, child athletes, child
musicians, child prodigies of all sorts. We all admire their industry, but if we look a little
closer, it's all that stands in the way of an empty life.
Much more common is the malignancy called inertia. This includes all of us
who suffer from the "inferiority complexes". Alfred Adler talked about. If at first you
don't succeed, don't ever try again! Many of us didn't do well in mathematics, for
example, so we'd die before we took another math class. Others were humiliated
instead in the gym class, so we never try out for a sport or play a game of basketball.
Others never developed social skills -- the most important skills of all -- and so we
never go out in public, we become inert.
Virtue
A happier thing is to develop the right balance of industry and inferiority -- that
is, mostly industry with just a touch of inferiority to keep us sensibly humble. Then we
have the virtue called competency.

Stage Five
STAGE FIVE
TOO MUCH TOO MUCH
VIRTUE
Psychosocial Crisis
Stage five is adolescence, beginning with puberty and ending around 18 or 20
years old. The task during adolescence is to achieve ego identity and avoid role
confusion. It was adolescence that interested Erikson first and most, and the patterns
he saw here were the bases for his thingking about all the other stages.
Ego identity means knowing who you are and how you fit in to the rest of
society. In requires that you take all you've learned about life and yourself and mold it
into a unified self-image one that your community finds meaningful.
There are a number of things that make things easier: First, we should have a
mainstream adult culture that is worthy of the adolescent's respect, one with good
adult role models and open lines of communication.
Further, society should provide clear rites of passage, certain
accomplishments and tituals that help to distinguish the adult from the child. In
primitive and traditional societies, an adolescence boy may be asked to leave the
village for a period of time to live on his own, hunt some symbolic animal, or seek an
inspirational vision. Boys and girls may be required to go through certain test of
endurance, symbolic ceremonies, or educational events. In one way or another, the
distinction between the powerless, but irresponsible, time of childhood and the
powerful and responsible time of adulthood, id made clear.
Without these things, we are likely to see role confusion, meaning an
uncertainty about one's place in society and the world. When an adolescent in
confronted by role confusion, Erikson says, he or she is suffering from an identity
crisis. In fact, a common question adolescents in our society ask is a straight-forward
question of identity: "Who am I?"
One of Erikson's suggestions for adolescence in our society is the
psychosocial moratorium. He suggests you take a little "time out". If you have
money, go to Europe. If you don't bum around the Philippines. Quit school and get a
job. Quit your job and go to school. Take a break, smell the roses, get to know yourself.

We tend to want to get to "success" as fast as possible, and yet few of us have ever
taken the time to figure out what success means to us. A little like the young Oglala
Lakota, perhaps we need to dream a little.
There is a such thing as too much "ego identity" where a person is so involved
in a particular role in a particular society or subculture that there is no left for tolerance.
Erikson calls this maladaptive tendency fanaticism. A fanatic believes that his way is
the only way. Adolescents are, of course, known for their idealism, and for their
tendency to see things in black and white. These people will gather others around
them and promote their beliefs and life-styles without regard to others rights to
disagree.
The lack of identity is perhaps more difficult still, and Erikson refers to the malignant
tendency here as repudiation. To repudiate is to reject. They reject their membership
in the world of adults and even more, they reject their need for an identity. Some
adolescents prefer to go to groups that go against the norm to form their identity:
religious cult, militaristic organizations, group founded on hatred, groups that have
divorced themselves from the painful demands of mainstream society. They may
become involved in destructive activities- drugs, or alcohol or they may withdraw into
their own psychotic fantasies. After all, being "bad" or being "nobody" is better that not
knowing who you are!
If you successfully negotiate this stage, you will have the virtue Erikson called
fidelity. Fidelity means loyalty, the ability to live by societies standards despite their
imperfections and incompleteness and inconsistencies. We are not talking about blid
loyalty, and we are not talking about accepting the imperfections. After all, if you love
your community, you will want to see it become the best it can be. But fidelity means
that you have found a pace in that community, a place that will allow you to contribute.
Stage Six
STAGE SIX
TOO MUCH TOO MUCH
VIRTUE
Psychosocial Crisis
If you have made it this far, you are in the stage of young adulthood, which lasts
from about 18 to about 30. The ages in adulthood stages are much fuzzier than in the

childhood stages, and people may different dramatically. The task is to achieve some
degree of intimacy, as opposed to remaining in isolation
Intimacy is the ability to be close to other, as a lover, a friend, you are you no
longer need to fear " losing" yourself. As many adolescents do the "fear of
commitment" some people seem to exhibit is an example of immaturity in this stage.
This fear isn't always obvious. Many people today are always putting off the progress
of their relationships: I'll get married have a family, or get involved in important social
issues) as soon as i have a job as soon as i have a house as soon as... if you've been
engaged for the last ten years, what's holding you back?
Neither should the young adult need to prove him or herself anymore teenage
relationship is often a matter of trying to establish identity through "couple-hood." Who
am I? I'm her boyfriend. The young adult relationship should be a matter of two
independent egos wanting to create something larger than themselves. We intuitively
recognize this when we frown on relationship between a young adult ang a teenager:
We see the potential for manipulation of the younger member of the party by the older.
Maladaptation/Malignacy
Erikson calls the maladaptive from promiscuity, referring particular to the
tendency to became intimate too freely, too easily and without any depth to your
intimacy. This can be true of your relationships with friend and neighbors and your
whole community as well as with lovers.
The malignacy he calls exclusion which refers to the tendency to isolate
oneself from love, friendship, and community, and to develop a certain hatefulness in
compensation for one's loneliness.
Virtue
If your successfully negotiate this stage, you will instead carry with you for the
rest of your life the virtue or psychosocial strenght Erikson call love. Love in the context
of his theory means being able to put aside differences and antaginisms througj
"mutuality of devotion." It includes not only the love we find in a good marriage. But
the love between friends and the love of one's neighbor, co-worker, and compatriot as
well.
Stage Seven
STAGE SEVEN
TOO MUCH
TOO MUCH
SEVEN PSYCHOSOCIAL CRISIS
MALADAPTATION MALIGNANCY
VIRTUE

Psychosocial Crisis
The seventh stage is that of middle adulthood. It is hard to pin a time to it but it
would include the period during which we are actively involved in raising children. For
most people in our society, this would put it somewhere between the middle twenties
and the late fifties. The task here is to cultivate the proper balance of generativity and
stagnation.
Generativity is an extension if love into the future. It is a concern for the next
generation and all future generations. As such, it is considerably less "selfish" than the
intimacy of the previous stage: Intimacy, the love between lovers or friends, is a love
between equals, and it is necessarily mutual, with generativity, the individual like a
parent does not expect to be repaid for the love he gives to his children at least not as
strongly. Few parents expect a "return on their investment" from their children, If they
do, we don't think of them as very good parents!
Although the majority of people practice generativity by having and raising
children, there are many other ways as well. Erikson considers teaching, writing,
invention, the arts and sciences, social activism and generally contributing to the
welfare of future generations to be generativity as well anything in fact that satisfies
that old "need to be needed" Stagnation, on the other hand, is self-absorption caring
for no-one. The stagnant person stops to be a productive member of society.
It is perhaps hard to imagine that we should have any "stagnation" in our lives,
but the maladaptive tendency Erikson calls overextension illustrates the problem:
Some people try to be so generative that they no longer allow time for themselves for
rest and relaxation. The person who is overextended no longer contributes well. I'm
sure we all know someone who belongs to so many clubs, or is devoted to so many
cause or tries to take so many classes or hold so many jobs that they no longer have
time for any them!
More obvious, of course, is the malignant tendency of rejectivity. Too little
generativity and too much stagnation and you are no longer participating in or
contributing to society. And much of what we call "the meaning of life" is a matter of
how we participate and what we contribute
The is the stage of the " midlife crisis." Sometimes men and women take a look
at their lives big, bad question "what am I doing all this for?" Notice the question
carefully: Because their focus is on themselves, they ask what, rather than whom, they
are doing it for. In their panic at getting older and not having experienced or
accomplished what they imagined they would when they were younger, they try to
recapture their youth. Men are often the most flambouyant examples: They leave their
long-suffering wives, quit their humdrum jobs, buy some "hip" new clothes, and start
hanging around singles' bars. Of course they seldom find what they are looking for,
because they are looking for the wrong thing!

Virtue
But if you are successful at this stage, you will have a capacity for caring that
will serve you through the rest of your life.
Stage Eight
STAGE EIGHT
TOO MUCH TOO MUCH
PSYCHOSOCIAL CRISIS MALIGNANCY

MALADAPTATION
VIRTUE
Psychosocial Crisis
This last stage, referred to delicately as late adulthood or maturity or less
delicately as old age, begins sometimes around retirement after the kids have gone,
say somewhere around 60. Some older folks will protest and say it only starts when
you feel old and so on, but that's an effect of our youth-workshipping culture, whichhas
even old people avoiding any acknowledgement of age. In Erikson's theory, reaching
this stage is a good thing and not reaching it suggests that earlier problems retarted
your developmen!
The tast is to develop ego integrity with a minimal amount of despair. This stage,
seems like the most difficult of all. First comes q detachment from society, from a
sense of esufullness, for most people in our culture. Some retire from jobs they've held
for years: others find their duties as parents coming to a close: most find that their
input is no longer requested or required.
Then there is a sense of biological uselessness, as the body no longer does
everything it used to. Women go through a sometimes dramatic menopause. Men
often find can no longer "rise to the occasion." Then there are the illnesses of old age,
such as arthritis, diabetes, heart problems, concerns about breast and ovarian and
prostate cancers. There cime fears about things that one was never afraid of before -
the flu, for example, or just falling down. Along with the illnesses come concerns of
death. Friends die. Relatives die. One's spouse dies. It is of cours, certain that you,
too. Will have your turn. Faced with all this it might seem like everyone would feel
despair. In response to this despair, some older people become preoccupied with the
past. After all, that's where things were better. Some become preoccupied with their
failures the bad decisions they made and regret that (unlike some in tje previous stage)
they really don't have the time or energy to reverse them. We find some older people

become depressed, spiteful, paranoid, hypochondriacal, or developing the patterns of
senility with or without physical bases.
Ego integrity means coming to terms with your life and thereby coming to terms
with the end of life. If you able to look back and accept the course of events the choices
made your life as you lived it as being necessary then you needn't fear death. Although
most of you are not yet at this point in life perhaps you can still sympathize by
considering your life up to now. We've all made mistakes some of them pretty nasty
ones; Yet, if you hadn't made these mistakes, you wouldn't be who you are. If you had
been very fortunate or if you had played it safe and made very few mistakes your life
would not have been as rich as is.
Maladaptation/ Malignancy
The maladaptive tendency in stage eight is called presumption. This is what
happens when a person "presumes" ego integrity without actually facing the difficulties
of old age. The person in old age believes that he alone is right. He does not respect
the ideas and views of the young. The malignant tendency is called disdain, by which
Erikson means a contempt of life one's or anyone's: The person becomes very
negative and appears to hate life.
Virtue
Someone who approaches death without fear has the strength Erikson calls
wisdom. He calls it a gift to children because "healthy children will not fear life if their
elders have integrity enough not to fear death." He suggests that a person must be
somewhat gifted to be truly wise but i would like to suggest that you understand "gifted"
in as broad a fashion as possible. I have found that there are people of very modest
gifts who have taught me a great deal not by their wise words but by their simple and
gentle approach to life and death by their "generosity of spirit."
APPLICATION
1. Write your own life story using the stages of psychosocial development as
frame work. Go through each of the stages that apply to you (most probably,
stages 1-5 or 6). Ask information from your parents and other significant
persons in your life. Look at old baby books and photo albums. Also, include
the result of your questionnaire in the activity section. Write a narrative for each
stage.
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1. Read the book. Healing the Eight Stages of Life by Dennis Linn, Mathew Linn, and
Sheila Fabricant-Linn. This is a classical book that uses that Erikson Ian stages for
personal healing. A lot of people have been changed by this book. Have a reflection
diary to write your thoughts and insight about each stage.
2. Read on Erikson's ideas about the work he did with the Sioux Indians and his
research on Gandhi.

RESEARCH CONNECTION
Read a research that is related to Piaget`s theory. Fill out the matrix below.

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Findings Conclusion
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s

8
Kohlberg`s Stages of Moral
MODULE Development
“Right action tends to be defined in terms of general

individual rights and standards that have been critically
examined and agreed upon by the whole society.”
LEARNING OUTCOMES
 Explains the stages of moral development.

 Analyze a person’s level of moral reasoning based on his responses to moral
dilemmas.
 Cite how the theory of moral development can be applied to your work as a
teacher later on.
INTRODUCTION
Individuals, when confronted by situations where they need to make moral decisions,
exercise their own ability to used moral reasoning. Lawrence Kohlberg was interested
in studying the development of moral reasoning. He based his theory on the findings
of Piaget in studying cognitive development. Our ability to choose the right from wrong
is tied with our ability to understand and reason logically.
ACTIVITY
Read the moral dilemma below.
Ryan, 17, has been saving up his money to buy a ticket for this concert of rock
band. His parents have discouraged him from going as the concert will surely be with
a rowdy crowd. The band is notorious for having out-of-control audience who
somehow manages to get drunk and stoned during the concert. Ryan agreed not to
watch anymore. But a day before the concert, Nic, 15-year-old brother of Ryan, saw a
corner of what appeared to be a concert ticket showing in the pocket of Ryan’s bag.
Nic examined it and confirmed it was indeed a ticket. Looking at Ryan’s bag. Nic also
found an extra shirt and 2 sticks of marijuana. So he figured Ryan will go to the concert
after all. That night, Ryan told his parents that he was spending tomorrow night at a
classmate’s house for a school requirement. Then later that evening, he told Nic of his
plan to go to the concert. Nic didn’t say anything, but he found it difficult to sleep that
night, thinking whether to tell their parents or not.
1. If you were Nic, what would you do?

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2. Why would you choose to do that? What were the things you considered in
deciding what to do?
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ANALYSIS
Examine the answers you gave. Compare it with the responses provided below. In
which these responses is your answer most similar?
Stage 1 – “Yes I will tell our parents because if they found out later that I knew, for
sure they will get angry and most likely punish me.”
“No, I will not tell because Ryan will make my life difficult and also
punish me for telling.”
Stage 2 – “Yes, I will tell my parents because they will reward me for it. I will subtly ask
for that new Ipod that I’m wishing to have.”
“No, I will not tell. Ryan will surely grant me a lot of favors for not
telling. He’ll not also squeal on me.”
Stage 3 – “Yes, I will tell so my parents will think I am such an honest boy.”
“No, I will not tell. Ryan will think of me as a really cool brother!”
Stage 4 – “Yes, I will tell because we should follow the rules that our parents
Say.”
“No, Because it’s been our rule to keep each other’s secrets.”
Stage 5 – “Yes, I will tell because he might be hurt or get in trouble and his welfare is
top most priority.”
“No, because he is big enough to question my parents decision not to
let him go.”
Stage 6 – “Yes, I will tell because lying is always wrong and I want to be true

to what I believe in.”
“NO, because I believed brothers watch out for each other. If he
trusted me with this, I should stay true to him and not say
anything.”
In what level of moral development did your response to the dilemma fall?
Reflect about what this indicates about your moral reasoning in this moral dilemma.
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As you continue to read this module, you will get to know more about the
different levels of moral reasoning espoused by Kohlberg.
Lawrence Kohlberg adopted and built on Piaget’s work, and set the groundwork
for the present debate within the psychology on moral development. Like Piaget, he
believed that children form ways of thinking through their experiences which includes
understandings of moral concepts such as justice, rights, equality, and human welfare.
Kohlberg followed the development of moral judgment and extended the ages covered
by Piaget, and found out that the process of attaining moral maturity took longer and
occurred slower that Piaget had thought.
If Piaget designed specific task (Piagetian tasks) to learn about the cognitive
development of children, Kohlberg utilized moral dilemmas (Kohlberg’s dilemmas).
The case you read in the activity part of his module was written for this module but
was based on how Kohlberg wrote his dilemmas. Like Piaget, he presented these
dilemmas to the individuals in his research and asked for their responses. He did not
aim to judge whether the responses were right or wrong. He was interested in
analyzing the moral reasoning behind the responses.
From his research, Kohlberg identified six stages of moral reasoning grouped
into three major levels. Each level represents a significant change in the social-moral
reasoning or perspective of the person.
Kohlberg’s Theory of Moral Development
According to Kohlberg, moral development occurs in six stages.
Level Stage Description
Pre-conventional Level Punishment/obedience. One is motivated by
Moral reasoning is based on the 1 fear of punishment. He will act in order to avoid
consequence/result of the act, not punishment.

on the whether the act itself is good 2 Mutual Benefit. One is motivated to act by the
or bad. benefit that one may obtain later. You scratch my
back, I’ll scratch yours.
Conventional 3 Social Approval. One is motivated by what

Moral reasoning is based on the others expect in behavior – good boy, good girl.
conventions or “norms” of society. The person acts because he/she gives
This may include approval of importance on what people will think or say.
others, laws and order. 4 Law and Order. One is motivated to act in order
Post-conventional to uphold law and order. The person will follow
Moral reasoning is based on the law because it is the law.
enduring or consistent principles. It 5 Social Contract. Laws that are wrong can be
is not just recognizing the law, but changed. One will act based on social justice and
the principles behind the law. the common good.
6 Universal Principles. This is associated with the
development of one’s conscience. Having a set
of standards that drives one to possess moral
responsibility to make societal changes
regardless of consequences to oneself. Example
of persons are Mother Theresa, Martin Luther
King, Jr.
APPLICATION
I. Identify the stage of moral development shown in the following:

1. Joy allows her classmates to copy her homework so thate they
will think she is kind and will like her to be their friend.
2. Ricky does everything to get passing grades because his Mom
will take his play station away if he gets bad grades.
3. A civic action group protests the use of pills for family
planning, saying that although the government allows this, it is
actually murder because the pills are abortifacient (causes
abortion).
4. Jinky lets Hannah copy during their math test because Hannah
agreed to let her copy during their sibika test.
5. Karen decides to return the wallet he found in the canteen so
that people will praise her honesty and think she’s such a nice
girl.
6. John decides to return the wallet he found in the canteen
because he believes it’s the right thing to do
7. Lyka wears he ID inside the campus because she likes to
follow the school rules and regulation.
8. A jeepney driver looks if there’s a policeman around before he
u-turn spot.

9. Liza volunteers to tutor children at risk children in her
community for free so they will learn to love school and stay in
school.
10. Little Riel behaves so well to get a star stamp from her
teacher.
REFLECTION
From the module on Piaget`s Stages of Cognitive Development, I learned
that….
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1. Read the Moral Dilemma Discussion guide found in
(http://tigger.uic.edu/~lnucci/MoralEd/practices/practice3lindtxt.html). Try
out these guidelines with a moral dilemma
2. Research on the views of Eliot Turiel (Domain Theory) and Carol Gilligan
(Moral Reasoning and Gender). Relate them with Kohlberg’s Theory.

MODULE 9 Vygotsky’s Socio-Cultural Theory
What a child can do in cooperation today, tomorrow she/he will be able to do alone.
-Lev Vygotsky
LEARNING OUTCOME
At the end of this module
 Explain the Vygotsky's theory is called "Socio-Cultural" theory.

 Differentiate Piaget and Vygotsky's views on cognitive development
 Explain how scaffolding is useful in teaching skills
INTRODUCTION
The key theme of Vygotsk's theory is the social interaction plays a very
important role in cognitive development could not be more understood without looking
into the social and cultural context within which development happen. Scaffolding is
Vygotsky's term for the appropriate assistance given by the teacher to assist the
learning accomplish task. Learn more about it as you can do the activity.
ACTIVITY
1. As a child, recall a skill that you wanted to learn and eventually learned well,
through the help of other person (like swimming, riding a bike, playing thepiano,
skating)
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2. What made you interested to learn the skill? Who taught or assisted you?
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3. Describe how you learning the skill. Describe what steps or actions the person
did in order to help you learn.
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ANALYSIS
After every small group presentation to the whole class the teacher facilities the
whole class discussion and asks the following:
1. Who are pro-nature? Pro-nurture? Are there additional reasons you can give in favor
of nature/nurture? Who are neither for nature nor nuture? Why?

2. Who go for continuity? Discontinuity? Can you give additional arguments do defend
continuity/discontinuity? Who are in between continuity and discontinuity? Why?
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3.Who claims stability is more correct than change? Change is more correct than
stability?
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ABSTRACTION
When Vygotsky was a young boy he was educated under a teacher who used
to Socratic Method. This method was systematic question and answer approach that
allowed Vygotsky to examine current thinking and practice higher level of
understanding. This experience together with his interest of literature and his work as
a teacher, led him to recognize social interaction and language as two central factors
of cognitive development. His theory became as the Socio-Cultural Theory of
Development.
Piaget and Vygotsky
Vygotsky worked on his theory around the same time as Piaget in between in 1920'
and 30's but they had clear diffefences in there views about cognitive development.
Since Piaget was taken up already in the preceeding module, it would be easier now
to see how his views compare with Vygotsky's.
Piaget Vygotsky
More individual in focus believed that More social in focus
there are universal stages of cognitive Did not purposd stages but emphasized
development. on cultural factors in cognitive
development
Did not give much emphasis on Stressed the role of language in
language. cognitive development.
Social Interaction. Piagets theory was more individual, while Vygotsky was
more social. Piagets work on piagetan's task focused heavily on how an individual's
cognitive development become evident through the individual's own processing of the
tasks. Vygotsky, on the other hand give more weight on social interactions that
contributed to the other development of individuals. For him, the the social
environment or the community takes on a mojor role in one's development.

Vygotsky emphasized the effective learning happens through participation in
social activities, making the social context of learning crucial. Parents, teachers and
other adults in the learners' environment all contribute to the process. They explain,
model, assist, give directions and provide feedback to the learner. Peers, on the other
hand, cooperate and collaborate and enrich the learning experience collaborate and
enrich learning experience.
Cultural Factors. Vygotsky believed in the crucial role that culture played in
the cognitive development of children. Piaget believed that as the children develop
and matures, he goes through universal stage of cognitive development that allow him
to move in simple exploration with senses of muscles to complex reasoning. Vygotsky,
on the other hand, looked into the wold range of experience that a culture would give
to a child. For instance, one's culture view in education, how children are trained in
early life all can contribute to the cognitive development of a child.
Language. Language can open the door for learners to acquire knowledge that
others already have. Learners can use language serves as the social function but it
also has an important individual function. It helps the learner regulate and reflect on
his own thinking. Chilren are trained in early in life all can contribute to the cognitive
development of the child. Obsereve preschoolers play and you may hear, " Gagawin
ko itonh airplane (holding a rectangular block). For Vygotsky, this "talking-to-oneself"
in an indication of the thinking that goes in the mind of the child. This eventually led to
private speech. Pruvate speech is a form of self-talk that guides the child's thinking
and action.
Vygotsky believed in the essential role of activities in learning. Children learn best way
througj hands-on activities than when listening passively. Learning by doing is even
made more fruitful when children interact with knowledgeable adults and peers.]
Zone of Proximal Development
When a child attempts to perforn a skill alone, she may not be immedietely
proficient at it. So, alone she may perform at a certain level of competency. We refer
to this as the zone of actual development. However, with a guidance of a More
Knowledge Other (MKO), competent adult or a more advanced peer, the child can
perform in high level of competency. The difference between what the child can
accomplish alone and ehat she can accomplish with the guidance of another is what
Vygotsky reffered to as zone of proximal development. The zone represent a learning
oppurtunity where a knowledgeable adult such as a teacher or parent or a more
advanced peer can assist the child's development. See the illustration on the next
page.
The support or assistance that lets the child accomplish a task the cannot
accomplish independently is called scaffolding. Scaffolding is not about doing the child
while he watches. It is not about doing shortcuts for the child. Unzippinv the lunch bag,
opening the food container and putting straw in the child tetrapack juice for him is not
scaffolding. Scafolding should involve the judicious assistance given by the adult or
child so that the child can move from the zone of actual to the zone of proximal
development. When the adult unzips the zipper an inc of two. And then hold the lunch
bag still so that the child can continue to unzip the lunch bag is scaffolding. Loosening
the food container lid just a bit and lettinv the child open the lid himself is scaffolding.
Leading the straw to the hole and letting the child put the straw through the tatra pack
is scaffolding.
APPLICATION
An exercise in scaffolding.
1. Choose a skill you are good in.

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2. Identify an individual to whom you can teach skill. Somebody who will benefit
from scaffolding.
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3. Break down the steps you will take in teaching the skill.
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4. Determine how you will use scaffolding. Describe the specific actions you will
do to scaffold.
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5. Teach the skill to the individual.

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6. Describe how learning activity went.

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1. Vygotsky always emphasized the role of cultural factors in cognitive

development. He also identified intellectual tools of adaptation which enable
individual to acquire cognitive skills depending on what tools their culture has
made available for them. Read about this and write a reaction paper.

Bronfenbrenner’s Ecological
10
Theory
MODULE -Maria Rita D. Lucas, Ph. D.
“Children need people in order to become human.”

-Urie Bronfenbrenner
LEARNING OUTCOMES
 Describe each of the layers of Bronfenbrenner’s Bio Ecological Model.
 Identify factors in one’s own life that exerted influence on one’s development.
 Use the bio ecological theory as a framework to describe the factors that affect
a child and adolescent development.
INTRODUCTION
Bronfenbrenner came up with a simple yet useful paradigm showing the
different factors that exert influence on an individual’s development. It points out the
ever widening spheres of influence that shape every individual, from his/her immediate
family to the neighborhood, the country, even the world!
ACTIVITY
“Looking Back”
Read the following questions. Recall your childhood. You may also ask your
parents for some information. Write your answers on the graphic organizer below.
Answer the following sentence completion items.

1. When I was 5 years old, my parents
2. As a child, my unforgettable playmates were

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3. When I was in elementary, I regularly watched the television show
4. When I was growing up, we went to church in
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5. I cannot forget my teacher who
6. When I was growing up, I was away from
7. When I was in high school, I was close to

8. As a child, I can recall this big news about
9. The most serious challenge our family experienced was
10. The most important thing that I learned from my elementary school was
ANALYSIS
Write each answer you gave in the Activity on the circle where it belongs.
Culture sub culture

Social class
Extended family
Family, church, school
ME!
ABSTRACTION
Bronfenbrenner’s model also known as the Bioecological Systems theory

presents child development within the context of the relationship systems that
comprise the child’s environment. It describes multipart layers of environment that
has an effect on the development of the child. Each layer is further made up of

different structures. The term “bioecological” points out that a child’s own biological
make-up impacts as a key factor in one’s development.
Through the child’s growing and developing body and the interplay between his
immediate family/community, environment, and the societal landscape fuels and
steers his development changes or conflict in any one layer will ripple throughout other
layers. To study a child’s development then, we must not look only at the child and her
immediate environment, but also at the interaction of the larger environment as well.
Bronfenbrenner’s Bioecological Model: Structure of Environment
The microsystem. The microsystem is the layer nearest the child. It

comprises structures such as one’s family, school and neighborhood. As such, the
microsystem covers the most basic relationships and interactions that a child has in
his/her immediate environment. Does the child have strong and nurturing relationships
with the parents and family? Are his/her needs met? In this layer, relationship effects
happen in two directions- both away from the child and toward the child. This means
that the child is affected by people with whom he interacts, and in turn these people
are also affected by child. For example, a mother’s deep affection for her child moves
her to answer to the baby’s needs and keep the baby safe. In turn the baby’s smiles
and coos bring the mother feelings of warmth and an affirmation that indeed she is a
good mother. The child is affected by the behavior and beliefs of the parents, however,
the child also affects the behavior and beliefs of the parent. Bronfenbrenner calls these
bi-directional influences, and he shows how they occur among all levels of
environment. This is quite similar to what Erikson termed as “mutuality” in his
psychosocial theory.
Bronfenbrenner’s theory looks into the interaction of structures within a layer
and interactions of structures between layers. At the microsystem level, the child is
most affected by these bi-directional influences. However, interactions at outer layers
still influence the structures of the microsystem.
The mesosystem. This layer serves as the connection between the structures
of the child's microsystem. For example, the mesosystem will include the link or
interaction between the parents and teachers, or the parent and health services or the
community and the church.
The exosystem. This layer refers to the bigger social system in which the child
does not function directly. This includes the city government, the workplace and the
mass media. The structures in this layer may influence the child 's development by
somehow affecting some structure in the child's microsystem. This includes
circumstances of the parent's work like the location schedules. We see a change in a
children's routine when for example the mother works in a call center that was seen in

that burger chain commercial where the mom and children meet up at the fast-food for
breakfast just before the children go to school and mom going home from work in a
call center. The child may not interact directly with what is in the exosystem, but he is
likely feel the positive or negative impact this system creates as it interacts with the
child's own system.
The macrosystem. This layer is found in the outermost part in the child's
environment. The macrosystem includes the cultural values, custom and laws. The
belief system contained in one's macrosystem permeates all the interaction in the
other layers and reaches the individual. For example, in western countries like the US
most of the young people are expected to be more independent by time they end their
teen age years, while in Asian countries like ours parents are expected to support or
atleast want to support their children for a longer period of time. It is not uncommon to
see even married children still living with their parents. In China and also in other parts
of the world, sons are more valuable than daughters. This may pose challenge for girls
as they are growing up. Because of differences in beliefs and customs, children from
different parts of the world experiences different child rearing practices and therefore
differences in development as well.
The chronosystem. The chronosystem covers the element of time as it relates

to a child environment. This involves "patterns of stability and change" in the child's
life. This involves whether the child's day is characterized by an orderly predictable
pattern or whether the child is subjected to sudden changes in routine. We can also
look into the pace of the child 's everyday life. Is it a hurried or relaxed pace? This
system can affect or influence the child externally. Like the timing of other siblings
coming or the timing of parental separation or even death effect can also be internal.
Like in the bodily changes that occur within the developing child like the timing of
menstrual onset for girls. As a children get older, they may react differently to
environmental changes. The children may have also acquired the ability to cope and
decide to what extent they will allow changes around them to affect them.
No longer Nature vs Nurture, but Nurturing Nature
The long debate may be coming to an end up. For decades if no for centuries,
there was a long drawn debate on which had more impact on child development,
nature vs nurture. Another way of putting it is, is it heredity or environment that

influences child development more. More and more research now points out that both
a child's biology and his environment play a role in the child's growth and development.
Development theories now stress on the role played by each and the extent to which
may interact in ongoing development.
The ecological system theory focuses on the quality and context of the child's
environment. Bronfenbrenner pointed out that a child develops the interplay within the
layers of environment systems becomes more complex. This dynamic interaction of
the system happens meantime, while the child 's physical and cognitive structures also
grow and mature. This bioecological theory help us determine how the different
circumstances, conditions and relationship in he world in the world affect the child as
he or she goes through the more or else predictable sequence of natural legend growth
and development.
The Role of Schools and Teachers
Bronfenbrenner co-founded Head start the publicly funded early childhood

program in the US. He concluded that "the instability and unpredictability of family life
is the most destructive force to a child's development". Researcher tell us that Absence
or lack of children's constant mutual interaction with important adults has negative
effects on their development. According to the bioecological theory."if the relationships
in the immediate microsystem break down the child will not have the tools to explore
other parts of his environment. Children looking for the affirmations that should be
present in the child/parent (or child/other important adult) relationship look for attention
in inappropriate places. These deficiencies show themselves especially in
adolescence as anti-social behavior lack of self-discipline and inability to provide self-
direction.”
Bronfenbrenner's theory reminds the school and the teachers of their very
important role. If there is s lack of support care and affection from the home. If there
is a serious breakdown of the basic relationships in a child's life. What can the school
the teachers in particular do? This theory help teachers look into very child's
environmental system in order to understand more about the characteristics and
needs of each child each learner. The schools and the teachers can contribute stability
and long term relationships. But only to support and not replace the relationship needs
to be with someone who can provide a sense of caring that is meant to last a lifetime.

This relationship must be fostered by a person or people within the immediate sphere
of the child's influence."
Schools and teacher's crucial role is not to replace the lack in the home if such exist
but to work so that the school becomes an environment that welcomes and nurtures
families. Bronfenbrenner also stressed that society should value work done on behalf
of children at all levels and consequently value parents, teachers, extended family,
mentors, work supervisors, legislators.
APPLICATION
Looking at your answers in the ACTIVITY phase of this Module, describe how
these people or circumstances have influence your attitudes, behavior and habits.
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________
From the graphic organizer that you filled out it is clear that there were people
situations and circumstances that shape who you are now. Even the things happening
in the government or even in America like the 9-11 terrorist attack could have
influenced your own circumstances and therefore your own development as a unique
person. As a future teacher we can see our students from this perspective in mind.
Every child had different people, different situations and circumstances that influenced
his/her growth and development.
As you read through Bronfenbrenner’s model you will see the widening systems
that affect child and adolescent development.

RESEARCH CONNECTION
Read a research or study related to Bronfenbrenner’s theory. Fill out the matrix
below.
_______________________________
_______________________________
_______________________________
Findings Conclusion
_______________________________
_______________________________

Development of the Learners
At Various Stages PARTII
UNIT 1 Pre-Natal Period
Pre-natal Development
MODULE 11 -Brenda B. Corpuz, Ph. D.
"The history of man for nine months preceding his birth would, probably, be far more
interesting, and contain events of greater moment than all three scores and ten years that
follow it."
Samuel Taylor Coleridge
English Poet, Essayist, 19 century
LEARNING OUTCOMES
• trace the course of the pre-natal developmental process that you went to.
• explain the most common hazards to pre-natal development
• became more appreciative of the gift of life manifested in an anti-abortion
stand.
INTRODUCTION
All the developmental theories which we lengthily discussed dwelt with what
developmental process after birth. None of them was concerned with what
development went to before birth. To make the description of human development
complete, it may be good to understand the beginnings of the child and the adolescent.
In Unit I, Module 1 you met Nashielle and Kenn. You were asked what they were
before they have become what and who they are at present. This is the concern of this
Unit and Module - pre natal and antenatal development.
ACTIVITY
Group I. Read the article "Life Before Birth" then form into small groups of not
more than six and share your answers to the following questions:
1. What are your feelings and reactions about what you read?

2. Do you agree that which is developing in the womb is a mere 'blob of tissue' or
'uterine contents' as abortionists claim? Share your explanation.
Life Before Birth

The development of the unborn child
The development of human life in the womb
was once a mystery, but science and medicine
have changed that. Abortion advocates still try to
dehumanize the developing baby in the womb by
speaking of the child as "a blob of tissue" or
"uterine contents". But ultrasound images,
prenatal surgery and other advances in obstetrics
are shattering the blob-of-tissue myth.
Dr. Paul Rockwell, a New York physician,
made these profound observations after his
amazing encounter with a tiny unborn baby boy:
"Eleven years ago while I was giving an anesthetic
for a ruptured ectopic pregnancy (at months’
gestation), I was handed what I believe was the
smallest living human ever seen. The embryo sac
was intact and transparent. Within the sac was a
tiny human male swimming extremely vigorously in the amniotic fluid, while attached
to the wall by the umbilical cord.
This tiny human was perfectly developed, with long, tapering fingers, feet and
toes. It was transparent, as regards the skin, and the delicate arteries and veins were
prominent to the ends of the fingers. "The baby was extremely alive and swam about
the sac approximately one time per second, with a natural swimmer's stroke. This tiny
human did not look at all like the photos and drawings and models of "embryos" which
I have ever seen, nor did it look like a few embryos I have been able to observe since
then, obviously because this one was alive!
"When the sac was opened, the tiny human immediately lost its life and took on
the appearance of what is accepted as the appearance of an embryo at this stage
(blunt extremities, etc.)
"It is my opinion that if the lawmakers and people realize that this vigorous life
is present, it is possible that abortion would be found more objectionable than
euthanasia."
The point at which Dr. Rockwell witnessed this unborn baby - eight weeks after
conception - is during the period that a majority of abortionists describe as most
desirable for performing on abortion.
Source: http://www.mccl.org/Document.Doc?id=159
Group II. Small Group Discussion -

1. Why are pregnant mothers advised not to smoke, not to drink alcoholic drinks,
not to take in any medication without doctor's advice? Share your answers with
your small group.
2. Why did countries including the Philippines strongly protest against China
regarding imported children's toys which were found to have high lead
component?
ANALYSIS
Here are questions for further discussion. (Teacher facilities)
1. Is it more reasonable to believe that which is developing in the mother's womb
is a human being?
2. What are proofs that which is developing in the mother's womb is a living human
being?
3. Has any realization from today's discussion changed your stand on abortion?
Explain your answer.
4. What are the effects of alcohol, caffeine, and nicotine on the developing
embryo/fetus?
ABSTRACTION
Human life begins at conception
That which is in the mother's womb is indeed a developing human being. An
unborn baby of eight (8) weeks is not essentially different from one of eighteen (18)
weeks or twenty-eight (28) weeks. From conception the zygote, the embryo and the
fetus are undeniably human life.
Human life begins from the moment of conception. All that we have and all that
we are have been there at the moment of conception! The fact that you have brown
eyes and black, straight or curly hair and the fact that you will turn bald at age 50 have
been there already at the moment of conception. What were added in the process of
developing is nutrition.
I remember the film on abortion that I once saw, "The Silent Scream". The
mother submitted herself to a medical doctor for abortion in her third month of
pregnancy. When the abortionist inserted his scalpel into the woman's womb to crush
the head of the fetus, very clearly in that film, the fetus had his/her mouth open like he
was screaming for help as he evaded the deadly scalpel of the abortionist. That's why
the film was given the title "The Silent Scream". This only means that the developing
being in the womb is a human being not just a conglomeration of cells or tissues.
Based on these facts, it is wrong to do abortion. The womb is supposed to be
the safest of all places for human development. Unfortunately, however, with the
scourge of abortion, it has become a tomb!

The development that takes place in 3 stages proves that the developing
embryo in a mother's womb is truly a human being.
The Stages of Pre-Natal Development
It may be good to watch the video on High Tech Photographs of Fatal
Development/Pro-life Anti-Abortion Video at YouTube before you read these notes on
the stage of pre-natal development.
Pre-natal development is divided into three (3) periods-germinal, embryonic
and fetal.
1. Germinal Period (First 2 weeks after conception) - This includes the a)
creation of the zygote, b) continued cell division and c) and the attachment
of the zygote to the uterine wall. The following are the details of development
during this period.
a) 24 to 30 hours after fertilization-the male (sperm) and female (egg)

chromosome unite
b) 36 hours-the fertilized ovum, zygote, divides into two (2); 2 cells
c) 48 hours (2 days) - 2 cells become 4 cells
d) 72 hours (3 days) - 4 cells become a small compact ball of 16-32 cells
e) 96 hours (4 days) - hollow ball of 64-128 cells
f) 4-5 days - inner cell mass (blastocyst) still free in the uterus
g) 6-7 days - blastocyst attaches to the wall of uterus
h) 11-15 days - blastocyst invades into uterine wall and becomes implanted in
it (implantation)
In the germinal period, the differentiation of cells already begins as inner and
outer layers of the organism are formed. The blastocyst, the inner layer of cells that
develops during the germinal period, develops later into the embryo. The trophoblast,
the outer layer of cells that develops also during the germinal period, later provides
nutrition and support for the embryo (Nelson, Textbook of Periadicts, 17th ed., 2004).
2. Embryonic Period (2-8 weeks after conception) - In this stage, the name
of the mass cells, zygote, become embryo. The following development
takes place:
a) cell differentiation intensifies

b) life-support systems for the embryo develop and
c) organs appear
As the zygote gets attached to the wall of the uterus, two layers of cells are
formed. The embryo's endoderm, the inner layer of cells, develops into the digestive
and respiratory systems. The outer layer of ectoderm is the outermost layer which

becomes the nervous system, sensory receptors (eyes, ears, nose) and skin parts
(nails, hair). The outer layer of cells divided into two parts - the ectoderm and the
mesoderm. The ectoderm is the outermost layer which becomes the nervous system,
sensory receptors (eyes, ears, nose) and skin parts (nails, hair). The mesoderm is
the middle layer which becomes the circulatory, skeletal, muscular, excretory and
reproductive systems. This process of organ formation during the first two months of
pre-natal development is called organogenesis.
As the three layers of the embryo form, the support systems for the embryo
develop rapidly. These life-support systems are the placenta, the umbilical cord and
the amnion. The placenta is a life-support system that consists of a disk-shaped group
of tissues in which small blood vessels from the mother and the offspring intertwine
but for not join. The umbilical cord contains two arteries and one vein that connects
the baby to the placenta. The amnion is a bag or an envelope that contains a clear
fluid in which the developing embryo floats. All these embryo life-support systems
develop from the fertilized egg and not from the mother's body.
3. Fatal period (2 months to 7 months after conception) - Growth and
development continue dramatically during this period. The details of the
developmental process are as follows (Santrock, 2002):
a) 3 months after conception – fetus is about 3 inches long and weighs about 1
ounce; fetus has become active, moves its arms and legs, opens and closes its mouth,
and moves its head; the face, forehead, eyelids, nose, chin can now be distinguished
and also the upper arms, lower arms, hands, and lower limbs; the genitals can now be
identified as male or female.
b) 4 months after conception - fetus is about 6 inches long and weights 4 to 7
ounces; growth spurt occurs in the body's lower parts; pre-natal reflexes are stronger;
mother feels arm and leg movements for the first time.
c) 5 months after conceptions - fetus is about 12 inches ll long; weighs close to
a pound; structures of the skin (fingernails, toenails) have formed; fetus is more active.
d) 6 months after conceptions - fetus is about 14 inches long and weights one
and half pound; eyes and eyelids are completely formed; fine layer of head covers the
head; grasping reflex is present and irregular movements occur.
e) 7 months after conception - fetus is about 16 inches long and weighs 3
pounds
f) 8 and 9 months after conception - fetus grows longer and gains sustainable
weight, about 4 pounds.
Teratology and Hazards to Pre-Natal Development
Teratology is the field that investigates the causes of congenital (birth) defects.
A teratogen is that which causes the birth defects. It comes from the Greek word "tera"
which means "monster".
Below are clusters of hazards to pre-natal development:

1. Prescription and Nonprescription drugs - This includes prescriptions as well
as nonprescription drugs. Antibiotics is an example of prescription drug that
can be harmful. Examples of harmful nonprescription drugs are diet pills,
aspirin and coffee.
Remember the thalidomide tragedy in 1961? Many pregnant women took in

thalidomide, a tranquilizer, to alleviate their morning sickness that gave rise to several
deformed babies.
Cocaine exposure during pre-natal development is associated with reduced
birthweight, length and head circumference (Hunt, et al, 1999 cited by Santrock, 2002),
impaired motor development (Arendti et al, 1999 cited by Santrock, 2002) impaired -
information processing (Singer et la, 1999 cited by Santrock, 2002) and poor attention
skills (Bandstra, 2000 cited by Santrock, 2002).
2. Psychoactive drugs - These include the nicotine, caffeine and illegal drugs
such as marijuana, cocaine and heroin.
Researchers found that pregnant women who drank more caffeinated coffee
were more likely to have preterm deliveries and new born with lower birthweight
compared to their counterparts who did not drink caffeinated coffee (Eskanazi, et al,
1999 qouted by Sanstrock, 2002).
Heavy drinking by pregnant women results to the so-called fetal alcohol
syndrome (FAS) which is a cluster of abnormalities that appears in the children of
mothers who drink alcohol heavily during pregnancy. These abnormalities include the
facial deformities and defective limbs, face and heart (Sanstrock, 2002). Most of these
children are below in average in intelligence and some are mentally retarded (Olson.
2000 and Burgess, 1996 quoted by Sanstrock, 2002).
Fetal and neonatal deaths are higher among smoking mothers. There are also
higher incidences of preterm births and lower birthweights among children with
smoking mothers (Wang et al, 2000 quoted by Sanstrock, 2002).
On the average, maternal heroin addicts deliver smaller than average size
babies with more incidence of toxemia, premature separation of placenta, retained
placenta, hemorrhaging after birth and breech deliveries.
(http://www.yale.edu/ynhti/curriculum/units/1980/80.05.03.x.html#f)
3. Environmental Hazards - These include radiation in jobsites and X-rays,
environmental pollutants, toxic wastes and prolonged exposure to heat in
saunas and bath tubs.
Researchers found that chromosomal abnormalities are higher among the

offspring of fathers exposed to high level of radiation in their occupations (Schrag and
Dixon, 1985 cited by Sanstrock, 2002). Radiation from X-rays also can affect the
developing embryo and fetus, with the most dangerous time being the first several
weeks after conception when women do not yet know that they are pregnant
(Sanstrock, 2002).

Researchers found that toxic wastes such as carbon monoxide, mercury and
lead caused defects animals exposed to high doses. For instance, early exposure to
lead affects children's mental development. (Markowits, 2000 quoted by Sanstrock,
2002). Remember the action of the U.S.A. for the children's toys with high lead content
manufactured in China?
Prolonged exposure of pregnant mothers to sauna or hot tubs raises the
mothers' body temperature creating fever that endangers the fetus. The high
temperature due to fever may interfere with cell division and may cause birth defects
or even fetal death if the fever occurs repeatedly for prolonged periods of time
(Sanstrock, 2002).
4. Other maternal factors such as Rubella (German Measles), syphilis, genital
herpes, AIDS, nutrition, high anxiety and stress, age, (too early or too late,
beyond 30)
A rubella (German Measles) in 1964-65 resulted in 30,000 pre-natal and

neonatal (newborn) deaths and more than 20,000 affected infants were born with
malformations, including mental retardation, blindness, deafness and heart problems
(Sanstrock, 2002).
Syphilis damages organs after they have formed. These damages include eye
lesions, which can cause blindness, and skin lesions. When syphilis is present at birth,
other problems involving the central nervous system and gastrointestinal tract, can
develop.
About one-third of babies delivered through a herpes-infected birth canal die;
another one-fourth become brain-damaged.
A mother can infect her child in three ways; 1) during gestation across the
placenta, 2) during delivery through contact with maternal blood or fluids, and 3)
postpartum (after birth) through breast-feeding.
Studies show that increased stress during pregnancy leads to pre-mature birth
and reduced birth weight. Other studies have shown that increased stress during
pregnancy is related to ADHD even schizophrenia later in life.
(familyanatomy.com/2009/04/20/the-effects-of-stress-during-pregnancy)
Admittedly, more research on the effects of emotional states and stress needs
to be conducted for more conclusive findings.
It is recognized that maternal malnutrition during pregnancy may result to
inadequate growth in the fetus. … If a fetus does not receive enough nourishment, the
rate of cell division is seriously hampered. An extremely deprived fetus may have 20%
fewer brain cells than normal. If an infant has been malnourished both in utero and
infancy, the brain may be as much as 60% smaller than that of the normal child. (Vore,
David. Pre-Natal Nutrition Intellectual Development, Merrill-Palmer Quarter. 1973,
19:253-260 cited in
http://www.yale.edu?ynhti/curriculum/units/1980/5/80.05.03.x.html#f)
Folic acid is necessary for pregnant mothers. Folic Acid can reduce the risk of
having a baby with a serious birth defect of the brain and spinal cord, called the ‘neural
tube’. A baby with spina bifida, the most common neural tube defect is born with a
spina that is not closed. The exposed nerves are damaged, leaving the child with
varying degrees of paralysis and sometimes mental retardation.
(http://www.squidoo.com/folicacidpregnant)
As a maternal age increases, the risks for numerical chromosomal
abnormalities increase. (http://en.wikipedia.org.wiki/Maternal_age_effeect)
The morality rate of infants born to adolescent mothers is double that of infants born
to mothers in their twenties.
A baby with Down syndrome rarely is born to mother an under age 30 but the
risk increases after the mother reaches 30. By age 40, the probability is slightly over
1 and 100 and by age 50 it is almost 1 in 10. The risk is also higher before age 18.
(Sanstrock, 2002).
5. Paternal factors – Fathers’ exposure to lead, radiation, certain pesticides
and petrochemical may cause abnormalities sperm that lead to miscarriage
or disease such as childhood cancer.
As in the case of older mothers, older fathers also may place their offspring at
risk for certain defects. (Sanstrock, 2002)
APPLICATION
1. Group Project
As a group, you are asked to give a one-day seminar-work-shop for the mothers
and fathers of children enrolled in your cooperating school.
In this seminar for mothers and fathers, teach them how pre-natal development
takes place and what they should do to ensure normal and healthy development of the
embryo and the fetus.
Come up with training modules, complete with materials for presentation by the
use of powerpoint or OHP or Manila paper or what have you. In the preparation of
materials, consider the human pre-natal development. This serves as an excellent
material for “a picture is worth a thousand words.”
2. Pretend you are “Junior”, 4 months old in the womb, Your Mother is
concentrating on doing abortion. Write her a letter convincing her that you are
a human being developing contrary to what she and other pro-abortionists are
thinking. Describe to her the development that has already taken place in 4
months. Reflect what you learned on pre-natal development in this Module.
BIG IDEAS
Concept Related Characterisitcs/Descriptions

Processes/
Ideas
1. The Course of The Germinal  It is divided into 3 stages –
Pre-Natal Period germinal, embryonic and fetal
Development periods.
 The germinal period is the period of
prenatal development that takes
place in the first 2 weeks after
conception.
 This period includes the ff.:
a.) Creation of the zygote
b.) Continued cell division and

c.) The attachment of the zygote to the
uterine wall.
The  The embryonic period is the period

Embryonic of prenatal development that occurs
Period 2 to 8 weeks after conception.
 In the embryonic stage, the name of
the mass cells, zygote, becomes
embryo.
 The following developments takes
place:
 Cell differentiation intensifies
 Life – support systems for the
embryo – the placenta, umbilical
cord and amnion-develop and
 Organs systems appear (organo-
genesis).
The Fetal  This period lasts from about 2
Period months after conception until 9
months when the infant is born.
 Growth and development continue
their dramtic course and organ
systems mature to the point at
which life can be sustained outside
of the womb.

Processes/
Ideas
Teratology Meaning of  This is the field of study that
teratology investigates the causes of
congenital (birth) defects.
 That which causes birth defects to
called teratogen.
Hazards to Prescription  Thalidomide when taken in by

Prenatal and pregnant mothers has a negative
Development Nonprescription effect on the developing fetus as
drugs proven by the thalidomide tragedy
in the 1960s.
 Prescription drugs that can be
harmful include antibiotics.
 Diet pills, aspirin and coffee are
examples of non-prescription drugs that
can be harmful.
Psychoactive  Researchers found that pregnant
Drugs women who drank more caffeinated
coffee were more likely to have
preterm deliveries and new born
with lower birth weight compared to
their counterparts who did not drink
caffeinated coffee.
 Heavy drinking by pregnant women
results to the so-called fetal
alcohol syndrome (FAS) which is a
cluster of abnormalities that
appears in the children of mothers
who drink alcohol heavily during
pregnancy. These abnormalities
include the facial deformities and
defective limbs, face and heart.
Most of these children are below in
average in intelligence and some
are mentally retarded.
 Fetal and neonatal deaths are
higher among smoking mothers.
There are also higher incidences of
preterm births and lower birth
weights among children with
smoking mothers.
 On the average, maternal heroin
addicts deliver smaller than average
size babies with more incidence of
toxemia, premature separation of
placenta, retained placenta,
hemorrhaging after birth and breech
deliveries.

Processes/
Ideas
Environmental  These include radiation in jobsites
Hazards and X-rays, environmental pollutants,
toxic wastes and prolonged exposure
to heat in saunas and bath tubs.
 Researchers found that

chromosomal abnormalities are
higher among the offspring of fathers
exposed to high level of radiation in
their occupations.
 X-rays also can affect the developing
embryo and fetus, with the most
dangerous time being the first
several weeks after conception when
women do not yet know that they are
pregnant.

 Researchers found that toxic wastes
such as carbon monoxide, mercury
and lead caused defects animals
exposed to high doses. For instance,
early exposure to lead affects
children's mental development.
 Prolonged exposure of pregnant
mothers to sauna or hot tubs raises
the mothers' body temperature
creating fever that endangers the
fetus. The high temperature due to
fever may interfere with cell division
and may cause birth defects or even
fetal death if the fever occurs
repeatedly for prolonged periods of
time.
Other  Rubella (German measles) can be
maternal harmful.
factors  syphilis, genital herpes, and AIDS
are other teratogens.
 A developing fetus depend entirely
on its mother for nutrition. It is
recognized that maternal malnutrition
during pregnancy may result to
inadequate growth in the fetus. If a
fetus does not receive enough
nourishment, the rate of cell division
is seriously hampered.
 One aspect of maternal nutrition that
has emerged is folic acid. Lack of
folic acid in the mother’s diet leads to
a birth defect of the brain and the
spinal cord.
 High anxiety and stress in the mother
are linked with less than optimal
prenatal and birth outcomes.
 Two maternal age periods can lead
to problems before the offspring’s
development: adolescence and 30
or older.
Paternal  Paternal factors that can adversely
factors affect prenatal development include
exposure to lead, radiation, certain
pesticides and petrochemicals.
 Older fathers also may place their
offspring at risk for certain defects
(Sanstrock, 2002)

Test Your Understanding
1. Here are the 3 stages of pre-natal development. Label them.
2. Give some hazards of pre-natal development. Use the gives graphic

organizer.
Pre-natal
Development
– Zygote,
Embryo,
Fetus

RESEARCH
Read at least 2 researchers on causes of births= defects. Summarize each
research by stating the:
a.) Problem
b.) Research method
c.) Findings
d.) Conclusions and
e.) Recommendation
f.) Reference
REFLECTION
1. Read and reflect in these lines:
The heartbeat is observed three weeks and one day after fertilization, and
the heart will beat 54 million times before birth!
At 6 weeks the embryo begins making spontaneous movement. Touch his
mouth and he will draw his head.
At eight weeks, 90% of the anatomical structures found in adults are present –
that’s 4000 distinct anatomical structures.
The child has unique fingerprints at 10 weeks – the same fingerprints he or
she keeps throughout life.
Source: http://www.priestforlife.org/columns/document/aspxid=2go
Write down your reflection.
2. Look at yourself. You are perfectly made. The cells of your lips are at your
lips. Your mouth is close to your nose. You can breathe normally. Did it ever
occur to you that it could have been otherwise? Write down your reflections
here.

UNIT 2 Infancy and Toddlerhood
- Brenda B. Corpuz, Ph.D.
Physical Development of Infants
12
and Toddlers
MODULE -Brenda B. Corpuz, Ph. D.
“A baby is God’s opinion that life should go on”

Carl Sandburg,
American Historian, Poet & Novelist
LEARNING OUTCOMES
At the end of the module you should be able to:
 Trace the physical development the you have gone through as infants and
toddlers.
 Draw implication of these principles processes to parenting and caregiving
INTRODUCTION
We have just trace the developmental process before birth. We shall continue
to trace the developmental process by following the infant or the baby who is just
born up to when he reaches age 2. The period that comes after pre-natal or
antenatal stage is infancy which, in turn, is followed by toddlerhood. Infancy and
toddlerhood span the first two years of the life.
ACTIVITY
Take a learning partner and together study the figure on the next page. Look
closely in the changes in the size of the human body parts as a person grows.
Source: Santrock. J.W. Life-Span Development, 8th Edition, 20002

ANALYSIS
Guide Questions
1. What do you notice about the size of the head in relation to the other parts of
the body as a person grows older?
2. Does physical development from the top or below? From the side to the center?
Explain your answer.
ABSTRACTION
Cephalocaudal and Proximodistal Patterns
As you learned in Unit1, Module 1, The cephalocaudal trend is the postnatal

growth from conceptual to 5 months when the head grows more than he body. This
cephalocaudal trend of growth that applies to the development of the fetus also applies
in the first month after birth. Infants learn to use their upper limbs before their lower
limbs. The same pattern occurs in the head are because the top parts of the head –
the eyes and the brain – grow faster than the lower parts such as the jaw.
The proximodistal trend is the pre – natal growth from 5 months in birth when
the fetus grows from the inside of the body outwards.
This also applies in the first month after birth as shown in the earlier maturation
of the muscular centered of the trunk and arms, followed by the hands and fingers.
When referring in motor development, the proximodistal trend refers to the
development of the motor skills from the center to the body outward.
Height and Weight
 It is normal for newborn babies to drop 5 to 10 percent of their body weight

within a couple of weeks of birth. That is due to the body’s adjustment neonatal
feeding. Once they adjust to sucking, swallowing and digesting they grow
rapidly.
 Breastfed babies are typically heavier than bottle – fed babies through the first
six months. After six months, breastfed babies usually weight less than bottle –
fed babies.
 In general, an infant’s length increases by about 30 percent in the first five
months.
 A baby’s weight usually triples during the first year but shows down in the
second year of life.
 Low percentage are not a cause for alarm as long as infants progress along the
natural curve of steady development.
Brain Development
 Among the most dramatic changes in brain in the first two years of life is the
spreading conceptions of dendrites to each other Remember neurons,

dendrites, axon, synapses? You discussed them in your General Psychology
class (you may wish to review on them).
Myelination or myelinization the process by which axons are covered and

insulated by layers of fat cells, begins prenatally and continues after birth. The
process of myelination or myelinizations increases the speed at which
information travels through the nervous system.
 At birth, the newborn’s brain is about 25 percent of its adult weight. By second
birthday, is about 75% of its adult weight.
 Shortly after birth, a baby’s brain produces trillions more connections between
neurons that it can possible use. The brain eliminates connections that are
seldom or never used (Santrock, 2002). The infant’s brain is literally waiting for
experiences to determine how connections are made.
 A study on rats conducted by Mark Rosenzweig in 1969 revealed that the brains
of rats that grew up in the enriched environment developed better than the
brains of the animals reared in standard or isolated conditions. The brains of
the ‘enriched’ animals weighted more, had thicker layers, had more neuronal
connections and had a higher level of neurochemical activity. Such finding
implies that enriching the lives of infants who live in impoverished environments
can produce positive changes in their development (Santrock, 2002).
Depressed brain activity has been found in children who grew up in depressed
environment (Circhbetti, 2001, cited by Santrock, 2002).
Motor Development
Along this aspect of motor development, infants and toddlers begin from
reflexes, to gross motor skills and fine motor skills.
Reflexes
 The newborn has one basic reflexes which ae, of course automatic, and serve
as survival mechanism before they have the opportunity to learn. Many reflexes
which are present at birth will generally subside within few months as the baby
grows and matures.
 There are many different reflexes. Some of the most common reflexes that
babies have are:
Sucking Reflex: the sucking reflex is initiated when something touches the roof
of an infant’s mouth. Infants have the strong sucking reflex which help to ensure
they an latch unto a bottle or breast. The sucking reflex is very strong in some
infants and they may need to suck on a pacifier for comfort.
Rooting Reflex: the rooting reflex is most evident when an infant’s cheek is
stroke. The baby responds by turning his or her head in the direction of the
touch and opening their mouth for feeding.

Gripping Reflex: Babies will grasp anything that is placed in their palm the
strength of this grip is strong, and most babies can support their entire weight
in their grip.
Curling Reflex: when he inner sole of the baby’s foot is stroked, the infant
respond by curling his or her toes.
Startle/Moro Reflex: infants will respond to sudden sounds or movements by
throwing their arms and legs out, and throwing their heads back. Most infants
will usually cry when startled and proceed to pull their limbs back into their
bodies.
Galant Reflex: the galant reflex is shown when an infant’s middle or lower back
is stroked next to the spinal cord. The baby will respond by curving his pr her
body toward the side which is being stroked.
 Tonic Neck Reflex: the tonic neck reflex is demonstrated in infants who are
placed on their abdomens. Whichever side the child’s head is facing, the limbs
on the right will straighten, while the opposite limbs will cul.
(http://www.nanashealth.com/child/inrefles.asp)
Gross Motor Skills
Study the figure below. See how you developed in your gross motor
skills.
It is always a source of excitement for parents to witness dramatic
changes in the infant’s first year of life. This dramatic motor development is
shown in babies unable to even lift their heads to being able to grab things off
the cabinet, to chase the ball and to will away from parent.
Age (months)
Source: Santrock. J.W. Life-Span Development, 8th Edition, 2000

Fine Motor Skills
Fin motor skills, are skill that involved a refined use of the small
muscles controlling the hand, fingers and thumb. The development of this
skills allows one to be able to complete task such as writing, drawing and
buttoning.
The ability to exhibit fine motor skills involve activities the involve precise
eye – hand coordination. The development of reaching and grasping becomes
more refine during the first two years of life. Initially, infants only show crude
shoulder and elbow movements, but later they show wrist movements, hand
rotation and coordination of the thumb and forefinger.
Sensory and Perceptual Development
The newborn senses the world into which he/she is born through his/her senses
of vision, hearing, touch, taste and smell. Ideally, as he/she advances physically
his/her sensory and perceptual abilities also develop.
What are some research findings regarding newborns’ visual perceptions? Can
newborn see?
 The newborn’s vision is about 10 to 30 time lower than normal adult vision. By
6 months of age, vision becomes better by the first birthday, the infant’s visions
approximate that of an adult. (Banks & Salapatek, 1983 cited by Santrok, 2020)
 Infants look at different things for different lengths of time. In an experiment
conducted by Robert Frantz (1963 cited by Santrock 2002), it was found out
that infants preferred to look at patterns such as faces and concentric circles
rather than a color or brightness. Based on these results, it is likely that “pattern
perception has an innate basis” (Santrock, 2002). Among the first few things
that babies learn to recognize is their mother’s face, as mother feeds and
nurses them.
Can newborns hear?
 The sense of hearing in an infant develops much more before the birth of the
baby. When in the womb, the baby his/her mother’s heartbeats, the grumbling
of hi/her mother’s stomach, the mother’s voice and music. How soothing it must
have been for you to listen to your mother’s lullaby.
 Infants’ sensory thresholds are somewhat higher than those of adult which
means stimulus must be louder to be heard by newborn than by an adult.
Can newborns differentiate odors?
 In an experiment conducted by MacFarlane (1975) “young infants who were

breastfed showed a clear preference for smelling their mother’s breast pad
when they are 6 days old. This preference did not show when the babies were

only two days old. This shows that it requires several days of experience to
recognize their mother’s breast pad odor”
Can newborn feel pain? Do they respond to touch?
 They do feel pain. Newborn male show a higher level of cortisol (an indicator of
stress) after circumcision than price in the surgery (Taddio, et al. 1997 cited by
Santrock 2002).
 Babies respond to touch. In the early part of this module on motor development,
you learned that the newborn automatically sucks an object placed on his/her
mouth, or touch of the check makes the newborn turn his/her head toward the
side that was touched in an apparent effort to find something to suck.
Can newborn distinguish different tastes?
 In a study conducted with babies only two hours old, babies made different
facial expressions when they tasted sweet, sour and bitter solutions (Rosentein
and Oster, 1988, cited by Santrock 2002).
 When saccharin was added amniotic fluid of a near-term fetus, increased
swallowing was observed.
 This indicate that sensitivity to taste might be present before birth.
Do infants relate information through several senses? In short, are infants capable of
intermodal perception?
 Intermodal perception is the ability to relate, connect and integrate information

about two or more sensory modalities such as vision and hearing.
 In study conducted by Spelke and Owsley (1979), it was found out that as early
as 3 ½ months old, infants look more at their mother when they also heard their
voice and longer at their father when they also heard his voice.
 This capacity for intermodal perception or ability to connect information coming
through various modes gets sharpened considerably through experience.
APPLICATION
Come up with a graphic presentation of the milestone of the various aspects of

physical development (proximodistal and cephalocaudal patterns, height and weight
during infancy and toddlerhood). For details refer to the Questionnaire on the
Philippines Early Learning and Development Standards in the Research phase of the
Module Cite implications of each milestone to parenting.
BIG IDEAS
Fill this Table with the Big Ideas learned from this Module.
Physical Development in Infancy and Toddlerhood

Concept Processes/Related Ideas Characteristic/Description

Cephalocaudal and Cephalocaudal
Proximodistal Patterns Proximodistal
Height and weight Nature of change/s
The Brain Dendrite and myelination
Reflexes
Motor Development Gross motor skills
Fine motor skills
Vision
Hearing
Sensory and Touch and pain
Perceptual Smell
Development Intermodal perception
RESEARCH
The class shall be organized to:
1. Conduct a research with mothers or babysitters on the status of the

development of their babies and toddlers. Find out the status of babies and
toddlers’ physical development by the use of the list of what infants and
toddlers can do physically. This list is based on the Philippine learning and
Development Standards (ELSD) formulated by the Child and Welfare
Council now merged with the Early Childhood Care and Development
Council:
2. Present research findings in class.
3. Your research and research presentation will be graded with the use of
Scoring Rubrics given in Part 1, Unit1, Module 4 of this book.
What Infants and Toddlers Can Do Physically?
Domain: Physical health, Well-Being and Motor Development
PHYSICAL HELTH
Standard 1: The child demonstrates adequate growth (weight, height, head
circumference)

Standard 2: The child has adequate sensory to participate in daily activities
0 – 6 months
 Startles to loud sound

 Visually follows moving object from side to side
 Visually follows moving object up and down
 Reacts to pain by crying
 Withdraw or reacts when in contact with something hot
 Withdraw or reacts with surprise in contact with something cold
 Reacts with pleasure/smiles or released expression when he/she taste
something delicious
 Reacts by making face frown/grimaces when he/she taste something that
he/she does not like
7 – 12 months
 Reacts with pleasure when he/she smells something nice

 Reacts by making face when he/she smell something foul
Standard 3: The child adequate stamina to participate in daily activities
 Pushes and/or pull moderately heavy objects (e.g. chairs, large boxes)
 Walks without tiring easily
13 – 18 months
 Plays without tiring easily, able to keep pace with playmates

 Participate actively in games, outdoor play and other exercises
19 – 24 months
 Sustain Physical activity (e.g. dancing, outdoor games, swimming) for at least
3 – 5 minutes
MOTOR SKILLS DEVELOPMENT (GROSS MOTOS SKILLS)
Standard 1: The child shows control and coordination of body movements involving
large muscles groups
 Based on your experience, are there indicators generally observed on and/or

performed by a child on the specified age?
0 – 6 months
 Holds head steadily

 Moves arms and legs equally to at changing object
 Rolls over
 Bounces when held standing, briefly bearing weight on legs
 Sits with support

 Starting to crawl but not yet very good at this
7 – 12 months
 Sits alone steadily without support

 Creeps or crawls with ease as a primary means of moving around
 Stands without support
 Stands from sitting position without any help
 Squats from standing position with ease stands from standing position with
ease
 Bends over easily without falling
 Walks sideways by holding onto the sides of crib or furniture (cruises)
 Walks with one hand held
13 – 18 months
 Walks without support

 Walks backwards
 Walks up the stair with hand held, 2 feet on each step
 Walks down the stair with hand held, 2 feet on each step
 Jumps in place
 Climb onto steady elevated surface (e.g. bed adult chair or bangko, etc.)
 Kicks a ball but with little control of direction
 Throws a ball but with little control of direction
 Throws a ball but with little control of speed
 Runs without tripping or falling
 Maintain balance (walking on a low, narrow ledge, between 2 lines) without
assistance
 Moves with music when he hears it
 Can move body to imitate familiar animals
 Can move body to imitate another person/TV character
19 – 24 months
 Walks up the stair with alternating feel. Without help

 Walks down the stair with alternating feet, without help
 Kicks a ball with control of directions
 Throws a ball with control of direction
 Throws a ball with control of speed
MOTOR SKILLS DEVELOPMENT (FINE MOTOR SKILLS)
Standard 1: The child can control and coordinate hand and finger movements.
Based on your experience, are these indicators generally observed and/or

performed by a child on a specified age?

0 – 6 months
 Hands open most of the time

 Brings both hand together towards dangling object/toy
 Uses either hand interchangeably to grasp object
 Uses all 5 fingers in an ranking motion to get food/toys placed on a flat surface
 Grasp object with the same hand most of the time (hand preference emerging)
7 – 12 months
 Pulls toy by the string

 Bangs 2 large blocks together
 Picks up object with thumbs and index finger
 Grasps and transfer object from hand to hand
 Grasps object with the same hand all the time (definite and hand preference
established)
13 – 18 months
 Puts small object in/out of container

 Unscrews lids
 Unwraps candy/food
 Holds thick pencil or crayon with palmar grip (i.e., all 5 finger wrap around
pencil)
 Scribbles spontaneously
19 – 24 months
 Color with strokes going out of the lines

PERSONAL CARE AND HYGINE (ACTIVITIES OF DAILY LIVING)
Standard 1: The child participates in basic personal care routines.
Based on your own experience, are these indicators generally observed and/or
0 – 6 months
 Suck and swallows milk from breast/bottle

 Begins to take complementary or semi solid foods by the end of 6 months
 Keeps reasonably still while being dressed, undressed, bathe and while diaper
is being changed
7 – 12 months
 Holds a feeding bottle by himself

 Helps hold cups for drinking
 Chews solid food well

 Feeds self with finger foods
 Scoops with a spoon with spillage
13 – 18 months
 Feeds self with assistance

 Feeds self-using fingers to eat rice/viands with spillage
 Feeds self-using spoon with spillage
 No longer drinks from feeding bottle
 Drink on cup unassisted
 Participates when being dressed by lifting arms or raising legs
 Pulls down gartered short pants/underpants or panties
 Removes shoes/sandals
 Informs caregiver of the need to move hi bowels so he/she can be brought to
comfort room
 Takes a bath with assistance
 Brushes teeth after meals with assistance of adult
 Washes and dry hands under adult supervision
 Washes and dry face with the assistance of an adult
19 – 24 months
 Gets drink for self-unassisted

 Removes loose sand
 Removes socks
 Informs caregiver of the need to urinate so he/she can be brought to comfort
room
 Goes to the designated place to urinate but sometime wets his/her pants
 Goes to designated place to move his/her bowels but sometimes still soils
his/her pants
 Goes to designated place to move his/her bowels but needs help with wiping
and washing
 Brushes teeth after meals with adult supervision
 Washes and dries face under adult supervision
LANGUAGE (EXPRESSIVE LANGUAGE)
Standards 1: The child is able to use words and gestures to express his thought and
feelings
Based on you own experience, are these indicators generally observed on

and/or performed by a child on the specified age?
0 – 6 months
 Makes gurgling; cooing, babbling, or other vocal sounds

 Uses gestures (e.g. stretching his/her arms, pointing) to indicate what he/she
wants
7 – 12 months
 Repeats sounds produced by others

 Says meaningful words like papa, mama, to refer to specific persons
 Uses animals sounds to identify animals (e.g., meow-meow for cat)
 Uses environmental sounds to identify objects/events in the environments (e.g.,
boom for thunder)
13 – 18 months
 Speaks in single words

 Says “yes” and “no” appropriately
 Uses words accompanied by gestures to indicate what he/she wants
 Responds to simple questions with single words
19 – 24 months
 Uses pronouns
 Uses possessive pronouns
 Says what he/she wants without accompanying this with gestures
 Attempts to converse even if he cannot be clearly understood
PRE – READING AND PRE – MATH (MATCHING)
Standards 1: The child is able to match identical objects, colors shapes, symbols.
Based on your own experience, are these indicators generally observed on

and/or performed by a child on the specified age?
7 – 12 months
 Able to match 2 identical objects (e.g., 2 spoons, 2 balls)

19 – 24 months
 Matches identical objects
Matches identical pictures

REFLECTION
1. Having learned the physical development of infants and toddlers, as a future

parent or as a caregiver of children, reflect on:
 What you should do more often for infants and toddlers

 What you should refrain from doing facilitate their growth and development.
2. Reflect on the quotation below the title of this Module.

Cognitive Development of Infants
MODULE 13 and Toddlers

“Keep me away from the wisdom which does not cry, the philosophy which does not laugh
and the greatness which does not bow before children”
~Kahlil Gibran~
LEARNING OUTCOMES
At the end of this module, you should be able to.
 Trace your own cognitive development as infants and toddlers.

 Draw implications of cognitive development concepts to parenting
INTRODUCTION
Cognitive development in infancy refers to development in the way a baby

thinks. This includes his/her language, communication and exploration skills.
Examples of cognitive activities include paying attention, remembering learning to talk,
interacting with toys and identifying faces.
ACTIVITY
You will be divided into four groups. Each groups will be assigned a task to do.
For Group 1 – Group 1 Read the story of Laurent, Lucienne and Jacqueline, three
children, of Piaget whom who observed for children’s observation. After reading and
re-reading, make a summary outline of the behaviors of the three children separately.
Don’t forget to indicate the age of each child. This can help you in next activity.
Laurent, Lucienne and Jacqueline
The following provide a glimpse of Piaget’s observations of his children’s

cognitive development in infancy (Piaget, 1952). These are lifted from Santrock
(2002).
 At 21 days of age. Laurent finds his thumb after three attempts: once he finds
his thumb, prolonged sucking begins. But, when he is placed on his back, he
doesn’t know how to coordinate the movement of his arm with that of his mouth:
his hands draw back, even when his lips seek them.
 During the third month, thumb sucking becomes less important to Laurent
because of new visual and auditory interest. But, when he cries, his thumb goes
to be the rescue.
 Toward the end Lucienne’s thrusts her feet at the doll and make it move.
Afterward, she looks at her motionless foot for a second, then kicks at the doll
again. She has no visual control of her foot because her movements are the
same whether she only looks at the doll or it is placed over her head. By
contrast, she does have tactile control of her foot; when she tries to kick the doll
and misses, she slows her foot movements to improve her aim.
 At 11 months, while seated, Jacqueline shakes a little bell. She then pauses
abruptly so she can delicately place the bell in front of her right foot; then she
kicks the bell hard. Unable to recapture the bell, she grasps a ball and places it
in the same location were the bell was. She gives the ball a firm kick.
 At 1 year old, 2 months Jacqueline holds in her hands an object that is new to
her; a round, flat box and she turns over and shakes; then she rub it against
her crib. She lets it go and tries to pick it up again. She succeeds only in
touching it with her index finger, being unable to fully reach and grasp it. She
keeps trying grasp it and presses to the edge of her crib. She makes the box
tilt up, but it nonetheless falls again. Jacqueline shows an interest in this result
and studies the fallen box.
 At 1 year, 8 months, Jacqueline arrives at a closed door with a blade of grass
in each hand. She stretches her right hand toward the doorknob but detects
that she cannot turn it without letting go of the grass, so she puts the grass on
the floor, opens the door, picks up the grass again, and then enters. But, when
she wants to leave the room, things get complicated. She puts the grass on the
floor and grasps the doorknob. Then she perceives that, by pulling the door
toward her, she simultaneously chases away the grass that she had placed
between the door and the threshold. She then picks up the grass and places it
out of the doors range of movements.
For Group 2 – With your small group, share your answers to the following questions:
1. Do you remember anything about yourself when you were two years old?
2. At what age were your first memories? Share those memories with your small
group.
For Group 3 – As a group, answer the following:
1. Based on your observation or experiences with your

others/sisters/nieces/nephew, as a group trace the language development of
an infant until he/she grows into a toddler.
2. It is said that children learn language faster than adults. Why is this so? Give
your hypothesis.
ANALYSIS
For Group 1
1. There are four stages of cognitive development according to Piaget the

sensorimotor, the preoperational, the concrete operational and the formal
operational stage. These were discussed in Part I, Unit
2. Module 6 of this book. This module will focus on the sensori motor stage,
Piaget’s stage that covers the infant and the toddler’s cognitive development.
Here are the 6 substages of sensorimotor developmental stage
(Santrock, 2002):
Sensorimotor stage
The sensorimotor stage is the first of the four stages of cognitive development.
“In this stage, infants construct an understanding of the world by coordinating sensory
experiences (such as seeing and hearing) with physical, motoric actions. Infants gain
knowledge of the world from the physical actions they perform on it. An infant progress
from reflexive, instinctual action at birth to the beginning of symbolic thought toward
the end of the stage. Piaget divided the sensorimotor stage into six sub-stages:
Sub-Stages Age Description

1.Simple Reflexes Birth-6 Coordination of sensation and action
weeks through reflexive behaviors. Three
primary reflexes are described by
Piaget: sucking of objects in the
mouth, following moving and

interesting objects with the eyes, and
closing of the hand when an object
makes contract with the palm (palmar
grasp). Over the first six weeks of life,
these reflexes begins to become
voluntary actions; for example, the
palmar reflex becomes intentional
grasping. (Remember the other
reflexes discussed in Module 12).
2.First habits and primary 6 weeks-4 Coordination of sensation and two
circular reactions phase months types of schemes: habits (reflex) and
primary circular reactions. Primary
reaction because the action is focused
on the infants body. Circular reaction
because it is a repetition of an action
that initially occurred by chance. As an
example of this type of reaction,
infants might repeat the motion of
passing their hand before their face.
Also at this phase, passive reactions,
caused by classical or operant
conditioning can begin. Infants tend to
repeat interesting sensations.
3.Secondary circular 4-8 months Development of habits. Infants
reactions phase become more object-oriented, moving
beyond self-preoccupation repeat
action that bring interesting or
pleasurable results. This stage is
associated primarily with the
development of coordination between
vision and prehension. Three new
abilities occur at this stage: intentional
grasping for a desired object,

secondary circular reactions, and
differentiations between ends and
means. At this stage, infants will
intentionally grasp the air in direction
of a desired object, often to the
amusement of friends and family.
Secondary circular reactions, or the
repetition of an action involving an
external object begin; for example,
moving a switch to turn on a light
repeatedly. This means that a
secondary action is focused on an
object outside the body of an infant.
The differentiation between means
and ends also occurs. This is perhaps
one of the most important stages of a
child’s growth as it signifies the dawn
of logic.
4.Coordination of reactions 8-12 Coordination of vision and touch-
stage secondary circular months hand-eye coordination; of schemes
and intentionality. This stage is
development of logic and the
coordination between means and
ends. This is an extremely important
stage of development, holding what
Piaget calls the “first proper
intelligence. Also, this stage marks the
beginning of goal orientation, the
deliberate planning of steps to meet
an objective. The action is directed
toward a goal.

5.Tertiary circular reactions, 12-18 Infants become intrigued by the many
novelty, and curiosity months properties of objects and by the many
things they can make happen to
object; This stage is associated
primarily with the discovery of new
means to meet goals. Piaget
describes the child at this juncture as
the “young scientist,” conducting
pseudo-experiments to discover new
methods of meeting challenges.
6.Internalization of Schemes 18-24 Infants develop the ability to use
(Invention of New Means months primitive symbols and form enduring
Combination (18-24 months) mental representations. This stage is
beginnings of insight, or true creativity.
This marks the passage into the
preoperational system. Symbolizing
the problem-solving sequence before
actually responding.
By the end of the sensorimotor period, objects are both separate from the self and
permanent. Object permanence is the understanding that touched.
(http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Piaget%27s_theory_of_cognitive_development#Sensori
motor_stage)
2. Go back to Piaget’s children – Laurent, Lucienne, and Jacqueline. Determine

the substage of sensorimotor development that was demonstrated by each child. Do
this with a learning partner. With your teacher as facilitator, you will share and defend
your answers with the whole class.
3. Based on experiences with children, share observed behaviors that illustrate

any of the substages of sensorimotor developmental stage.
Group 2 – Learning and Remembering
Guide Question:
1. Based on the experiences shared, is it more correct to say that an infant does
not remember anything during infancy?
2. Is it safe to say that memory begins at age of three?
For Group 3 – Language Development
Guide Question:
1. Do all toddlers learn language at the same pace?

2. Are there toddlers that engage in telegraphic speech immediately without
passing through one word stage and two word stage in language development?
3. Do infants have an innate capacity to learn language? Even if they are not
taught a language, can infants and toddlers learn that language?
ABSTRACTION
Sensorimotor stage
 An analysis of the 6 substages of the sensorimotor stage of Piaget’s

cognitive development shows that development begins from reflexive
behaviors to more refined and more coordinated activities. Cognitive
development of infants evolves in orientation from becoming focused on
themselves to becoming object or world-oriented, from one that is
action-based to one that is mentally-based, from one that does not
involve much of coordination of schemes to one involving
intentionality, novelty and curiosity and from a thinking that is purely
sensorimotor to a symbolic one.
 Piaget’s substages are termed circular because the adaptive behavior to the
world involves repeated actions. Circular reactions are attempts to repeat
an event that the baby likes. Circular reactions serve as the building blocks
for intelligence (Pasek, P and Golinkoff, R, 2003)
 Primary circular reactions are oriented toward the infants own body,
whereas secondary circular reactions are aimed toward the environment
including others. Here is an example of a primary circular reaction.
At first, by accident, the baby gets her thumb in her mouth. But she doesn’t
know how to do it again. She waves her hand around and, after many

attempts, eventually succeeds in doing it again. Gradually, she learns how
to do it at will (Pasek, K and R. Golinkoff, 2003)
 Secondary circular reactions are repetitive actions that involve recreating
events which 4-10 month old babies observe outside of their own bodies,
such as making their mobile crib shake by kicking their legs (Pasek, K and
R. Golinkoff, 2003).
 Tertiary circular reactions, seen from approximately 10 to 18 months, is
when a baby does things over and over again, just a little differently each
time, e.g. When a baby seems to enjoy dropping the spoon over and over
again in many different ways, a proof of the creation of novel variations in
events. Piaget described the baby at this stage as “the scientist” When
parents don’t understand their child’s behavior, they see this act as abusive
and get frustrated.
 From dropping the spoon many times in many different ways, the baby
discovers a pattern “objects fall down --- not up”. They create the patterns
with their repetitive actions and then evaluate them. Babies are born pattern
seekers (Pasek, K and R. Golinkoff, 2003).
 Acquiring the sense of object permanence is one of the infant’s most
important accomplishments, according to Piaget’s”. Object permanence is
the understanding that objects continue to exist even when the objects are
not immediately perceptible through the senses. Before the infant’s
acquisition of the sense of object permanence, the principle that applies is
“out of sight, out of mind”.
There are some criticism of Piaget’s theory on cognitive development. One

criticism from other developmental theorist is his fundamental assumption that
cognitive development occurs in fixed sequence of discontinuous spurt across task
domain, tasks, and contexts. Many theorists (e.g. Brainerd, 1978) believe that
cognitive development occurs as a continuous process rather than in discontinuous
stages of development. Recent studies in the cognitive development of infants support
the view that Piaget underestimated young infant’s cognitive ability. Furthermore,
Piaget’s methods of research were said to be quite loose, the fact that he simply
observed his three children and a few others which were limited only to European
children.

Learning and Remembering
Do infants learn and remember?
Yes! Pavlov’s classical conditioning and skinner’s operant conditioning have

been proven to apply to infants. We’ll ask you to research on researches that prove
this.
All of us experience infantile amnesia, the inability to recall events that

happened when we were very young (Spear, 1976). Generally, we can remember little
or nothing that has happened to us before the age of about 5 years, and it is extremely
rare for someone to recall many memories before age 3 years. Reports of childhood
memories usually involve memories of significant events (e.g. birth of a siblings or the
death of parent; Fivush and Hammond, 1991). For example, some adults have
recalled their own hospitalization or the birth of a sibling as far bask as age 2 years,
and the death of a parent or a family move may be recalled from as far back as age 3
years (Usher and Neisser, 1993).
I have vivid memories of any childhood as early as age 3. I remember the

deaths of a baby brother and a baby sister in a row. Before age 3 I have a vivid picture
of my father carrying me home in his arms after he was informed that I was chilling
due to very high fever in my grandmother’s house.
Language Development
From day one, infants appear to be programmed to tune in to their linguistic

environment with the specific goal of acquiring language. Infants clearly have
remarkably acute language learning abilities even from an early age (Marcus, Vijayan,
Bandi Rao and Vishton, 1999; Pinker; 1997, 1999 cited by Sternberg, Rober, 2003)
Within the first year of life, we humans seem to progress through the following
stages in producing language (Sternberg, 2003):
1. Cooing, which comprises largely vowel sounds.

2. Babbling, which comprises consonant as well as vowel sounds; to most
people’s ears, the babbling of infants growing up among speakers from
different language groups sounds very similar.

3. One-word utterances; these utterances are limited in both the vowels are the
consonants they utilize (Ingram, 1999 cited by Sternberg, 2003).
4. Two-word utterances and telegraphic speech.
5. Basic adult sentence structure (present by about age 4 years with continuing
vocabulary acquisition.
The infant utters his/her first word- followed by one or two more, and soon after,
yet a few more. The infant uses these one-word utterances termed holophrases- to
convey intentions, desires and demands. Usually, the words are nouns describing
familiar objects that the child observes (e.g. book, ball, baby) or wants (e.g. Mama,
Dada)
By 18 months of age, children typically have vocabularies of 3 to 100 words

(Siegler, 1986). Because the young child’s vocabulary are very limited at this point in
the development process, the child overextends the meaning of words in his/her
existing lexicon to cover thing and ideas for which a new word is lacking. For example
the general term for any kinds of four-legged animals may be “doggie”. In linguistic this
is called overextension error.
Gradually between 1.5 to 2.5 years of age, children start combining single
words to produce two-word utterances. These two-word or three- words utterances
with rudimentary syntax but with articles and prepositions missing are referred to as
telegraphic speech.
Vocabulary expand rapidly, more than tripling from about 300 words at about 2
years of age to about 1,000 words at about 3 years of age. At about 4 years incredibly
children acquire the foundation of adult syntax and language structure (Stermberg,
2003).
It is clear that no toddler blossoms all of a sudden into one capable of

telegraphic speech. As the 5 stages above show, the acquisition of language comes
in stages beginning with cooing, then babbling, to one-word utterances, two or three
word utterances or even more but without articles and prepositions thus called
telegraphic speech.

Language Acquisition Device (LAD)
Noam Chomsky (1965, 1972) noted linguist, claims that humans have an innate
language acquisition device (LAD). This LAD is a “metaphorical organ that is
responsible for language learning. Just as a heart is designed to pump blood this
language acquisition device is preprogrammed to learn language, whatever the
language community children find themselves in.”
This means that we, humans seem to be biologically preconfigured to be ready

to acquire language. Indeed, children seem to have a knack for acquiring an implicit
understanding of the many rules of language structure, as well as applying those rules
to new vocabulary and new contexts. This may partly explain why children are said to
learn language fast.
Professor Laura-Ann Petitp of Dartmouth College in Hanover, New Hampshire

and her colleagues conducted a recent study that concluded that “by 5 months of age,
babies are already specializing by using the left side of their brains for language
sounds and the right side for expression emotion…. We all speak out from the right
side of their mouths… Babies bubble out from the right sied of their mouths.
The right side of the body is controlled by the right side of the brain while the
left side of the body is controlled by the right side of the brain (connections in the brain
are contralateral or crossed). Babies use the right side of their for babbling, then
babbling is a language function controlled by the left side of the brain.
APPLICATION
1. Organize a talk show. Three of your classmates who play the role of experts
in sensorimotor development, memory development and language
development during infancy will serve as panel of discussants. After each
expert delivered his/her piece One will serve as moderator. A question that
should not be forgotten is: What are some applications of these
concepts/ theories in child care are parenting?
2. Several psychologist claims that babies need to be stimulated and
challenged in order to grow and develop in cognitive level. Specific activities,
practiced on a regular basis, stimulate an infant’s cognitive growth.
However, the following experiment proves otherwise:

On the increasingly prevalent cultural assumption that more stimulation is better
and that it is never too early to start, neonatal unit used to be filled with bright lights
and soothing but stimulating sounds. Scientist later found. However, that the sound
and lights of the neonatal care units were actually contributing to problems of attention
deficit and hyperactivity. So now the units are darkened the environment and nature
had intended for these babies (K.Pasek and R. Golinkoff, 2003)
3. You have learned that fast events recalled as early as two are those that
had personal significance. Does this apply even after age 2? What do you
think? If you think yes, what does this imply to your future teaching.
4. Language Learning
Studies show that when parents, teachers and caregivers talk more to
children and ask any questions, they create more stimulating language
environment for their children. What recommendations can you give to
parents for them to provide stimulating language environment? You may
want to do some further research on this.
BIG IDEAS
The infants and the toddler’s development fall under the sensorimotor
development stage of Piaget’s cognitive development theory.
Characterize each substage.
Sub stages of Piaget’s Sensorimotor Stage Characteristics
1. Simple Reflexes
2. First habits and primary circular reactions

phase.
3. Secondary circular reactions phase
4. Coordination of secondary circular reactions

stage
5. Tertiary circular reactions, novelty, and
curiosity.

6. Internalization of Schemes (Invention of
New Means Through Mental Combination
(18-24 months)
7. Object permanence
 We do not have the ability to recalls that events happened when we were very
young. This is called infantile amnesia. Many psychologist believe that people
remember experiences beginning age 3. Some, however, remember significant
events at age 2.
 Within the first year of life, development in the production of language include
the following stages.
-Cooing, which comprises largely vowel sounds.
-Babbling, which comprises consonant as well as vowel sounds; to most

people ears, the babbling of infants growing up among speakers for different
language groups sounds very similar.
-One-word utterances; these utterances are limited in both the vowels

and the consonants they utilize.
-Two-word utterances and telegraphic speech.
 Noted linguist Noam Chomsky claims that humans have an innate

language acquisition device (LAD). These means that we, human
seem to be biologically primed to be ready to acquire language.
RESEARCH
The class will be grouped for another research with parents on their babies and
toddler, this time in cognitive development of the infants and toddler. Make use of the
cognitive list of standards and behaviors of what infants and toddlers can do
cognitively based on the Philippine Early Learning and Development Standards
(ELDS) formulated by the Child and Welfare Council now merged with Early Childhood
care and Development Council. Those who were assigned research on physical
development may no longer included in the grouping. They have enough work to do
for the research on physical development.

With the assistance of your mentor, formulate the research problem,
methodology. Conduct a research on the cognitive developments of infants and
toddlers using the questionnaire on page 164. For Scoring Rubrics refer to Unit I, Part
I, Module 4.
What Infants and Toddlers Can Do Cognitively?
DOMAIN: LANGUAGE, PRE-READING AND PRE-MATH
LANGUAGE (RECEPTIVE LANGUAGE)
Based on your experience, are these indicators generally observed on and/or

0-6 months
 Watches primary caregiver intently as she speaks to him/her
7-12 months
 Understands “No”
 Points to family member when asked to do so
13-18 months
 Points to 5 body parts on him/herself when asked to do so

 Follow one-step instructions without need to gestures
19-24 months
 Points to 5 named pictured objects when asked to do so
LANGUAGE (EXPRESSIVE LANGUAGE)
Standards 1: The child is able to use words and gestures to express his
thoughts and feelings.
Based on your experience, are these indicators generally observed on and/ or

0-6 months
 Makes gurgling, cooing, babbling or other vocal sounds

 Uses gestures (e.g. stretching his/her arms, pointing) to indicate what
he /she wants
7-12 months
 Repeats sounds produced by others

 Says meaningful words like papa, mama, to refer to specific persons
 Uses animal sounds to identify animals (e.g. meow-meow for cat)
 Uses environmental sounds to identify objects/events in the
environment (e.g. boom for thunder)
13-18 months
 Speaks in single words

 Says “yes” and “no” appropriately
 Uses words accompanied be gestures to indicate what he/she wants
 Responds to simple questions with single words
19-24 months
 Uses pronouns
 Uses possessive pronouns
 Says what he/she wants without accompanying this with gestures
 Attempts to converse even if he cannot be clearly understood.
PRE-READING AND PRE-MATH (MATCHING)
Standards 1.1: The child is able to match identical objects, color, shapes
symbols.
Based on your experience, are these indicators generally observed on

and/ or performed by a child on the specified age?
7-12 months
 Able to match 2 identical objects (e.g. 2 spoons, 2 balls)
19-24 months
 Counts for 1 to 5 with errors, gaps or prompts
Domain: Cognitive Development

ATTENTION AND ACTIVITY LEVEL
Standards 1: The child is able to sustain attention and modulate his activity at age
expected levels.

0-6 months
 Looks steadily at novel stimuli (e.g. rattle, dangling toy)
7-12 months
 Examines properties of toys for several minuts by handling these (e.g.

pulling apart)
 Looks with interest at picture books.
 Able to sit through an entire meal without fussing
13-18 months
 May be distracted but responds when made to re-focus

 Resists interruption while engaged in play
HIGHER-ORDERED MENTAL ABILITIES (CONCEPT FORMATION)
Standards 1: The child develop basic concepts pertaining to objects constancy, space,
time, quantity, seriation, etc. and uses these as the basis for understanding how
materials are categorized in his/ her environment.

0-6 months
 Experiments with new objects or toys by banging or putting them in his

mouth
 Looks for completely hidden objects
7-12 months
 Looks for partially hidden objects

19-24 months
 Asks “Why” questions

 Understands reasons behind daily practices (e.g. washing hands
before meals)
 Understands reasons behind safety rules practices at home (e.g. why
one must not play matches)
 Knows where to return most of his/her things
MEMORY (MEMORY FOR EXPERIENCE: EPISODIC MEMORY)
Standards 1: The child is able to recall people he has met, events, and places he has
been to.

0-6 months
 Childs reacts, like smiling, in recognition of someone he/she has met

several times but who does not live in his/her home
13-18 months
 Child reacts, like smiling, in recognition of a familiar place besides

his/her home
19-24 months
 Child is brought somewhere and correctly recalls having been there

before
MEMORY (MEMORY FOR CONCEPT-BASED KNOWLEGDE SEMATIC MEMORY)

Standards 1: The child is able to store verbal information in short and long-term
memory. By a child on the specified age?


19-24 months
 Hums a recognize tune

 Memorizes some gestures of actions songs
HIGHER-ORDERED MENTAL ABILITIES (LOGICAL REASONING)
Standards 1: The child is able to plan and organize a simple, familiar activity. Based
on your experience, are these indicators generally observed on and/or performed by
a child on the specified age?
19-24 months
HIGHER-ORDERED MENTAL ABILITIES (CREATIVE THOUGHT)
Standards 1: The child is able to generate new ideas and concepts, or new
associations between existing ideas or concepts.

19-24 months
 Enjoys constructing objects or structures out of manipulative toys (e.g.

blocks, clay, sand, paper)
 Uses toys and objects as symbol in plays (e.g. pretend empty milk can
is a drum)
 Can use the same toy or object in more than one way (e.g. big empty
box as house)
What Infants and Toddlers Can Do Cognitively?
DOMAIN: Cognitive Development
ATTENTION AND ACTIVITY LEVEL
Standards 1: This child is able to sustain attention and modulate his activity ate age-
expected levels.

0-6 months
 Looks steadily at novel stimuli (e.g. rattle, dangling toy)
7-12 months
 Examines properties of toys for several minutes by handling these

(e.g. pulling apart)
 Looks with interest at picture books
 Able to sit through an entire meal without fussing
13-18 months
 May be distracted but responds when made to re-focus

 Resists interruption while engaged in play
HIGHER-ORDERED MENTAL ABILITIES (CONCEPT INFORMATION)
Standards 1: The child develops basic concepts pertaining to object constancy, space,
time, quantity, seriation, etc. and uses these as the basis for understanding how
materials are categorized in his/her environment

0-6 months
 Experiments with new objects or toys by banging or putting them

in his mouth
 Looks in the direction of a fallen object
7-12 months
 Looks for partially hidden objects

13-18 months
 Can tell whether something is hot or cold

 Hands over 1 object when asked
19-24 months
 Can tell which is shorter of 2 items

 Can tell which is taller/longer of 2 items
 Can tell which is bigger of 2 items
 Can tell which is nearer of 2 items
HIGHER-ORDERED MENTAL ABILITIES
(CAUSE- EFFECT RELATIONSHPS)
Standards 1: The child is able to understand the cause- effect relationships.
Based on your experience, are these indicators generally observed on

and/ or performed by a child on the specified age?
0-6 months
 Acts on an objects to achieve an object (e.g. shakes rattle)
7-12 months
 Uses an object to get something he/she wants (e.g. spoon to

reach an object)
19-24 months
 Asks “Why” questions

 Understands reasons behind daily practices (e.g. washing hands
before meals)
 Understand reasons behind safety rules & practices at home (e.g.
why one must not play matches)
 Know where to return most of his/her things
MEMORY (MEMORY FOR EXPERIENCES: EPISODIC MEMORY)
Standards 1: The child is able to recall people he has met, events, and places he has
been to.

0-6 months

 Childs reacts, like smiling, in recognition of someone he/she has met
several times but who does not live in his/her home
13-18 months
 Child reacts, like smiling, in recognition of a familiar place besides

his/her home
19-24 months
 Child is brought somewhere and correctly recalls having been there

before
MEMORY (MEMORY FOR CONCEPT-BASED KNOWLEGDE SEMATIC MEMORY)

memory. By a child on the specified age?

19-24 months
 Hums a recognize tune

 Memorizes some gestures of actions songs
HIGHER-ORDERED MENTAL ABILITIES (LOGICAL REASONING)
Standards 1: The child able to follow the logic of events (i.e. reasons why these
happen) and draw accurate conclusion by evaluating the facts presented to him.

19-24 months
HIGHER-ORDERED MENTAL ABILITIES (PLANNING AND ORGANIZING)
Standards 1: The child is able to plan and organize a simple, familiar activity. Based
on your experience, are these indicators generally observed on and/or performed by
a child on the specified age?
19-24 months

HIGHER-ORDERED MENTAL ABILITIES (CREATIVE THOUGHT)
Standards 1: The child is able to generate new ideas and concepts, or new
associations between existing ideas or concepts.

19-24 months
 Enjoys constructing objects or structures out of manipulative toys (e.g.

blocks, clay, sand, paper)
 Uses toys and objects as symbol in plays (e.g. pretend empty milk can
is a drum)
 Can use the same toy or object in more than one way (e.g. big empty
box as house)
REFLECTION
1. Go back to the quotation from Kahlil Gibran beneath the title of this
Module. Reflect on it.
2. What struck you most in the cognitive development of infants and

toddlers? Remember cognitive development includes development of
memory and acquisition of language. Write your reflections here

v Socio-emotional Development of
MODULE 14 Infants and Toddlers

LEARNING OURCOMES
 Describe the socio-emotional development process that you through as an
infant and toddler
 State the implications of research findings on infants’ and toddlers’ socio-
emotional development to parenting and child
INRTODUCTION
Simply put, socio-emotional has something to do with the development of a person’s
ability to master one’s emotion and the ability to relate to others. It necessarily
includes temperament, attachments and social skills.
ACTIVITY
Read Nolte’s poem and answer the following questions:
1. Do you agree with D. Nolte’s poem?
2. Which line is most meaningful to you? Explain.
Children Learn What They Live
If a child lives with criticism, he learns to condemn…
If a child lives with hostility, he learns to fight…
If a child lives with fear, he learns to apprehensive…
If a child lives with pity, he learns to feel sorry for himself…
If a child lives with ridicule, he learns to be shy…
If a child lives with jealousy, he learns to feel guilt…
But…
If a child lives with tolerance, he learns to be patient…
If a child lives with encouragement, he learns to be confident…
If a child lives with praise, he learns to be appreciative…
If a child lives with acceptance, he learns to love…
If a child lives with honesty, he learns what truth is…
If a child lives with fairness, he learns justice…

If a child lives with security, he learns to have faith in himself and those about him…
If a child lives with friendliness, he learns the world is a nice place in which to live…
With that is your child living?
Dorothy L. Nolte, Trained Family Counselor
ANALYSIS
1. Based on Nolte’s poem, which plays a very important role in the socio-
emotional development of children?
2. From what kind of home environment do children who are well adjusted most
probably come? What about maladjusted children?
3. State in a sentence what the poem is saying about a child’s socio-emotional
development.
ABSTRACTION
The Formative Years
Much has been said about the importance of the first three years in human
development. They are so-called the formative years that is why, parents and other
caregivers at this stage of human development play a significant role in the
development of infants and toddlers.
As the poem “Children Learn What They Live” expresses, the kind of home and
school environment that parents and teachers produce determines to a very great
extent of the development of children.
Let u discuss those elements that have something to do with the wholesome socio-
emotional development of children.
ATTACHMENT
 For healthy socio-emotional development, the Infant needs to establish an
enduring emotional bond characterized by a tendency to seek and maintain
closeness to a specific figure, particularly during stressful situation. This is the
social phenomenon of attachment.
 According to Dr, John Bowly, the father of attachment theory, the beginnings
of attachment occur within the first six months of a baby’s life with a variety of
a built-in signals that baby uses to keep her caregiver engaged. The baby cries,
gazes into her mother’s eyes, smiles, etc. in the nect few months, the baby
develops in her degree of attachment to her parents. She smiles more freely at
them at any strager whom she seldom sees. This is what Bob Greene mush
have experienced. (see quote below the title of this Module)
 The key to a good smart in the social development of the baby is a lot of
responsive interaction with the baby (K. Pasek and R. Golinkoff, 2003). Babies
thrive on social interaction when it is in responsive to their social bids. Babies
seem to let us know when they want to interact or not. The timing of the
caregiver’s response to the baby is important.

 Other relevant and interesting research findings cited by K. Pasek and R.
Golinkoff, (2003) in their book “Einstein never use Classcards” are given below:
 What is absolutely central to babies’ emotional well-being is in so much feeding

but the consistent involvement of caregivers being fed by your mother is not
what attached you to her is consistent, close nurturing that matters in early
relationships.
 Children who have good attachment relationships as infants much better
adjustments in a number of areas in your future life. But remember, having a
good attachment in infancy give you great start but can’t carry you through life.
You have to be treated sensitively and responsibly as you grow up if you are
developed favorably.
 Infants attach to more than one caregiver and they are developing emotional
relationships with multiple caregivers once.
 Even when children are in child care for more than 30 hours per week, the
family contributes more to child’s social and cognitive well-being than does the
child care arrangement ____ matter and children are attached to parents even
when children are in child care.
 Parents and caregivers help children regulate their emotions by working with
them by serving as their models.
TEMPARAMENT
1. Another factor related to the infant’s socio-emotional development is
temperament. Temperament is a word “captures the ways that people differ,
even at birth, in such things as their emotional reactions, activity level, attention
span, persistence, and ability to regulate their emotions” (K. Pasek and R.
Golinkoff, 2003). Every baby expresses personality traits we call temperament.
How a child responds emotionally to objects event, and people is a reflection of
his individual temperament.
2. Researchers Thomas, Chess and Birch described nice different temperament
categories (Honig, 2010, secure Relationships: Nurturing Infant-Toddlers
Attachments in Early Care Settings.)
These include
 Activity level
 Mood
 Threshold for distress
 Rhythmicity
 Intensity of response
 Approach-Withdrawal
 Distractibility
 Adaptability
 Persistence
To determine a child’s temperament, make the following observation:

Activity Level. Some babies are placid or inactive. Other babies thrash about a
lot and, as toddlers, are always on the move. At this stage, they must be watched
carefully.
The Mood. Some babies are very smiley and cheerful. Although securely
attached emotionally to their teachers, other have a low-key mood and look more
solemn or unhappy.
Child’s threshold for distress. Some babies are very sensitive. They become
upset very easily when stressed. Other babies can more comfortably wait when they
need a feeing or some attention.
The rhythmicity of children. Some babies get hungry or sleepy on a fairly
regular and predictable basis. Other babies sleep at varying times, urinate or have a
bowel movement at unpredictable times, and get hungry at different times. They are
hard to out on a “schedule”
The intensity of response in each day. When a baby’s threshold for distress
has been reached, some babies act restless. Others act cranky or fret just a little.
Still others cry with terrific intensity or howl with despair when they are stressed, they
shriek with delight and respond with high energy when reacting to happy or
challenging situations.
Approach to new situations. Some infants are very cautious. they are wary and
fearful of new teachers, being places in a different crib or being taken to a visit a new
setting. Other infants’ approach new persons, new activities, or new play possibilities
with zest and enjoyment.
Distraction. Some children can concentrate on a toy regardless of surrounding
bustle or noise in a room. Others are easily distracted.
Adaptability of each child. Some children react to strange or difficult situations
with distress, but recover fairly rapidly. Others adjust to new situations with difficulty
or after a long period.
Child’s attention span. Some children have along attention span. They
continue with an activity for a fairly long time. Others flit form one activity to another.
- Based in these temperament traits, psychiatrists Alexander Thomas and
Stella Chess studies babies’ temperament and clustered temperaments into 3
basic types. 1. The easy child; 2. The difficult child; 3. The slow-to-warm-up
child and those that did not fall under any of the e3 basic types. The “Easy
child” easily readily establishes regular routines, is generally cheerful, and
adapts readily to new experiences. The “difficult child” is irregular in a daily
routine, is slow to accept new experiences and trends to react negatively and
intensively to new things while the “slow-to-warm-up-child” shows mild, low-
key reactions to environmental changes, is negative in mood and adjust
slowly to new experiences.
The Emergence of the Moral Self

- A sense of mortality presupposes awareness of the existence of moral
standards and the ability to evaluate oneself against standards. One children
can recognize themselves as entities, they become capable of self-evaluation
and self-description against a set of standards, in the research conducted by
Professor Deborah Stipek and her colleagues at the University of California,
Los Angeles, (Pasek, K and R. Golinkoff) about 50% of the 19-to-24 months
old and 80 % of the 25-to-29-months old and almost 30-to-40- months old are
capable of self-evaluation. These age groups of babies therefore have a
sense of mortality
- Children who aren’t capable of self-evaluation and self-description don’t have
the capacity to experience a sense of shame and remorse. Moral behavior
cannot occur when children do not recognize themselves as social beings
whose behavior can be evaluated against some standards.” (Pasek, K. and R.
Golinkoff, 2003)
- It is not then surprising why some babies show their parents they have done
something wrong sometimes even with laughter or at other times with no
particular emotion. It is not because they are bad babies. It is simply because
they are not yet able to hold a standard in mind and evaluate situations in
terms of these standards.
The development of emotions. Here are the milestone of the baby and the
toddler’s emotion development and social development:
Early infancy (birth-six months)
 It is not clear whether infants actually experience emotions, or if adults, using
adult facial expressions as the standard, simply, superimpose their own
understanding of the meaning of infant facial expressions.
 Between six to ten weeks, a social smile emerges, usually accompanied by
other pleasure-indicative actions and sounds. Including cooing and mouthing.
This social smile occurs in response to adult smiles and interactions
As infants become more aware of their environment, smiling occurs in
response to a wider variety of contexts. They smile when they see a toy they
have previously enjoyed. Laughter which begins at around three or four
months, requires a level of cognitive development because it demonstrate
that the child can recognize incongruity. That is laughter is usually elicited by
actions that deviate form the norm. such as being kissed on the abdomen or a
caregiver playing peek-a-boo. Because it fosters reciprocal interactions with
others, laughter promotes social development.
Later infancy months (7-12)

 During the last half of the first year, infants begin expressing fear, disgust, and
anger because of the maturation of cognitive abilities. Anger, often expressed
by crying, is a frequent emotion expressed by infants. Although some infants
respond to distressing events with sadness, anger is more common.
 Fear also emerges during this stage as children become able to compare an
unfamiliar event with what they know. Unfamiliar situations or objects often

elicit fear responses in infants. One of the most common is the presence of an
adult stranger, a fear that begins to appear at about seven months. A second
fear of this stage is called separation anxiety. Infants seven to twelve
months old may cry in fear if the mother or caregiver leaves them in an
unfamiliar place.
Socialization of emotion begins in infancy. It is thought that this process is
significant in the infant’s acquisition of cultural and social codes for emotional
display, teaching them how to express their emotions, and the degree of
acceptability associated with different types of emotional behaviors.
Another process that emerges during this stage is social referencing.
Infants begin to recognize the emotion of others, and use this information
when reacting to novel situations and people. As infants explore their world,
they generally rely on the emotional expressions of their mothers or
caregivers to determine the safety or appropriateness of a particular
endeavor.
Toddlers years 1-2

During the second year, infants’ express emotions of shame or embarrassment
and pride these emotions mature in all children and adults contribute to their
development.
Emotional understanding
During this stage of development, toddlers acquire language and are learning to
verbally express their feelings. This ability, rudimentary. As it is during early
toddlerhood. Is the first step in the development of emotional self-regulation skills.
In infancy, children largely rely on adults to help them regulate their emotional
states. If they are uncomfortable, they may be able to communicate this state by
crying but have little hope of alleviating the discomfort on their own.
In toddlerhood, however, children begin to develop skills to regulate their emotions
with the emergence of language providing an important tool to assist in this process.
Being able to articulate an emotional state in itself has a regulatory effect in that it
enables children to communicate their feelings to a person capable of helping them
manage them. Emotional state. Speech also enables children to self-regulate, using
soothing language to talk themselves through difficult situations.
 Empathy, a complex emotional response to a situation, also appears in
toddlerhood, usually by age two. The development od empathy requires that
children read others’ emotional cues, understand that other people are entities
distinct from themselves in the position of another).
Erickson’s Psychosocial theory
The first two stages (of the 8 stages of a person`s psychosocial development) apply
at the periods of infancy and toddlerhood, that is why they are discussed below:
Hope: Trust vs Mistrust (Infants, 0 to 1 year)

 Psychosocial Crisis: Trust Vs. Mistrust
 Virtue: Hope
The first stage of Erik Erikson`s centers around the infant`s basic needs being
met by the parents. The infant depends on the parents, especially the mother,
for food, sustenance, and comfort. The child`s relative understanding of world
and society come from the parents and their interaction with the child. If the
parents expose the child to warmth, regularity, and dependable affection, the
infant`s view of the world will be one of trust. Should the parents fail to provide
a secure environment and to meet the child`s basic need a sense of mistrust
will result. According to Erik Erikson, the major developmental task in infancy is
to learn whether or not other people, especially primary caregivers, regularly
satisfy basic needs. If caregivers are consistent sources of food, comfort, and
affection, an infant learns trust- that others are dependable and reliable. If they
are neglectful, or perhaps even abusive, the infant instead learns mistrust- that
the world is in an undependable, unpredictable, and possibly dangerous place.
Will: Autonomy Vs. Shame and Doubt (Toddlers, 2 to 3 years_
 Psychosocial Crisis: Autonomy vs Shame and Doubt
 Main Question: “Can I do things myself or must I always rely on others?”
 Virtue: Will
As the child gains control over eliminative functions and motor abilities, they
begin to explore their surroundings. The parents still to provide a strong base
of security from which the child can venture out to assert their will. The parents`
patience and encouragement help foster autonomy in the child. Highly
restrictive parents, however, are more likely to instill the child with a sense of
doubt and reluctance to attempt new challenges.
As they gain increased muscular coordination and mobility, toddlers become
capable of satisfying some of their own needs. They begin to feed themselves,
wash and dress themselves, and use the bathroom. If caregivers encourage
self-sufficient behavior, toddlers develop a sense of autonomy – a sense of
being able to handle many problems on their own. But if caregivers demand too
much too soon, refuse to let children perform tasks of which they are capable,
or ridicule early attempts at self-sufficiency, children may instead develop
shame and doubt about their ability to handle problems
(en.wikipedia.org.wiki.Erickson’s-stages-of-psychosocial-development-)
APPLICATION
1. “The hand that rocks the cradle rocks the world.” How does this relate to an
infant’s and toddler’s development?
2. Compose your own version of Nolte’s “Children Learn What They Live”. Rap it
or sing it.
3. (This should be assigned in advance.) S observe the interaction of an adult
caregiver (parent, grandparent, Day car worker) with:

A. An infant
B. A toddler
Don’t let them know that you are observing them. In other words, observe them
unobtrusively. Record what the adult says or does and what the infant and the toddler
do in return.
Interpret your observations in the context of Erickson’s psychosocial theory

(particulary trust vs. mistrust and autonomy vs. shame and doubt) of human
development. Be sure that the ones you observe do not know that you are observing
them.
For your Observation Notes, follow this format:
My Observation
Baby and Adult Caregiver
Toddler and Adult Caregiver
My Interpretations in the context of Erickson’s theory

4. Guide Questions for ideal Parenting and Caregiving
You must have experienced babysitting or serving as one at present. Determine
if your child care was is idea:
How ideal are you as a parent or caregiver? Try to answer these guide
questions to find out. Rate yourself from 1 to 4, 1 as the lowest and 4 as the
highest
1 2 3 4
1. Are you generally in good spirits and encouraging when

interacting with the child?
2. Do you smile often at the child?
3. Do you hug the child, pat the child on the back or hold the
child’s hand?
4. Do you comfort the child
5. Do you repeat the child’s words, comment on what the child

says or tries to say and answer the child’s question?
6. Do you encourage the child to talk or communicate by asking
questions that the child can answer easily, such as “yes” or
“no” questions, or asking about a family member or toy?
7. Do you talk in other ways, such as praising or encouraging;
teaching by having the child repeat phrases or naming shapes;
singing song; and telling stories?
RESEARCH
The class will be organized to research on the socio-emotional development of

babies and toddlers using the list of standards and behaviors lifted from the Philippine
early learning and development standards. (PELDS) formulated by the child and
welfare council now merged with the early childhood care and development council.
Schedule time for research presentation in class. Use the scoring rubrics presented
in part 1, unit 1 module 4 for the research and research presentation.
What infants and toddlers can do socio-emotionally?
Domain: Social and Emotional Developmenyy
SUB-DOMAIN: EMOTIONAL (EMOTIONAL EXPRESSION)
Standards 1.1: the child expresses different basic emotions.
based on your experience, are these indicators generally observed on and/or

preformed by a child on the specified age?
0-6 months
 Cries in different ways to express different needs (e.g hungry, sleepy, wet)

 Shows excitement or pleasure by moving arms, kicking, moving the entire
bodyand the face lighting up.
 Smiles or laughs in response to a pleasant experience (e.g caregiver singing to
him/her)
 Amuses self by simple repetitive muscle movement without objects (e.g rolling
back and forth)
 Amuses self by simple repetitive muscle movement without objects (e.g shaking
and rattle)
 Likes playing with water
 Enjoys going to the park
 Shows fear and hesitation towards unfamiliar persons
7-12 months
 Has a favorite toy

13-18 moths
 Smiles/laughs when happy or amused

 Cries when sad, angry and scared
 Shows varying degrees or intensities of various emotions
Standards 1.2 : the child demonstrates ability to self regulate feelings/emotions and
follows schedules as well as rules and regulations.
0-6 months
 Stops crying almost immediately when need is met

 Eventually gets used to an irritating experience (e.g honking horn)
13-18 moths
 Able to stop and undesirable behavior or activity when instructed to do so (e.g

going out to street)
 Can calm down or stop tantruming with help form adults
 Can follow simple rules
19-24 moths
 Can wait his/her turn

 Shows ability to contain his/her expression of anger or frustration in a public
place removed
 Shows ability to contain one’s expression of anger and frustration in a public
place when asked by parents/caregiver
 Tries to control his tears when in pain or scared
Standard 1.3: the child comprehends and displays self-appraisal emotions (shame,
pride, guilt)

7-12 months
 Smiles or claps his hands when he/she displays a learned behavior (e.g close-
open0
13-18 months
 Recognizes and is able to table self-appraisal emotions such as shame, pride

guilt, envy, jealousy
 Will do something that gets him/her praised (e.g doing a task properly, singing,
etc.)
19-24 moths
 Shows interest in doing things that are his/her own creation

 Says “sorry” when he/she has made a mistake or has hurt someone
SUB-DOMAIN: EMOTIONAL (RECEPTIVITY TO OTHER’S EMOTION)
Standards 1: The child is receptive to the different emotions of other people and shows
empathy.

7 – 12 months
 Can mimic people`s facial expressions

13 – 18 months
 Demonstrates appropriate/acceptable responses to other people`s emotions

(e.g., does not laugh at someone who is crying)
19 – 24 months
 Identifies feelings in others

 Show respect for rights and properties of others (e.g., asks permission, does
not deliberately destroy others` things)
SUB-DOMAIN: SOCIAL (EMERGING SENSE OF SELF)
Standards 1 : The child expresses knowledge of self and basic roles of people in
his/her immediate environment.

0 – 6 months
 Explores own body (e.g., observes hands and toes), often smiles and vocalizes
 Looks at self in the mirror

 Responds to own name by turning to look or reaching to be picked up when
called
7 – 12 months
 Identifies self in the mirror or photograph via patting or pointing to his/her image
13 – 18 months
 Identifies what part of his/her body hurts by pointing to his

 Refers to self by first or nickname
 Calls family members by their name/role (mama, papa, ate, kuya)
 Asks for what he/she needs without hesitation
 Expresses dislike or disagreement (eg., no, ayaw) but in a manner that remains
respectful and polite
19 – 24 months
 Identifies self by first and last name

 Identifies what part of his/her body hurts by naming this
SUB-DOMAIN: SOCIAL (FORMING ATTACHMENTS)
Standards 1 : The child forms healthy attachments to primary caregivers and others
significant adults and children in his/her life.

0 – 6 months
 Looks for caregiver during times of distress or discomfort

 Shows distress (e.g., inability to eat or sleep, crying) if primary caregiver is
absent
13 – 18 months
 Is affectionate towards primary caregivers and other family members

 Goes to primary caregivers for help
 Is comfortable in the company of strangers if primary caregiver is present
 May play alone but likes to be near familiar adults or siblings
 Hugs or cuddles toys
 Enjoys playing regularly with significant adults and children
19 – 24 months
 Eventually moves away from primary caregiver when playing with unfamiliar
children or adults, but may look occasionally in his/her direction
(SUB-DOMAIN: SOCIAL (INTERACTIONS WITH OTHER CHILDREN)

Standards 1: The child plays and has positive interactions with other children.

0 – 6 months)
 Plays with toys by himself (e.g., mouths, examines, swipes toys)

 Smiles in response to the facial expressions of other children
 Looks at other children with interest; watches them play
 Display amusement interacting with other children (e.g., cooing, flailing arms
and legs)
7 – 12 months
 Engages in play alongside but not necessarily with other children (i.e., parallel
play)
 Plays with other children (i.e., interactive play)
13 – 18 months
 Plays cooperatively with other children

 May hug/kiss or hold hands with other children
 Shows or shares food, books, and toys with other children
 Asks to play with other children or invites them to play with him/her
19 – 24 months
 Talks to other children, asks them questions

 Shows preferences for some children and interacts more with them
SUB-DOMAIN: SOCIAL (INTERACTIONS WITH ADULTS)
Standards 1: The child has positive relations and interactions with adults.

0 – 6 months
 Will look at adult`s faces and make eye-to-eye contact

 Listens to verbalizations by adult
 Coos or smiles when talked to by a familiar adult
 Play peek-a-boo interactively with others
7 – 12 months
 Hugs, pats, kisses “familiar” persons

13 – 18 months
 Friendly with strangers but initially may show slight anxiety or shyness
 Asks adults (other than primary caregiver or adult family members) for help or
to indicate what he/she wants or needs
 Willingly does what familiar adults ask him/her to do
 Appropriately uses cultural gestures of greeting without prompting (e.g.,
mano/bless, kiss)
SUB-DOMAIN: SOCIAL (PAKIKIRAMDAM-SENSITIVITY)
Standards 1: the child takes social cues from the environment and adjusts his behavior
accordingly.

0 – 6 months
 Is shy or more quiet with strangers

 Refers to caregiver for cues about novel situations, people or objects
13 – 18 months
 Usually quiets down or stops when caregiver shushes him/her

 Takes notice when there is a sudden change in mood of caregiver or people
around him/her
19 – 24 months
 If he/she needs something, can wait quietly, as told, until caregiver is able to
attend to him.
SUB-DOMAIN: SOCIAL (APPRECIATING DIVERSITY)
Standards 1 : The child recognizes and respects similarities and differences in

people, language, culture.

19 – 24 months
Able to differentiate between boys and girls Sub-domain: Social (Pakikiramdam-
Sensitivity)
Standards 1: The child takes social cues from the environment and adjusts his
behavior accordingly.

0 – 6 months
 Is shy or more quiet with strangers

 Refers to caregiver for cues about novel situations, people or objects
13 – 18 months
 Usually quiets down or stops when caregiver shushes him/her

 Takes notice when there is a sudden change in mood of caregiver or people
around him/her
19 – 24 months
 If she/he needs something, can wait quietly, as told, until caregiver is able to attend to
him/her
SUB-DOMAIN: SOCIAL (APPRECIATING DIVERSITY)
Standards 1 : The child recognizes and respects similarities and differences in people
language, culture.

19 – 24 months
 Treats house help or those less fortunate with respect(e.g., talking to them in a
polite manner)
REFLECTION
1. Based on stories you heard from your parents and grandparents about your
first three years in the world, reflect on the kind of home environment you have
had as an infant and as a child? How has it affected you?
2. One theme of Erikson`s basic philosophy is that failure is cumulative. True, in
many cases an individual who has to deal with horrendous circumstances as a
child may be unable to negotiate later stages as easily as someone who didn`t
have as many challenges early on. For example, we know that orphans who
weren`t held or stoked as infants have an extremely hard time connecting with
others when they become adults.
(http://www.learningplaceonline.com/stages/organize/Eriksons,htm)
Do you believe that there are exceptions? Reflect and, if you can, cite concrete
examples. Don’t forget to give yourself as an example if it can be!
Unit Summary
Milestones of Physical, Cognitive and Socio-emotional development Process of
the infant and the Toddler
The socio-emotional development of infants and toddlers is from intra- and
interpersonal relations. Intrapersonal relation is the development of self, emotion and
gender identity while interpersonal relation has something to do with the

development of attachments, friendship and peer-relations. Study the details of intra-
and interpersonal relations in the Table below:
Age Milestones
The first year From the start, babies eagerly explore
their world-and that includes themselves
and other people
Birth Babies spend a lot of time getting to know their
To own bodies. They:
3 months  Suck their own fingers
 Observe their own hands
 Look at the place on the body that is
being touched
 Begin to realize she is a separate
person from others and learn how body
parts, like arms and legs, are attached.
Infants are interested in other people and
learn to recognize primary caregivers.
Most infants:
 Can be comforted by a familiar
adult
 Respond positively to touch
 Interact best when in an alert state
or in an inactive and attentive state
 Benefit from short, frequent
interactions more than long,
infrequent ones
 Smile and show pleasure in
response to social stimulation
3 months Babies are more likely to initiate social

To interaction. They begin to:
6 months  Play peek-a-boo
 Pay attention to own name
 Smile spontaneously
 Laugh aloud
6 months Babies show a wider emotional range and
To stronger preferences for familiar people. Most
9 months can:
 Express several clearly differentiated
emotions
 Distinguish friends from strangers
 Respond actively to language and
gestures
 Show displeasure at the loss of a toy

9 months As they near age one, imitation and self-
To regulation gain importance. Most babies can:
12 months  Feed themselves finger foods
 Hold a cup with two hands and drink
with assistance
 Hold out arms and legs while being
dressed
 Mimic simple actions
 Show anxiety when separated from
primary caregiver
1 year Children become more aware of themselves
To and their ability to make things happen. They
2 years express a wider range of emotions and are
more likely to initiate interaction with other
people. At this stage, most children:
 Recognize themselves in pictures or
the mirror and smile or make faces at
themselves
 Show intense feelings for parents and
show affection for other familiar people
 Play by themselves and initiate their
own play by themselves and initiate
their own play
 Express negative feelings
 Show pride and pleasure at new
accomplishments
 Imitate adult behaviors in play
 Show a strong sense of self through
assertiveness, directing others
 Begin to be helpful, such as by helping
to put things away
2 years Children begin to experience themselves as
To more powerful, creative “doers”. They explore
3 years everything, show a strong sense of self and
expand their range of self-help skills. Self-
regulation is a big challenge. Two-year-olds
are likely to:
 Show awareness of gender identity
 Indicate toileting needs
 Help to dress and undress themselves
 Be assertive about their preferences
and say no to adult requests
 Begin self-evaluation and develop
notions of themselves as good, bad,
attractive, etc.

 Show awareness of their own feelings
and those of others, and talk about
feelings
 Experience rapid mood shifts and
show increased fearfulness (for
example, fear of the dark, or certain
objects)
 Display aggressive feelings and
behaviors

UNIT 3 EARLY CHILDHOOD (THE PRESCHOOLER)
-Maria Rita D. Lucas, Ph. D
v Preschoolers` Physical
MODULE 15 Development
“A child reminds us that playtime is an essential part of our daily routine.”

-Anonymous
LEARNING OUTCOMES
 Describe preschool children’s physical growth

 Identify the different gross and fine motor skills.
 Draw implications of these concepts on physical development on teaching
preschoolers.
INTRODUCTION
The preschooler years is commonly known as “the year before formal schooling
begins” It roughly covers 3-5 years of age. Although it is known as the years before
formal school. It is by no was less important than the grade school years. The
preschool years is very important as it lays foundation to later development milestone.
As such, pre-service teachers who might be interested to teach and care for
preschoolers need to be knowledgeable about them to be truly and international and
effective teacher.
This module on the physical development of preschoolers focuses on the

acquisition of gross and fine motor skills, artistic expression, proper nutrition and sleep,
and what teachers and caregivers should do to maximize the preschoolers’
development
ACTIVITY
Examine the pictures below. Think about the physical characteristics of
preschoolers. Put a caption for the pictures.
A day at the zoo playground…

Picture 1 and 2
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Picture 3 and 4
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Picture 5 and 6
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Picture 9 and 10
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Picture 11 Picture 12
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ANALYSIS
From the captions you wrote for the pictures, what physical characteristics of
preschoolers came out? Write them below.
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From the activity, you were able to see a glimpse of preschoolers’ physical
development. They love to move. They enjoy being active. They are also interested to
work with their fingers, like with blocks. They have a more balanced stance than
toddlers. Read on and you will learn more about the typical physical development of
preschoolers, the important concerns and issues, and how teachers and caregivers
can help maximize the preschoolers’ growth and development.
Big ideas about the Physical Development of Preschoolers
1. There are significant changes in physical growth of preschoolers

2. The preschoolers’ physical development is marked by the acquisition of gross
and fine motor skills.
3. Preschoolers can express themselves artistically at a very early age
4. Proper nutrition and the right amount of sleep are very important for the
preschoolers.
5. Caregivers and teachers can do a lot in maximizing the growth and
development of preschoolers
6. Preschoolers with special needs in inclusive classrooms can thrive will with the
appropriate adaptations made in the classroom, materials and activities.
Significant changes in Physical Growth

Physical growth increases in the preschool years, although it is much slower in
pace than in infancy and toddlerhood. At around 3 years of age, Preschoolers move,
from the remaining baby-like features of the toddler, toward a more slender
appearance of a child. The trunk, arms and legs become longer.

The center of gravity refers to the point at which body-weight is evenly
distributed. Toddlers have their center of gravity at a high level about the chest level.
This is why they have difficulty doing sudden movements without failing down.
Preschoolers on the other hand, have their center of gravity at a lower level, right about
near the belly button. This gives them more ability to be stable and balanced than the
toddlers. The preschooler moves from the unsteady stance of toddlerhood to a
steadier bearing. They no longer “toddle”, that wobbly way that toddlers walk. This
also allows the preschooler to move more “successfully” than the toddlers. Some say
that the later part of the preschooler years at around 5 or 6 is the best time to begin
learning skills that require balance like riding a bike or skating.
Gross and Fine motor development
Gross motor development refers to acquiring skills that involve the large
muscles. These gross motor skills are categorized into three: Locomotor, non-
locomotor and manipulated skills. Locomotor skills are those that involve going from
one place to another, like walking, running, climbing, skipping, hopping, creeping,
galloping, and dodging. Non-locomotor ones are those where the child stays in place,
like bending, stretching, turning, and swaying. Manipulated skills are those that involve
projecting and receiving objects, like throwing, striking, bouncing, catching and
dribbling.
Preschoolers are generally physically active. Level of activity is highest around
three and becomes a little less as the preschooler gets older. Preschoolers should be
provided with a variety of appropriate activities which will allow them to use their large
muscles. Regular physical activity helps preschoolers build and maintain healthy
bones, muscles, and joints, control weight and build lean muscles, prevent or delay
hypertension, reduce feelings of depression and anxiety and increase capacity for
learning.
Fine motor development refers to acquiring the ability to use the smaller
muscles in arm, hands and fingers purposefully. Some of the skill included here are
picking, squeezing, pounding, and opening things, holding and using a writing
implement. It also involves self-help skills like using the spoon and fork when eating,
buttoning, zipping, combing and brushing.
Different environments provide different experiences with fine motor skills. For
example, the availability of information and communication technology in largely urban
areas makes younger and younger children proficient in keyboarding and manipulation
of the mouse or gaming console like the Play Station Portable (PSP). While other
children use their fine motor skills in digging in soil, making toys out of sticks, cans and
bottle caps, still others, enjoy clay, play dough, and finger paint.
By the end of the preschool years most children manage to hold a pencil with
their thumb and fingers, draw pictures, write letters, use scissors, do stringing and
threading activities. They can also do self-help skills like eating and dressing up
independently. Significant progress in fine motor skills can be expected of
preschoolers especially if they are aptly supported and appropriate activities and
provided for them.

Handedness, or the preference of the use of one hand over the other, is usually
established around 4 years of age. Earlier than this preschooler can preschooler
shifting the crayon from left to right and back again while working on a coloring activity.
Preschoolers’ Artistic Development

At the heart of the preschooler years is their interest to draw and make other
forms of artistic expressions. This form of fine motor activity is relevant to
preschoolers. Viktor Lowenfeld studied this and came up with the stages of drawing in
early childhood:
Stage 1. Scribbling stage. This stage begins with large zig-zag lines which later
become circular makings. Soon, discrete shapes are drawn. The child may start to
name his/her drawing towards the end of this stage.
Stage 2. Preschematic stage. May already include early representations (This
also becomes very significant when we discuss about cognitive development). At this
point adults may be able to recognize the drawings. Children at this stage tend to give
the same names to their drawing several times. Drawing usually comprise of a
prominent head with basic elements. Later, arms, legs, hands and even facial features
are included.
Stage 3. Schematic stage. More elaborate scenes are depicted children usually
draw from experience and exposure. Drawings may include houses, trees, the sun
and sky and people. Initially, they may appear floating in air but eventually drawings
appear to follow a ground line.
Everyone who deserves a preschooler go through these stages of drawing
would surely say one thing: that the preschooler drew the same drawing maybe a
hundred times! Repetition is the hallmark of early drawing. One wonders if the supply
of scratch papers, crayons and pens will never be enough. Adults should remember
to have a neat supply of these or they will find the preschoolers’ drawings on the
furniture and walls! This affords the preschooler opportunities to gain mastery of the
fine motors skills involved.
Also important to remember is that the preschoolers’ representations or
drawings does not only involve fine motor skills, but also cognitive skills. Children’s
drawings allow us to have a glimpse of how they understand themselves and the world
around them.
Preschoolers’ Nutrition and Sleep

The kind of nutrition a preschooler gets has far-reaching effect on his physical
growth and development. The preschooler’s nutritional status is the result of what
nutrients he or she actually takes in checked against the nutritional requirement for
his/her age. Obviously, having too much or too little both have their negative effects.
Here in our country, we can see the extreme of preschoolers not having enough food
and those on the other end of the extreme where we find preschoolers who are not
just over weight but obese. The celebration of Nutrition month every July is aimed at
advocating for proper nutrition. Each year a theme is put forth to advocate good

nutritional habits while Government programs on giving out fortified bread, milk and
even noodles aim to address malnutrition among children.
It is important for preschoolers to get sufficient amount of rest and sleep.
Preschoolers benefit from about 10-12 hours of sleep each day. It is when they are
asleep that vital biological processes that affect physical and cognitive development
take place. During sleep. Especially in the dream state (rapid eye movement stage),
growth hormones are released. Blood supply to the muscles are likewise increased
helping preschoolers regain energy. At this state while dreaming, increased brain
activity is also attained.
A. Quick look at what preschoolers can do: (Physical skills)
The bulleted list of preschoolers’ physical skills is lifted from the physical
domain component of the Philippine Early Learning and Development Standards
(ELDS). This set of standards was based on a study commissioned by UNISEF
and the Child Welfare Council (CWC)
This is now adopted for use by the early childhood care and development
council.
Gross motor 36-48 months
 Hops 1 to 3 steps on preferred foot

 Skips (with alternating feet)
 Jumps and turns
 Stands on one leg without failing for at least 5 seconds
 Throws a ball overhead with control of direction.
 Kicks a ball with control and speed
Fine motor skills 36-48 months
 Consistently turn pages of a picture or story book one page at a time,

looking at pictures with interest
 Purposefully, copies diagonal lines
 Purposefully, bisects a cross
 Purposefully, copies a square
 Purposefully, copies a triangle
 Cuts with scissors following a line.
46-60 months
 Copies a simple pattern of different basic shapes

 Draws a human figure (head, eyes, mouth, trunk, arms, legs, etc.)
without prompts

 Draws a house without prompts using geometric forms
 Colors with strokes staying within the lines
Personal care and hygiene (Self-help skills)

36-48 months
 Pours from pitcher without spillage

 Feeds self-using spoon without spillage
 Dresses without assistance except for buttons and tying laces
 Puts on socks independently
49-60 months
 Feeds self-using fingers without spillage

 Prepares o food
 Dresses without assistance, including buttoning and typing
 Wipes/cleans him/herself after a bowel movement
 Brushes teeth after meals without having to be told
 Washes and dries face independently without having to be told
 Takes a bath independently without having to be told.
The role of Caregivers in the growth and development of the Preschooler

Optimum physical development of preschoolers is largely influenced by the
supportive caregivers (parents and teachers) who provide a stimulating environment
and appropriate activities for the children. If you have friends and relatives who are
responsible for preschoolers, read and share the following tips: (This collection
includes those suggested by Lesia Oesterreich, M.S., Family Life Extension Specialist,
Human Development and family studies, lowa state University.)
For all preschoolers:
a. Engage preschool children in simple games that involve running and walking.
b. Provide them with toys for catching and throwing such as soft large balls and
bean bags.
c. Have balancing activities for preschoolers. Use low balance beams and lines
on the classroom floor or playground. Montessori schools have blue or red lines
on their preschool classroom floors.
d. Allow opportunities for rough and tumble play like in a grassy area or soft mats.
Keen observation and monitoring is, of course expected to keep them safe from
injury.
e. Ensure that preschoolers get enough rest and sleep. Setting a routine for bed
time is ideal.
f. Model good eating habits to preschoolers. Encourage more fruits, vegetables,
water and fresh juices, rather that processed foods, sugary snacks and sodas.

3-year-old
g. Encourage development of hand-eye coordination by providing large buttons or

old beads to string on a shoe lace.
h. Play ball. Show children how to throw, catch, and kick balls of different sizes.
i. Show children how to hop like a rabbit, tiptoe like a bird, waddle like a duck,
slither like a snake, and run like a deer.
j. Encourage free expression in art projects. Avoid asking “what” children are
drawing. Three-year-olds may not know or care, but simply enjoy the process
of drawing.
k. Provide a variety of art experiences. Make play dough. Create collages from
magazine pictures, fabric, wallpaper, and newsprint. Encourage children to
experiment with new media like wire and cork, soda straws, string or yarn.
Teach Children to mix different colors with paint.
4-year-olds
l. Encourage physical development. Play follow the leader. Pretend to walk like
various animals.
m. Set up an obstacles course indoors with challenges such as crawling, climbing,
leaping, balancing, and running across stepping stones.
n. Encourage walking with a beanbag on the head.
5-year-olds
o. Encourage body coordination and sense of balance by playing “follow the

leader” with skipping, galloping, and hopping. Skip or jump rope to music, teach
folk dances and games, provide a balance beam, a tree for climbing, and a
knotted rope suspended from a sturdy frame.
p. Teach sack-walking and “twist-em”, “statue”, or “freeze” games to provide an
outlet for their drive for physical activity.
q. Play games that can teach right and left directions, like “hokey-pokey”, “looby-
loo”, and “simon says”.
r. Help children learn to use a pair of scissors by letting them cut out coupons.

RESEARCH CONNECTION
Read a research that is related to one of the big ideas on the physical
development of preschoolers. Fill out the matrix below.
Research Methodology
Problems
Source: (bibliographical entry

format)
_____________________________
_____________________________
Findings _____________________________ Conclusions
_____________________________
_____________________________
__________

Cognitive Development of the
MODULE 16 Preschoolers
“There are children playing in the street who could solve some of my top problems in
physics, because they have modes of sensory perception that I lost a long ago.”
J. Robert Oppenhelmer
LEARNING OUTCOMES
 describe the cognitive development that takes place among preschoolers.
 apply concept on preschoolers’ cognitive development in school teaching and
in child care.
 take an informed stand/position on current preschool teaching practices.
INTRODUCTION
Someone once wrote in his journal: “Childhood is a world of miracle and wonder;
as if creation rose, bathed in light, out of darkness, utterly new, fresh and astonishing.
The end of childhood is when things cease to astonish us. When the world seems
familiar, when one has got used to existence, one has become an adult.”
Early childhood (preschool age) is just one stage of childhood. Do you
remember how you were as a preschooler? What do you remember most as
preschooler? What did you enjoy doing?
ACTIVITY
Below are behaviors or remarks from children. Your early childhood experiences
may help you arrive at the correct answer. Put a check (√) on the item that is TRUE
and put an x on the item that does NOT apply to preschoolers.
_____1. “Someone switched on the thunder,” a child remarked.
_____2. Child silently nods on the telephone to answer his Father who is on
the other side of the phone inquiring if Mom is around.
_____3. “That tree pushed the leaf off and it fell down,” says a child.
_____4. A child is presented with two identical beakers each filled to the same
level with liquid. The child is asked if these beakers have the same
amount and she says YES. The liquid from one beaker is poured into
a third beaker, which is taller and thinner, than the first two. The child
is then asked if the amount of liquid in the tall, thin beaker is equal to
what which remains in one of the original beakers. The child says
YES.
_____5. Child asks a series of “why” questions.
_____6. Child is strongly influenced by the features of the task that stand out,
such as the flashy, attractive clown.
_____7. Child pays attention to the more relevant dimensions of the task such
as directions for solving a problem and not on the prominent clown,
for instance.
_____8. Jun does not realize that the juice in each glass can be poured back
into the juice box from which it came.
_____9. Mike did not like to share a piece of cake with his younger sister.
Mike’s younger sister was sick. Mike concludes that he made his
younger sister got sick.
ANALYSIS
Form small groups of 5 to 6. Compare your answers to the questions below.
Give reasons for your answers. Bring in your childhood experiences as you share your
answers. Try to arrive at the consensus.
1. Which item/s is/are TRUE of preschool children?
2. Which item/s is/are NOT TRUE of preschool children?
Answering the items above made you think about your own views or
assumptions about preschoolers’ cognitive development. You were also once in that
world of bursting curiosity wanting to know about the world around you. Read through
the module and you will surely understand the way preschoolers think and learn. You
will also learn about how as a future teacher or parent, you can best contribute to the
preschoolers’ cognitive development.
ABSTRACTION
Preschoolers’ Symbolic and Intuitive Thinking

All the behaviors and the remarks above except Items #4 and #7 are true of
preschool children. They are considered immature aspects or limitations of preschool
children preoperational though according Piaget.
There are two substages of Piaget’s preoperational thought, namely symbolic
substage and intuitive substage. In symbolic stage, preschool children shows
progress in their cognitive abilities by being able to draw objects that are not present,
by their dramatic increase in their language and make-believe play. In the intuitive
substage, preschool children begin to use primitive reasoning and ask a litany
questions. While preschool children exhibit considerable cognitive development, their
improved cognitive processes still show some aspects of immaturity or limitations.

Items # 1 (Someone switched on the thunder.) and # 3 (That tree pushed
the leaf off and fell down.), for example, indicate limitation on preschool
children’s symbolic thought process. The remarks indicate the preschool
children believe that inanimate objects have 'lifelike’ qualities are capable of
action. This is referred to as animism (Santrock, 2002). Preschool children
who use animism fail to distinguish the appropriate occasions for using
human and nonhuman perspectives. However, the fact that they attribute the
falling of the leaf and the thunder to a “cause” proves that preschool children
realize that events have causes, although the perceived causes are not
correct.
Item # 2, “Child silently nods on the telephone as to answer his Father
who is on the other side of phone inquiring if Mom is around”, is another
limitation in preschool children’s symbolic thought. Piaget calls this
egocentrism, the inability to distinguish between one’s own perspective
(Santrock, 2002). The child thinks that his father can see him just as he
can see himself.
Item # 4, should apply to preschool children had the child answered NO
when asked if the amount of liquid in the tall, thin beaker was equal to that
which remained in the original beakers. Preschool children are quite
limited in their intuitive thought process. The amount of liquid that was
transferred to the third beaker remains unchanged. However, preschool
children are drawn to only to the height of the liquid when seen in the
thinner and taller beaker and fail to consider the width of the beaker. This
is a clear evidence of centration, one limitation of the preschool child’s
preoperational thought, which is the focusing or on centering of one’s
attention on one characteristic to the exclusion of others (Santrock, 2002).
In this case, the focus is only on the height of the beaker to the exclusion
of the width of the beaker which is clearly another factor that should be
taken consideration. This is also referred to as unidimensional thought.
This is also an evidence of preschool children’s lack of conservation, the
awareness that the basic property of an object or a substance is con
served (is not changed or altered) even if its appearance is changed,
(Santrock, 2002).
“Child ask a series of “why” questions (Item # 5). Preschool children ask a
barrage of questions. These signal the emergence of the preschool
children’s interest in reasoning and in figuring out why things are the way
they are. Their asking question is a function of their insatiable curiosity
coupled with the dramatic increase in language.
Items # 6 and # 7 have something to do with preschool children’s atten-
tion. Between items #6 and # 7, item # 6 (... strongly influenced by the
features of the task that stand out, such as the flashy, attractive clown)
applies to preschool children. Because the preschool child pays more
attention to the strikingly conspicuous peripherals, they miss the more
relevant and more important features needed in problem solving or in a

tasks performance. This is obviously manifested when between two wrapped
gifts, one with a big, colorful ribbon and the other without, a preschool child
chooses the one with a prominent ribbon.
Item # 8 (Child does not realize that the juice in each glass can be poured back
into the juice box from which it came.) indicates irreversibility, Piaget’s term
for a preoperational child’s failure to understand that an operations can go in
two or more directions. Once Jun can imagine restoring the original state of
the water by pouring it back into the other glass, he will realize that the amount
of water on both glasses must be the same. Unfortunately, however, in his
development stage he is not yet capable of reversible thinking. He is not yet
capable of working backwards.
Item # 9 (Mike did not like to share a piece of cake with his younger sis-
ter. Mike’s younger sister was sick. Mike concludes that he makes his younger
sister got sick.) shows that preschool children do not use deductive or
inductive reasoning; instead they jump from one particular to another and
see cause where is none exist. This is transductive reasoning.
While preschoolers still may be limited to preoperational thinking as you
have seen in the Activity, they are making significant advancements in their cognitive
abilities like the acquisition of symbolic thought. Symbolic thought is shown in
preschool children’s ability to mentally represent an object that is not present. They do
not need to be in sensorimotor contact with an ob-ject, person, or even in order to think
about it. Johann asks his Mom about the giraffe they saw in the zoo five months ago.
Moreover, preschool children can imagine that objects or people have properties other
than those they actually have. Mark imagines that his one-foot ruler is a saw while he
pretends to saw a piece of wood.
Preschoolers use symbolic thought in play, reading, and writing when, for
instance, children pretend that one thing represents another such as a wooden block
used as a microphone in a magic sing and when they pretend to be dog Bantay while
in sociodramatic play. In reading and writing they realize that pictures stand for events
in a story and that letters represent sounds used in their language.
Brain Connections in the Preschool Years
Because of fascinating development in neuroscience, brain development of
young children have been of great interest to the field of early childhood. Brain
research findings point us to more effective ways to care for and teach preschoolers.
From science lessons you had in high school or even in elementary, you will remember
that our brain is composed of numerous cells called neurons that connect to each
other to function. Cell connections are what we call synapses, sometimes also
referred to as synaptic connections. Did you know that:
 the human brain contains some 50 billion neurons at birth?!
 by age 2, children have developed half of the brain cell connections that will be
made during one’s lifetime?

 around 6 years of age the brain develops for more sophisticated thinking
patterns?
All these facts point to the enormous potential that the preschooler’s brain has.
The child’s billion cells have the ability to make almost countless connections that
prepare the child for intricate pathways to learn language, acquire logical-
mathematical skills, interact with people, grow in his feelings and emotions, and even
express himself in art. As such, a preschool teacher would often observe how a child
now has transformed from a dependent toddler into a proud and independent
preschooler who can now eat more neatly, enjoy “reading” a book, tell his own stories
among friends, build beautiful block structures and wear his jacket all by himself.
Brain research has also pointed out the crucial role of the environment. Experts
have shown specific areas of brain activity that respond to environmental stimulation.
Therefore, the brain forms specific connections (synapses) that are different for each
person. The quality of these connections depends on the quality of stimulation and
exposure provided by the environment. In the preschool years, a supportive and
stimulating environment is that which offers many experiences involving the different
senses (multi-sensorial), and that which allows the child to think, imagine and create
is best. This environment can be provided for by a good combination of a healthy and
functional family environment and a quality preschool program. What did that milk
commercial say? Oh yes... expose...explore... experience. May we add, all these lead
to exponential brain development!
Just as an enriching environment favors the preschooler’s brain development,
strong evidence also shows that highly stressful environments marred by trauma and
chaos affect the cognitive development of preschoolers. High levels of stress
hormones such as cortisol may lead to diminished brain growth in areas needed for
memory, learning and emotional attachment. It may also lead to anxiety and
hyperactivity and impulsive behavior. It’s not only the extreme form of negative
environment that negatively affects the preschooler’s brain. An environment that lacks
the proper stimulating experiences can also cause damage. Preschools who make
children work with nothing but work sheets and pictures instead of real life, hands-on
experiences do more harm than good. As future teachers, always be aware of your
defining role in providing a quality environment that will lead to optimum brain
development for preschoolers.
Language Development
Young children’s understanding sometimes gets ahead of their speech.
As children go through early childhood, their grasp of the rules of language
increases (morphology, semantics, and pragmatics).
Symbolic thinking involves language, literacy and dramatic play. Children
rapidly conclude that sounds link together to make words and words represent ideas,
people, and things. Throughout the preschool years, children’s language development
becomes increasingly complex in the four main areas: phonology (speech sounds),
semantics (word meaning), syntax (sentence construction), and pragmatics

(conversation or social issues of language). As they advance in age and as they
continuously interact with other people, preschool children expand rapidly in their
vocabulary through fast mapping, a process by which children absorb the meaning
of a new word after hearing it once or twice in conversation. Preschool children
combine syllables into words and words into sentences in an increasingly
sophisticated manner.
It is not uncommon to hear preschool children using “goed” for “went”, “foots”
for “feet”, “childs” for “children”, “runned” for “ran” an overextension of the rules. A
three-year old laughing with delight as an abrupt summer breeze stirred his hair and
tickled his skin, commented, “it did winding me!” Another child said, “My father hatches
the wood”, meaning his father chops the wood with a hatchet. Many of the oddities of
young children’s language sound like mistakes to adult listeners, but from the
children’s perspective, they are not.
In asking questions, preschoolers tend to cling to a consistent word order and
so they form questions not by following the pattern “subject-verb-object” order but by
simply saying with rising intonation the sentence in the natural order such as “Mother
is coming?” Likewise, preschool children tend to have difficulty with the sentence in
the passive voice. When told, “the car was pushed by a truck”, preschoolers
demonstrate a car pushing a truck.
From an expanded vocabulary and improved grammar, preschool children
learn to use language successfully in social contexts (pragmatics). With an expanded
vocabulary and improved grammar, preschool children become skilled
conversationalists and often initiate conversation.
Parents, teachers, and caregivers can monitor a child’s language development
in these four areas to identify where some children may struggle. Children with mild to
severe speech difficulties can be referred to a specially trained professional called a
speech pathologist in order to work with the child or suggest helpful strategies for
caregivers to improve language proficiency.
Language and Social Interaction
Vygotsky believed that young children use language both to communicate
socially and to plan, guide, and monitor their behavior in a self-regulatory fashion –
called inner speech or private speech (Santrock, 2002).
For Piaget’s, private speech is egocentric and immature, but for Vygotsky it is
an important tool of thought during early childhood. Full cognitive development
requires social interaction and language. Children must use language to communicate
with others before they can focus on their own thoughts (Santrock, 2002). This implies
the importance of interaction of preschoolers with caregivers for language
development.
Vygotsky asserted that preschool children are unable to achieve their highest
cognitive development (language development included) on their own and that they
can improve their cognitive development through use of scaffolding from more-skilled
children and adults. He introduced the term Zone of Proximal Development (ZPD)

to refer to tasks too difficult for a child to master alone but can be mastered with the
guidance and assistance of adults or more skilled children (Santrock, 2002). In short,
the ZPD captures the preschool children’s’ cognitive skills that are in the process of
maturing. The ZPD has a lower limit and upper limit. The lower limit of the ZPD is “the
level of cognitive development reached by the preschool child independently. The
upper limit is the level of additional responsibility the child can accept with assistance
of the level of additional responsibility the child can accept with assistance of an able
instructor.” (Santrock, 2002)
Closely linked to the idea of ZPD in cognitive and language development is the
concept of scaffolding, a term that refers to the “changing support over the course of
a teaching session, with the more skilled person adjusting guidance to fit the child’s
current performance level” (Santrock, 2002). The more skilled person is also called
More Knowledgeable Other (MKO). Can you think of ways of scaffolding
preschoolers to help them reach optimum cognitive and language development?
Information Processing Theory-Attention and Memory
The Information Processing model is another way of examining and
understanding how children develop cognitively. This model conceptualizes children’s
mental processes through the metaphor of a computer processing, encoding, storing,
and decoding data.
The preschoolers’ attention span lasts longer than that of toddlers. The child’s
ability to pay attention changes significantly during the preschool years.
But one deficit in attention during preschool years is that attention is focused
only on aspects that stand out at the expense of those that are relevant to solving a
problem to performing well on a task. Preschool children recognize previously
encountered information, recall old information, and reconstruct it in present. Try
asking a preschooler what she did on Christmas vacation when she returns to
preschool after holiday. She will be able to.
Among the interesting questions about memory in the preschool years are
those involving short-term memory. In short-term memory (STM) retain information for
up to 15-30 seconds, assuming there is no rehearsal, which can help keep information
in STM for much longer period (Santrock, 2002)
Differences in memory span occur across the ages due to: a) rehearsal and b)
speed and efficiency of processing information. Older children rehearse items more
than younger children. On thus count, preschool children may have shorter memory
span than primary and intermediate pupils. The speed with which a child processes
information is an important aspect of the child’s abilities.
Between the ages of 2 to 5, long-term memory also begins to form, which is
why most people cannot remember anything in their childhood prior to age 2 or 3.
Part of long-term memory involves storing information about the sequence of
events during familiar situations as “scripts”. Scripts help children understand,
interpret, and predict will happen in future scenarios. For example, children understand
that entering the classroom as a class after the flag ceremony involves a specific
sequence of steps: one bell means put cross your hand over left on your chest, two
bells means pass quietly and follow the line until you reach your seat. Children ages
2 through 5 also start to recognize that are often multiple ways to solve a problem and
can brainstorm different (though sometimes primitive) solutions.
Between the ages of 5 and 7, children learn how to focus and use their cognitive
abilities for specific purposes. For example, children can learn to pay attention to and
memorize lists of words or facts. This skill is obviously crucial for children starting
school who need to learn new information, retain it and produce it for tests and other
academic activities. Children of this age have also developed a larger overall capacity
to process information. This expanding information processing capacity allows young
children to make connections between old and new information. For example, children
can use their knowledge of the alphabet and letter sounds (phonics) to start sounding
out and reading words. During this age, children’s knowledge base also continues to
grow and become better organized. (http://www.milestonecentersinc.org)
In early childhood, as information-processing increases in speed, memory
becomes increasingly longer. Younger children can remember a great deal of
information if they are given appropriate cues and prompts. Sometimes, however, the
memories of preschoolers seem to be erratic, but these inconsistencies may be to
some degree the result of inadequate prompts and cues. Rehearsal and organizing
information are deliberate mental activities that can be employed to improve the
processing of information. Young children typically, however, do not use rehearsal and
organization.
The Young Children’s Theory of Mind
Theory of Mind refers to individuals’ thoughts about how mental processes
work (Santrock, 2002).
By the age of 2or 3, children become aware that the mind exists. They refer to
needs, emotions, and mental states. When a preschool child says, “I forgot my doll”,
“I want my ice cream”- these imply that he/she is aware that a mind exists. Cognitive
terms such as know, remember and think usually appear after perceptual and
emotional terms, but are used by age 3 (Santrock, 2002).
As their representation of the world and ability to remember and solve problems
improve, children start to reflect on their own thought processes. They begin to
construct a theory of mind or a set of ideas bout mental activities (Preschooler’s
Cognitive Development, 2007). This develops markedly between the ages of three
and five. It includes awareness of one’s own thought processes, social cognition,
understanding that people can hold false beliefs, ability to deceive, ability to distinguish
appearance from reality and ability to distinguish fantasy from reality (Preschoolers
Cognitive Development, 2007).
How do children manage to develop a theory of mind at such a young age?
Various speculations and research findings suggest that social experience is very
important. Social experience includes 1) early forms of communication, 2) imitation, 3)
make-believe play, 4) language, and 5) social interaction. (Preschoolers Cognitive
Development, 2007)

A Quick Look at what Preschoolers Do
Below is a list of preschoolers’ cognitive skills lifted from Philippine Early
Learning and Development Standards (ELDS).
Receptive Language
Standards 1: The child is able to understand both verbal and non-verbal forms
of communication.
31 – 36 months: 3-4 years old
 Speaks in simple sentences
 Talks about an event and is understood
37 – 48 months
 Uses some preposition
 Uses plurals
 Uses past tense
 Uses newly learned words appropriately in sentences
 Uses newly learned words appropriately when in group conversation
49 – 60 months: 4 – 5 years old
 Draws and tells a story about his drawing
Pre-Reading and Pre-Math (Matching)

Standards 1.1: The child is able to much identical objects, colors, shapes,
symbols.
31 – 36 months: 2 – 1/2 to 3 years old
 Matches identical objects with 2 attributes (e.g., color & shape)
 Matches identical upper case letters
 Matches identical lower case letters
37 – 48 months: 3 – 4 years old
 Copies simple pattern with or more attribute (e.g, color & shape,
sequence) and continue this without guidance.
 Recognizes familiar logos (e.g., McDonald’s, Coke, etc.)
 Recognizes signs (e.g., male & female restrooms; stop and go,
danger/poison, etc.)
 Matches identical 2-to 4-letteer words
 Matches identical single-digit numbers
 Matches identical 2-digit numbers
Pre-Reading and Pre-Math (Copying Letters and Numbers)

Standards 1.2: The child is able to recite the alphabet and numbers in sequence.
37-48 months: 3-4 years old
 Prints upper-case letters with a model with some reversals

 Prints complete name without model
 Prints upper case letters with a model with no reversals
 Prints lower case letters with a model with some reversals
 Prints numbers 1-5 with a model with some reversals
 Prints upper case letters without a model and with no reversals
 Prints lower case letters without a model and with no reversals
 Prints numbers 1-5 without a model and with no reversals
Domain: Cognitive Development

Attention and Activity Level
Standards 1: The child is able to sustain attention and modulate his activity at
age-expected levels.
31-36 months: 2-1/2 to 3 years old
 Completes simple tasks without prodding
 May be distracted but re-focuses on his/her own
 Remains settled while leafing through a picture book for 5 minutes
 Remains settled while listening to a story using picture books for 5
minutes
 Sustains attention and concentration on a tabletop activity for 10 minutes
 Can work on a school assignment with minimal supervision
 Sustains attention and concentration on a tabletop activity for 15-20
minutes
 Can work on school assignment with minimal supervision
 Can work on a school assignment independently________
Higher-Ordered Mental Abilities (Concept Formation)

Standards 1: The child develops basic concepts pertaining to object constancy,
space, lime, quantity seriation, etc. and uses these as the basis for
understanding how materials are categorized in his/her
environment
 Knows the difference between a recent event and one that happened a
long time ago
 Counts with one-to-one correspondence
 Understands the concept of number-quantity relations from 1 through 5
(e.g., hands over 5 objects when asked)
 Groups objects by shape
 Arranges objects by length

 Arranges objects according to size
 Can tell in what way 2 things are the same
 Can tell in what way 2 things are different
37-48months: 3-4 years old
 Can tell which is prettier/nicer of 2 items based on his/her
criteria
 Groups pictured objects according to category
 Can tell which is left and right on him/herself
 Understands “more” and “less”
 Understands the concept of conservation of matter at a rudimentary level
 Can tell which is left and right of people facing him/her
 Knows the difference between yesterday, today, and tomorrow
 Understands the concept of number-quantity relations for 1-10
 Demonstrates concept of addition using finger or objects
 Demonstrates concept of subtraction using fingers or objects
Higher-Ordered Mental Abilities (Cause and Effect Relationship)

Standards 1: The child is able to understand the cause-effect relationships

 Can complete a simple pattern (e.g., beads, pictures, shapes) with
occasional guidance
 Understand reasons behind rules and practices in school
 Understand reasons behind rules and practices in the community, like
those pertaining to sanitation, environmental preservation, etc.
Memory: (Episodic Memory)

Standards 1: The child is able to recall people he has met, events, and places he
has been to.

 Talks about thing that happened during a particular event that occurred
some time back
Memory: (Memory for Concept-Based Knowledge-Semantic Memory)

memory

 Repeats 5 to 7-word sentences correctly
 Memorizes the lyrics of a short song
 Memorizes a short rhyme
 Remembers the gist and many details of a stories told or read
 Can recite the days of the week with some errors
 Remembers lessons learned in school even after several days have
passed
 Can recite the days of the week with no errors
 Can recite the months of the year with some errors
Higher-Ordered Mental Abilities (Logical Reasoning)

Standards 1: The child is able to follow the logic of events (i.e., reasons why
these happens) and draw accurate conclusion by evaluating the
facts presented to him.

 Can complete a simple pattern (e.g., beads, pictures, shapes) with
occasional guidance
 Can tell what is silly or wrong with absurd pictured scenes
 Relates experiences in sequence or as these happened
 Can appreciate humorous stories or jokes that his/her peers also find
funny (e.g., “knock-knock” jokes)
 Knows that certain things are the same therefore can be substituted for
each other (e.g., liquid and powdered detergent)
 Can state opposite relationships
 Can give substantive reasons why he/she like something or not
 Can argue a point/stand logically
 Can complete a simple pattern (e.g., beads, pictures, shapes) without
guidance
49-60 months: 4-5 years’ old
 Knows that certain elements remain the same even if their positions
change (e.g., 2 + 3 equal 5)
 Able to predict what will happen next in a story
 Can predict how a story will end half-way through
Higher-Ordered Mental Abilities (Planning and Organizing)

Standards 1: The child is able to plan and organize a simple, familiar activity
31-36 months: 2-1/2 to 3 years’ old

 Can plan how he/she will carry out an activity with adult guidance (e.g.,
eating, household chores and putting structure in activities)
 Has almost everything he/she needs before starting an activity
 Can dress following an organized sequence
 Can bathe following an organized sequence
 Can plan how he/she will carry out an activity without adult guidance
Higher-Ordered Mental Abilities (Creative Thought)

Standards 1: The child is able to generate new ideas or concepts, or new
associations between existing ideas or concepts

 Pretends to be engaged in “grown up” activities (e.g., playing office)
 Pretends to be a character in familiar story
 Creates new words or names for people or objects
 Can make a pun or joke
 Creates some dance moves
 Creates lyrics of songs using familiar melody
 Pretends to be a character in his/her own made-up story
 Formulates rules to implement in a game
 Can draw things or scenes from experience but with no actual model or
reference (i.e., from memory)
 Can draw or paint things that do not exist in real life (i.e., fantasy or
imagination)
Higher-Ordered Mental Abilities (Cognitive Flexibility)

Standards 1: The child is able to shift to more adaptive cognitive processing
strategies in order to effectively deal with new and unexpected
conditions in his/her environment, including problem situation

 Modifies actions based on new experiences (e.g., change block
structure that falls)
 Explores alternative solutions to a problem and select one option
 Is able to shift activities without much fuss
 Is able to know when the topic of conversation has changed and adjust
accordingly
The Role of Caregivers (Parents and Teachers) in the Cognitive Development of
Preschoolers

Learning about how preschoolers think and learn, one will realize that the
parents and teachers can do a lot either to help preschoolers develop their cognitive
skills or impede them. With the best of intentions, one can do more harm than good if
the approach to teaching preschoolers is not appropriate. Some adults think that the
role of preschools is to prepare the children to pass the entrance examinations of
elementary schools, and so they “harass” the preschoolers to master academic skills.
This leads the preschoolers to be stressed and to have a negative disposition about
school and about learning.
Two prominent organizations that have position statements about the
appropriate practices in the care and education of preschoolers are the National
Association for the Education of Young Children -NAEYC (www.naeyc.org) and the
Association for Childhood Education International-ACEI (www.acei.org) be sure to
check out their websites to learn more about the preschoolers.
Below are some appropriate practices that help develop the cognitive skills of
preschoolers. (adapted from list of tips for caregivers and teachers by Lesia
Oesterreich, M.S., Family Life Extension Specialist, Human Development and Family
Studies, Iowa State University)
For three year-olds

1. Speak with children as often as possible. Use short sentences, ask
questions, and listen.
2. Add new information to your children’s sentences. “Yes that’s a flower –
it’s a tall, red flower and it smells so good.”
3. Teach children to memorize first and last names.
4. Provide books for children to read, and read the same books to them.
Read poetry and nursery rhymes. Encourage a child to repeat a story and
discuss the ideas and events. Read titles and point to important words on
pages, packages, and street signs.
5. Encourage interest in reading and writing by sharing a grocery list or note
for parents. Provide paper, small notebooks, and markers for use in
dramatic play.
6. Count objects of interest; for example, cookies, cups, napkins or dolls. It
is better to use objects that you can move one at a time as you and the
children count. Measure, and have children help measure and count as
you follow a recipe.
7. Explain why and how things happen with the help of reference book. Help
them to do simple science activities like magnetic attraction, freezing
water, planting seeds, making a terrarium, and flying kites on a windy day.
8. Provide sets – toys and other objects that go together. Discuss similarities
and differences. For example, point out sequences in cooking.
9. Sing simple songs. Make simple rhythm instruments: shoe box or milk can
drum, rattles of mongo beans in a box, etc. encourage a variety of body
movements and dance to music of many kinds. Play musical games such
as “London Bridge,” “Ring-around-the-Rosie,” and “Farmer in the Dell.”
For four-year-olds
1. Read aloud each day and encourage children to look at books on their
own. Provide alternative reading material with a collection of outdated
coupons, junk mail, newspaper ads, and old cereal boxes
2. Say nursery rhymes and finger plays together. Encourage 4-year-olds to
tell stories to young children.
3. Encourage interest in writing and words. Provide children with paper and
notebooks for writing. Print letters and numerals on art work, and label toy
shelves with pictures and words that describe objects.
4. Teach important number and space concepts. Sort and count everything
in sight, like silverware, socks, rocks, leaves, etc. Talk about things being
in, on, under, behind, beside, before and after, larger than, too far, etc.
5. Teach children to correct use of the telephone.
6. Encourage 4-year-olds to help you plan and plant a garden. They will to
love water plants daily and will enjoy measuring plant growth.
For five-year-olds
1. Add drama to your reading sessions each day by using different voices for
different characters. While reading a familiar story, stop before the end
and ask children to add their own end to the story.
2. Ask 5-year-olds to tell you a story. Write it down and post it on the wall or
refrigerator. You can also record the child telling the story and let him listen
to himself later.
3. Ask “what if” questions. What if there were 5 little pigs instead of 3? What
if Little Red Riding Hood saw a rabbit instead of a wolf?
4. Involve children in writing “thank-you” notes, holiday greeting cards, and
letters. If a 5-year-old enjoys copying letters, let him dictate a short
message to you and copy it from your writing.
5. Give 5-year-olds opportunities to sort, group, match, count, and sequence
with real life situations such as setting the table, counting the number of
turns, sorting out socks, and matching fabric swatches. Expose them to
games involving matching pairs.
6. Take questions seriously. Talk to children about what happens and why.
Give answer they can understand.
7. Five-year-olds will show an increasing interest in numbers. Encourage
them to count anything in interest – cups, leaves, drums, bells, number of
children absent, etc.
8. Encourage interest in jokes, nonsense, and riddles by reading humorous
stories, riddles, and nonsense rhymes. Join them in jokes from school,
books, and TV.
9. Give opportunities to express dramatic and creative interest. Teach
children how to move their bodies to dramatize the opening of a flower,

falling leaves, or rain; wiggly worms and snakes; and laundry blowing in
the wind.
APPLICATION
Questions for Discussion
1. Describe behaviors to illustrate the preschooler’s:
 animism
 egocentrism
 centration
 lack of conservation
 irreversibility
 transductive reasoning
2. Read this excerpt from Albert Einstein’s biography. Examine Albert

Einstein’s preschool development in the light of cognitive development in
early childhood as discussed. How different was his childhood from average
childhood? (language development, Einstein’s lifelong memory of that
compass, parents’ and teachers’ underestimation of his cognitive ability?)
In the public mind, the name Albert Einstein (1879-1955) is synonymous

with genius. His general theory of relativity (“the greatest revolution in
thought since Newton”), his discovery of the fundamental principle of
quantum physics, and his other contributions to the reshaping of our
knowledge of the universe cause him to be considered “one of the greatest
physicists of all time” (Whitrow, 1967).
Yet the young Einstein, who was born in the German town of Ulm, hardly
seemed destined for intellectual stardom. He was slow in learning to walk
and did not begin talking until at least his third year. His parents feared he
might be mentally retarded. Einstein himself always insisted that he did not
try to speak until after the age of 3, skipping babbling and going directly into
sentences. Actually, his sentences may have come a bit earlier. When his
sister, Maja, was born four months before Albert’s third birthday, Albert (who
had been promised a new baby to play with and apparently thought it be a
toy) reportedly asked in disappointment. “Where are the wheels?”
Regardless of the exact timing, “Albert was certainly a late and reluctant
talker” (Brian, 1996). The reasons may have had more to do with personality
than the cognitive development; he was a shy, taciturn child, whom adults
thought backward and other children considered dull. He would not play
marbles or soldiers or other games with his peers, but he would crouch for
hours, observing an ant colony.
When he started school, he did poorly in the most subject: the
headmaster predicted he would never amount to anything, Albert hated the
regimentation and role learning stressed in German schools: he did not have

a retentive memory and could not give clear answer to his teachers’
question. He was daydreamer, his questioning mind occupied its own
speculations. He would not even try to learn anything unless he was
interested in it-and then his concentration was intense.
His wonder about workings of the universe was awakened at the age of
4 or 5, when he was sick in bed and his father gave him a magnetic pocket
compass to keep him amused. The boy was astonished no matter which
way he turned the compass, the needle pointed to N (for ‘north’). What
controlled this motion? He pestered his Uncle Jacob, who had studied
engineering, with questions. His uncle told about earth’s north and south
poles and about magnetic fields, but Albert still was not satisfied. He
believed there must be some mysterious force in what appeared to be the
empty space around the needle. He carried the compass around for weeks,
trying to figure out its secret. Years later, at the age of 67, he wrote, “... this
experience made a deep and lasting impression upon me. Something
deeply hidden had to be behind things” (Sschilpp, 1970, p. 9).
That sense of wonder was reawakened several years later, when Uncle
Jacob, noticing that Albert showed an interest in arithmetic, introduced him
to algebra and geometry. Albert solved every problem in the books his uncle
brought him and went searching for more. It was that same insatiable
curiosity and persistence-what Einstein himself called “a furious impulse to
understand” (Michelmore, 1962, p. 24)- that underlay his lifetime quest for
scientific knowledge.
3. To enhance the preschoolers’ development in his symbolic thinking,

language, attention, memory function, and metacognition, what
developmentally appropriate practices would you recommend? What
developmentally inappropriate practices would you not recommend?
4. Critics argue that too many preschools are academically oriented and
stressful for young children. Do you agree? Explain.
5. Does preschool matter? Doesn’t preschool rob the child of his irretrievable
childhood? Defend your stand.
6. Explain the meaning of the quote beneath the title of this Module.
BIG IDEAS
Big Ideas about Preschoolers’ Cognitive Development
1. Preschoolers engage in symbolic and intuitive thinking.
2. Brain connections are made when preschoolers interact with the
environment.
3. Preschoolers’ language development occurs in four areas: phonology,
semantics, syntax, and pragmatics.
4. Vygotsky believed that language and social interaction are very important
to cognitive development.

5. Preschoolers improve in their ability in process information.
6. Preschoolers’ cognitive development is marked by the emergence of a
theory of mind
RESEARCH CONNECTION
Read a research that is related to one of the big ideas on the cognitive development
of preschoolers. Fill out the matrix below.

_____________________________________
_____________________________________
_____________________________________
_____________________________________

Currently there is controversy over whether young children should be allowed to
testify in court. Considering their memory functioning would you favor it?
1. “Mind in the Making” by Ellen Galinsky (2010) is a brilliant book that highlights
the best researches about children’s cognitive development, among others.
The book discusses in seven chapters about the following seven essential life
skills every child needs:
A. Focus and self-control

B. Perspective taking
C. Communications
D. Making connections
E. Critical thinking
F. Taking on challenges
G. Self-directed, engaged learning
The book also provides valuable and practical suggestions about how
parents and teachers can develop the skills.
Choose one from the seven skills. Read the chapter and write a reaction
paper.

REFLECTION
5-Minute Non-Stop Writing begins.... NOW!
vv
From the Module on the Cognitive Development of Preschooler, I learned
that...
SS
Explain why?

17
Socio-Emotional Development
MODULE of the Preschoolers
“One test of the correctness of educational procedure is the happiness of the

child.”
-Maria Montessori
LEARNING OUTCOMES
 explain Erikson’s “crisis” of early childhood, initiative versus guilt.

 explain the development of the preschoolers’ sense of self and self-esteem.
 discuss how children develop gender identify.
 discuss the different caregiving style and their effect on preschoolers.
 describe how significant relationships with parents, siblings and peers affect the
preschoolers.
INTRODUCTION
Socio-emotional development is crucial in the preschool years. We hear a lot of
parents and teachers and preschool administrators say that attending preschool is
more for “socialization” than for formal academic learning. There is wisdom in this.
During the preschool years, children learn about their ever widening environment
(Remember Module 10 on Bronfenbrenner?) Preschoolers now discover their new
roles outside their home. They become interested to assert themselves as they relate
with other people. A lot of very important social skills they will learn during the
preschool years will help them throughout life as adults. These skills can even
determine the individual’s later social adjustment and consequent quality of
relationship in adult life.
ACTIVITY
Observe preschoolers playing in the playground or in the classroom. Take a
video or shoot pictures.
Note the following:
1. Is there a conversation going on? Describe the conversation that takes place
among and between the children. What are they talking about?
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
________________________

2. Describe what they are playing/what the play is about?
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
________________________
3. Describe the children’s integration. Indicate if they are on their own, working
together or if there is conflict.
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
_________________
Bring this to class and share in small groups.
ANALYSIS
Answer the following questions:
1. Were the children playing on their own or alone even when they were with others?
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
2. Were there some children playing together with agreed upon rules and roles?
Describe.
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
3. If you observed conflicts between or among children, how were they resolved? Did
an adult intervene? Or did they manage to resolve it by themselves?
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
4. Were the children polite? What polite words (Thank you, sorry, etc) or gestures did
you observe?
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
The observation you did provided you a glimpse of the world of preschoolers.
You were once in that world of wonder and fascination. Read through this Module and
you will surely understand more why they manifested the social behaviors that you
have observed.
Big Ideas on Preschoolers’ Socio-emotional Development

1. The development of initiative is crucial to the preschooler.

2. A healthy self-concept is needed for preschoolers to interact with others.
3. Environmental factors influence gender identity in young children.
4. Preschoolers’ social development is shown through the stages of play.
5. The care-giving styles of parents and teachers affect the preschoolers’ socio-
emotional development.
6. Preschoolers’ are interested in building friendships.
Preschoolers’ Initiative
Erikson’s view of initiative aptly portrays the emotional and social changes that
happen during the preschool years. As discussed in Module 7, preschoolers deal with
the psychological conflict of initiative versus guilt. Erikson believed that healthy
preschoolers develop initiative, the tendency of preschoolers to want to take action
and assert themselves. They will yearn to create, invent, pretend, take risks and
engage in lively and imaginative activities with peers. When parents, teachers and
other adults support these attempts and provide a stimulating environment, the
preschooler’s sense of initiative will grow. On the other hand, if the adults show
overprotection, extreme restriction and criticisms, the preschooler will develop guilt.
As preschoolers go through the conflict of initiative vs. guilt, they show so
much energy in doing imaginative play activities. Every place becomes a playground
to explore, every single thing an interesting piece to tinker with. Adults sometimes get
exasperated over this behavior and begin to see the preschooler as “naughty” or
“makulit”. Some parents and teachers them become overly restrictive, resorting to
threats, intimidation and other scary tactics that disrespect the preschooler just to
establish “control”. Consequently, the child may develop excessive guilt. Although a
good amount of guilt helps in making children take responsibility for their behavior,
excessive guilt hampers emotional growth. Preschoolers who were always punished
and criticized end up constructing a view of themselves as being “salbahe” (bad)
“bobo” (dumb) or even “walang kwenta” (worthless). This is really sad because
childhood years should be happy years. One poster says, “You don’t have to hit to
hurt.” The message emphasized that even the things we say and the way we deal with
the preschoolers can already hurt them at this vulnerable stage.
The key thing to remember is to apply “judicious permissiveness.” This
involves setting realistic boundaries that keep preschoolers safe and respectful of self
and others, while allowing them greater opportunity to explore, take risks and to
engage in creative processes. Preschoolers will develop a healthy sense of initiative
in an affirming, encouraging and stimulating environment.
Self-Concept and the Preschooler

By the end of toddlerhood, preschoolers come out with a clear sense that they
are a separate and distinct person. With their ability to make representations, they can
now think and reflect about themselves. Self-concept refers to the way one sees
himself, a general view about one’s abilities, strengths and weaknesses. The
preschooler’s self-concept mainly focuses on observable characteristics and his/her
usual beliefs, emotions and attitudes. One will hear a preschooler say, “Kaya ko na! (I
can do it)” “Ako lang nagsuot ng shoes ko.” (I wore my shoes all by myself.) An
important aspect of self-concept is self-esteem, which specifically refers to one’s
judgements about one’s worth. Preschoolers are naturally positive. Usually they will
tend to evaluate their skills high and underestimate the tasks. They are confident to
try again even if they don’t succeed with something. However, they may become
negative because of repeated frustration and disapproval. Preschoolers need a lot of
patience and encouragement from adults.
Environmental Factors and Gender in the Preschoolers’ Socio-emotional
Development
As the preschooler’s ability to create schemas develop, they become capable
of gender typing, the process of forming gender roles, gender-based preferences and
behaviors accepted by the society. They come to form gender stereotypes.
Preschoolers begin to associate certain things like toys, tools, games, clothes, jobs,
colors or even actions or behaviors as being “only for boys” or “only for girls.”
Consequently, they form their own gender identity, the view of oneself as being
masculine or feminine.
Gender typing and gender identity are influenced by environmental factors such
as the family, teachers, peers and the mass media. This is where Bronfenbrenner’s
model comes into play. Different spheres of influence determine the preschooler’s
development of a gender schema. Differences in parental expectations and behavior
towards daughters and sons after gender typing and gender identity. More often, boys
are expected to show more emotional control and be more competitive while girls are
expected to be warm and soft and demure. Parents also expect their children to play
with toys that are “right” for their gender. The expectations of other people in the
preschoolers’ lives also influence their gender schema. This includes their relatives,
teachers, classmates and other playmates.
Mass media and ICT which include television, movies, the internet, computer
games also offer various images of what it means to be a boy or girl. In the US, there
is growing debate about Lesbian-Gay-Bi-sexual-Transgender issues which is
collectively known as LGBT issues. Schools are in a tight situation or have to do a
“balancing act’ on how to deal with these issues with children so that schools are still
able to be on the side of respect for diversity without necessarily confusing children
who are at a stage of forming their one gender schemas.
Preschool teachers should think thoroughly on how to present notions of what
boys and girls can do especially in the discussion about occupations or community
helpers.
Parten’s Stages of Play
Play is the main agenda of the preschool years. Play has a social dimension.
As the preschooler develops, social interaction with playmates increases. Mildred
Parten, in the 1930’s did a study on children’s play behavior which led to Parten’s
stages of play. Since then, numerous studies have followed using these stages as
framework. The stages describe the play development of children and the gradual
increase of social interaction as they go through these stages. It begins with the very
young child’s unoccupied stage, then solitary play, then parallel play, associative and
cooperative play. Play becomes an important venue for the child’s development of
social skills like entering or joining a play situation, taking-turns, sharing, helping,
saying sorry, and working together. Play is indeed the child’s major business!
Parten’s Stages of Play
The child appears not to be playing

1. Unoccupied but directs his attention on anything
that interests him.
The child spends time watching others

2. Onlooker play. He may talk to them but does not
enter into play with them.
The child spends time watching others

3. Solitary Play play. He may talk to them but does not
enter into play with them.
The child plays with toys similar to

those near him, but only play beside
4. Parallel Play not with them. No interaction takes
place.
The child plays with others. There is

5. Associative interaction among them, but no task
Play assignment, rules and organization
are agreed upon.
The child plays with others bound by

6. Cooperative some agreed upon rules and roles. The
goal is maybe to make something, play
a game, or act out something.

Friendships in Preschool
As they continue to grow, preschoolers become interested in having friends.

This should be encouraged in the preschool years as friendships benefit the
preschoolers development by providing stimulation, assistance, companionship,
social comparison and affection (Kostelnik, 2010). Through friendships. Preschoolers
are able to practice different social roles like being a leader, a follower, a someone
who takes risks and someone who helps out and comforts. Friendship are very
important because they provide added sense of belongingness and security. In the
preschool years, parents and teachers must expose children to experiences that
help them learn skills in establishing friendships, maintaining positive relationships
and resolving conflicts. Parents and teachers, when seeing preschoolers in a “fight”,
should not just say “Tama na..ano ba yan..isa pa ha..Tama na, friends n kayo..Say
sorry na..” Responses like those do not foster social skills among preschoolers.
Parents and teachers need to take time and process with children how to resolve
conflicts.
An integral part of the preschool curriculum is to teach children

the important social skills.
Caregiving Styles
Caregiving styles affect the socio-emotional development of the children.

Caregivers here refer to both parents and teachers and even other adults that care
for the child. Baumrind gave a model that describes the different types of caregiving
styles. This was based on a longitudinal study that looked into the adult authority and
the development of children that Baumrind conducted which began in the 1960’s. decades
later she identified varying degrees of demandingness and responsiveness as a determinants
of four style of caregiving. Marion (2007) expound on these determining factors.
Responsiveness refers to caregiver behaviors that pertain toexpression of
affection an communication. It refers to how warm, caring and respectful the adult is
to the child. It involves openness in communication and the willingness to explain
things in ways that the child will understand. Demandingness refers to the level of
control and expectations. This involves discipline and confrontation strategies.

Authoritative
Permissive
high demandingness/
low demandingness/
high responsiveness
high responsiveness
Authoritarian Negligent
high demandingness/ low demandingness/
low responsiveness low responsiveness
Baumrind’s Caregiving Styles
Baumrind’s Caregiving Styles and Them

Effects on Children
Description
Caregiving Style The caregivers/parents/ Effect on the
teachers with this caregiver preschooler
style has the following
description:
Authoritative  Expect behavior  Makes the
high demandingness, appropriate to the age preschooler feel
high responsiveness of the child safe and secure

 Maintain reasonable  Teaches the child
and fair limits to take
 Closely monitor the responsibility for
activities of the child his/her actions
 Warm and nurturing  Develops good self-
 Have realistic control
expectations of the  Develops a realistic
child view oneself
 Communicate  Builds the child’s
messages in a kind, capacity for
firm and consistent empathy
manner
 Discipline approach
focuses more on
teaching than
punishing.
Authoritarian  Set subjective or  Lead to aggressive

high demandingness, unreasonable limits behavior of the
low responsiveness  Communicate child
messages  Brings about poor
 Strive to have strong self-control
psychological control  Results in poor self-
over the child esteem
 Do not supervise
children’s activities
very well and get upset
if they make a mistake
 Use corporal
punishment, sarcasm,
withdrawal of love,
threats
 Not able to teach
children a better way
behave
Permissive  Permit the  Has difficulty
Low demandingness, preschoolers to controlling his/her
high responsiveness regulate their own impulses
behavior and make  Tends to be
their own decisions dependent
even when  Tends to be
preschoolers are not demanding of their
yet ready to do so caregivers

 Do not set rules or very  Tends not to persist
few if any or easily give up on
 Do not demand good a task
behavior or task  Does not easily
accomplishment follow
 May lack confidence in  Maybe rebellious
their ability to influence  Does not handle
the child frustration well
 Maybes disorganized  Has inadequate
and ineffective in emotional control
managing the family  Difficulties in school
and household/class performance
 Shows undemanding, When parents’
indifferent and behavior is to the
rejecting actions extreme or if child
towards the child experiences this style
early, the child may
 Has little commitment have:
to their roles as  Attachment
parents/caregivers problems
 Maybe depressed or  Delayed cognitive
overburdened by many development
concerns like poverty,  Poor social and
marital problems, or emotional skills
absence of support  Delinquent
from other behavior later in
adolescence
A Quick Look at What Preschoolers Can Do
(From the Philippine Early Learning Standards, ECCD Council, 2010)

Emotional Expression
Expression of Basic Emotions
37-48 months (3-4 years)
 Expresses what he/she likes
 Expresses what he/she dislikes
 Can talk about difficult feelings (e.g., anger, sorry, worry) he/she experiences.
Self-regulation of feelings/emotion
 Willing to try something in order to learn more even if unsure of a successful
outcome.
 Perseveres when faced with challenging or new tasks
 Accepts brief delays in gratification
 Accepts defeat well; is not a sore loser
 May have some fears but is not overly fearful, anxious or nervous

 May feel sad at times but not to the point where he/she is depressed
Display of Self-Appraisal Emotions (shame, pride, guilt)
 Plays to learn a game
 Plays to gain mastery of game
 Shows pleasure and enjoyment over his/her successful attempts or efforts
 Confidently joins small groups especially if situation is competitive
 Seek assistance from an adult or child to solve a problem
Receptivity to Others’ Emotions
Receptivity to emotions and having empathy
37-48 months
 Feel others’ distress and acts appropriately (e.g., helps, comforts, gives,
suggestions, etc.)
Emerging Sense of Self
 Knowledge of Self and Basic Roles of People in his Environment
Talks about parts of the body and their functions
 Talks about own specific abilities and characteristics (e.g., sings, dances, is
helpful, studious, etc.)
 Describes what primary caregiver can do, what they like and don’t like
 Defends possessions with determination
 Can give reasons or justify why he/she acted the way he/she did
Forming Attachments
 Shows preference for the company of significant adults and children (other
than the primary caregiver) over unfamiliar adults and children
Interactions with Other Children
 Plays with 2 or 3 children using the same play equipment
 Participates in games with other children but plays in his own way
 Chats/converses with other children
 Take turns and shares toys with others
 Actively participates in classroom and group routines
 Plays organized group games fairly
Interaction with Adults
36-48 months
 Verbalizes feelings related to events that arise in classroom, home, and
environment in a positive way
 Speaks respectfully with adults using “po” and “opo” and/or appropriate titles
 Recognizes the importance of adult’s ideas and experiences by listening and
asking questions when they share these
 Clarifies rules and routines before abiding them
 Shares personal perspective when he/she does not agree with or see the
value of a rule or routine
 Can take on another person’s viewpoint
Pakiramdam (Sensitivity)
 Knows when to stop asking questions or when he is being “makulit”

 Cooperates to minimize conflict or tension
Appreciating Diversity
 Asks questions that indicate he/she notices differences in socio-economic
status.
 Asks questions about new/different words (dialects) and practices in the
community
 Talks about gender differences and roles
 Regards everyone respectfully, using proper titles/labels, does not resort to
name-calling
 Willing to make friends with other children and adults in different situations
and locations (e.g., schools, neighborhood)
The Role of Caregivers in the Socio-emotional

Development of the Preschooler
From the discussion above one can see the very important role that parents
and teachers play in the socio-emotional development of the preschooler. The
following tips are given to caregivers (parents and teachers):
1. Greet each child with his or her names each day. Be sincere and respectful to
each child.
2. Read storybooks that deal about friendships and different feelings.
3. Develop routines in the home or school that encourage working together and
getting along.
4. Help children learn to make rules and play simple games by providing
opportunities for them to play in small groups.
5. Play games that involve social interaction and team work.
6. Observe how a child plays with other children. Teach him to request, bargain,
negotiate, and apologize.
7. Help children understand and cope with strong feelings by giving them words
that they can use to express how they feel. “I can see you are SAD about your
pet, ANGRY at your sister ….”
8. Use dolls, puppets or pictures to demonstrate to children how to express
feelings appropriately.
9. Acknowledge how the child feels. For example. One can say, “Nalulungkot ka
dahil hindi ka nakasama sa party.” When we do this, we are able to model to
the preschooler that it is important to listen and that having feelings, even
negative ones, are okay.
10. Catch children doing good. Affirm the efforts they make to accomplish
something. Be specific in your praise. Do not just say, “Good job” or “Very
good.” Instead, say “When I saw you pack-away your toys, I felt really happy.
Remember to always pack-away.”
11. Read storybooks that deals about friendships.
12. For teachers, develop routines that encourage working together and getting
along.

RESEARCH CONNECTION
Read a research that is related to one of the big ideas on the socio-emotional
development of preschoolers. Fill out the matrix below.

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________________________________
Findings ________________________________ Conclusions
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APPLICATION
1. Choose a big idea from this Module and expand it through internet searches
and downloads. Prepare a pamphlet or power point presentation or a movie
(movie maker) intended for use of parents of preschoolers.
2. The best caregiving style is the authoritative style. From all that you have
learned from this Module., make a list of 10 qualities that an authoritative
preschool teacher should have:
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
10.
1. Research on the following theories on gender development:
A. Biological approach
B. Psychoanalytic approach
C. Cognitive development theory
D. Gender schema theory
E. Social cognitive theory
2. Read on Lesbian, Gay, Bisexual, and Transgender (LGBT) issues. One
controversial story book for children is “Tango Makes Three” a story about two male
penguins starting a family. Research on this and write an essay about your own
views on introducing LGBT to preschoolers.
3. In extreme form, the authoritarian and the negligent caregiving styles can lead to
neglect and abuse of the preschooler. Read more on this and share with the class.

REFLECTION
5-Minute Non-Stop Writing begins… NOW!
From this Module on the Social-Emotional Development of Intermediate

Schoolers, I learned that.
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UNIT 4 The Primary Schooler
- Heidi Grace L. Borabo, Ph.D.
“There is always one moment in childhood when the door opens and lets the
future in.”
-Deepak Chopia, Indian Physician and Author
INTRODUCTION
Middle childhood is the stage when children undergo so many different changes
– physically, emotionally, socially and cognitively. This is the stage between 6 to 12
years old. Children in this stage receive less attention than children in infancy or early
childhood. The support of the family and friends of the child is very important during
this phase of development.
Physical Development of the
MODULE 18 Primary Pupil

- Heidi Grace L. Borabo, Ph.D.
LEARNING OUTCOMES
 Describe the different physical characteristics of early school-aged children in
your own words.
 Enumerate ideas on how you can apply the concepts in this module in the
teaching-learning process.
Physical Development involves many different factor, height, weight,

appearance, visual, hearing and motor abilities. Primary school children undergo many
different changes as they go through this stage of development This could be caused
by different factors; both natural and environment.
ACTIVITY
Observe at least three (3) primary school children (Grade 1 to 3). Describe the
physical characteristics of these children and write them down below.
Height

Weight
Balance
Speed
Coordination of
Movements
ANALYSIS
1. Based on the observations you have made, what can you conclude about the
general physical characteristics of children in their primary school years?
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2. What are the necessary skills that will help them to be physically ready for primary
schooling?

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Physical growth during the
primary school years is slow but
steady. During this stage, physical
development involves: (1) having
good muscle control and
coordination, (2) developing eye-
hand coordination, (3) having good
personal hygiene and (4) being
aware of good safety habits.
Height and Weight
In this development stage,
children will have started their
elementary grades, specifically
their primary years – Grade 1 to 3
This period of gradual and
steady growth will give children
time to get used to the changes in
their bodies. An average increase
in height of a little over two inches
a year in both boys and girls will
introduce them to many different
activities that they can now do with
greater accuracy.
Weight gain averages about 6.3 pounds a year. Most children will have slimmer
appearance compared to their preschool years because of the shifts in accumulation
and location of their body fats. A child’s legs are longer and more proportioned to the
body than they were before.
A number of factors could indicate how much a child grows, or how much
changes in the body will take place:
 Genes
 Food
 Climate
 Exercise
 Medical Condition
 Diseases / Illness

Bones and Muscles
Childhood years are the peak bone-producing years. This is the best time to
teach children of good dietary and exercise habits to help them have strong, healthy
bones throughout their lives. Many lifestyle factors, like nutrition and physical activity,
can substantially influence the increase of bone mass during childhood.
Because children’s bones have proportionately more water and protein-like
materials and fewer minerals than adults, ensuring adequate calcium intake will greatly
help them in strengthening bones and muscles.
Motor Development
Young school-aged children are gaining control over the major muscles of their
bodies. Most children have a good sense of balance. They like testing their muscle
strength and skills. They enjoy real-life tasks and activities. They pretend and fantasize
less often because they are more attuned with everything that is happening around
them.
Children in this stage love to move a lot – they run, skip, hop, jump, tumble, roll
and dance. Because their gross motor skills are already developed, they can now
perform activities like catching a ball with one hand, tying their shoelaces, they can
manage zippers and buttons.
Performing unimanual (require the use one hand) and bi-manual (require the
use of two hands) activities becomes easier. Children’s graphic activities, such as
writing and drawing, are now more controlled but are still developing. They can print
their names and copy simple designs, letters and shapes. They hold pencils, crayons,
utensils correctly with supervision.
Motor development skills include coordination, balance, speed, agility and
power.
Let us look into the definitions of the different motor skills. Coordination is a
series of movement organized and timed to occur in a particular way to bring about a
particular result (Strickland, 2000). The more complex the movement is, the greater
coordination is required. Children develop eye-hand and eye-foot coordination when
they play games and sports. Balance is the child’s ability to maintain the equilibrium
or stability of his/her body in different positions. Balance is a basic skill needed
especially in this stage, when children are very active. During this time, children have
improved balancing skills. Static Balance is the ability to maintain equilibrium in a
fixed position, like balancing on one foot. Dynamic Balance is the ability to maintain
equilibrium while moving (Owens, 2006). Speed is the ability to cover a great distance
in the shortest possible time while agility is one’s ability to quickly change or shift the
direction of the body. These skills are extremely important in most sports. Power is
the ability to perform a maximum effort in the shortest possible period.
All these motor skills are vital in performing different activities, games and
sports. Development of these skills may spell the difference between success and
failure in future endeavour of the child.

BIG IDEAS
1. Complete the graphic organizer below and share your output in class.
PHYSICAL DEVELOPMENT
(Factors affecting (Basic Motor

Physical Development) Skills)
Read more on the Physical Development of primary schoolers. Focus on the
current issue on children about “obesity” and write a short article about it.
TITLE: _________________________________________________________
REFERENCE/S:
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REFLECTION

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19
MODULE Primary Schoolers
-Heidi Grace L. Borabo, MA. Ed
“…If you become a teacher, by your pupils you’ll be taught.”

- O. Hammerstein
LEARNING OUTCOMES
 Describe the characteristics of children in the concrete operational stage.

 Explain the importance of information-processing skills and how they affect
the child’s cognitive development.
 State the different cognitive milestones in primary-schoolers.
INTRODUCTION
Jean Piaget is the foremost theorist when it comes to

cognitive development. According to him, intelligence is
the basic mechanism of ensuring balance in the relations
between the person and the environment. Everything
that a person experiences is a continuous process of
assimilations and accommodations. Piaget described
four main periods in cognitive development. For Piaget,
intellectual ability is not the same at different ages.
ACTIVITY
Look at the semantic map below. Write down words which come to your mind
when COGNITIVE DEVELOPMENT is mentioned.
Find a pair and compare your answers.
COGNITIVE
DEVELOPMENT
de

DISCUSSION QUESTIONS:
1. What were the common ideas regarding cognitive development?

2. Are there new ideas regarding cognitive development which you found
intriguing?
3. With the advent of the computer age, do you think cognitive development is
affected? Explain your answer?
Jean Piaget’s Concrete Operational Stage
Concrete operation is the third stage in

Piaget’s theory of cognitive development. It
spans from ages 7 to approximately 11 years.
In this stage, children have better
understanding of their thinking skills. Children
begin to think logically about concrete events,
particularly their own experiences, but have
difficulty understanding abstract or
hypothetical concepts, thus most of them still
have a hard time at problem-solving
LOGIC
Concrete operational thinkers, according to Piaget, can already make use of

inductive logic. Inductive logic involves thinking from a specific experience to a
general principle. But at this stage, children have great difficulty in using Deductive
logic or using a general principle to determine the outcome of a specific event.
REVERSIBILITY
One of the most important developments in this stage is an understanding of

reversibility, or awareness that actions can be reversed. An example of this being able
to reverse the order of relationships between mental categories. (For example in
arithmetic, 3 + 4 = 7 and 7 - 4 = 3).
Example:
Teacher: Jacob, do you have a brother?
Jacob: Yes.
Teacher: What’s his name?
Jacob: Matthew.
Teacher: Does Matthew have a brother?
Jacob: Yes.
Is Jacob capable of responsibility?

COGNITIVE MILESTONES
Elementary-aged children encounter

developmental milestones. They develop
certain skills within a particular time frame.
The skills they learn are in a sequential
manner, meaning they need to understand
numbers before they can perform a
mathematical equation. Each milestone
that develops is dependent upon the
previous milestone they achieved. Up until
age 8, a child learns new skills at a rapid
pace. Once they learn start to level off and
it usually is a steady increase of new skills.
Specifically, young primary school-
aged children can tell left from right. They are able to speak and express themselves
develops rapidly. In school, they share about themselves and their families. During
play, they practice using the words and language they learn in school. They start to
understand time and days of the week. They enjoy rhymes, riddles, and jokes. Their
attention span is longer. They can follow more involved stories. They are learning
letters and words. By six, most can read words or combinations of words.
INFORMATION PROCESSING SKILLS
Several theorists argue that like the computer, the

human mind is a system that can process
information through the application of logical rules
and strategies. They also believe that the mind
receives information, performs operations to
change its form and content, stores and locates it
and generates responses from it.
APPLICATION
1. Study the diagram on information-processing below. Write your insights on how you
can apply the Information-Processing Theory in primary-school children.

▪
▪
▪
2. Give 3 applications each of Piaget’s cognitive theory and that of information
processing theory in the teaching-learning process.
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▪
▪
3. Look for articles and studies, either online or printed, on the influences of family on
cognitive development. Share important points of your research in class.
▪
▪
▪
Read and research more on the components of Information-Processing Skills

focused on:
 Attention
 Perception
 Memory stages among children
Summarize your research and share important points in class.

REFLECTION

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20
MODULE of the Primary Schoolers
-Heidi Grace L. Borabo, MA. Ed
“The secret of education lies in respecting the pupil’’
- Ralph Waldo Emerson
LEARNING OUTCOMES
At the end of this Module, you should be able to :
 Identify the different characteristics of primary school-aged children in this
stage of development.
 Discuss the different factors that affect the socio-emotional growth of the
primary schoolers.
INTRODUCTION
The development theorist, Erik Erikson, formulated eight stages of man’s
psychosocial development. Each stage is regarded as a ‘’ psychosocial crisis ‘’
which arises and demands resolution before the next stage can be achieved.
Preschool children belong to the fourth age of Erikson’s psychosocial
stage. Here, children have to resolve the issue on Industry vs. Inferiority
ACTIVITY
1. Observe primary – schoolers during their play time (recess or lunch break). Take
note of their:
 behavior during play
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 communication with peers
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 facial expressions, gestures and body language

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3. Take pictures of these children during playtime. Paste them below and
discuss important points and observations with your partner.
ANALYSIS
Discussion Question:
1. What were the common observation among these children when it comes to:
a. behavior during play?

b. communication with their peers?
c. facial expressions gestures and body language?
2. During the observation, were there difficulties that the children encountered
while they were at play?
ABSTRACTION
Erik Erikson’s Fourth Stage of Psychosocial Development
Industry vs inferiority is the psychosocial crisis that children will have to

resolve in this stage. Industry refers to a child’s involvement in situations where
long , patient work is demanded of them, while inferiority is the feeling created
when a child gets a feeling of failure when they cannot finish or master their school
work.
In this stage, children, will most likely, have begun going to school. Schoo l
experiences become the priority , with children so busy doing school work. The
encouragement of parents and caring educators helps to build a child’s sense of

self- esteem, strengthening their confidence and ability to interact positively in the
world.
Understanding the Self
One’ s self- concept is the

knowledge about the self, such as
beliefs regarding personality traits,
physical characteristics, abilities
values, goals and roles. What does
the comic strip depict?
It is also involves a sense of
belonging and acceptance , a sense of
good and a sense of being capable of
doing good .
Having healthy self-concept does not mean that a child thinks he is better than
others. It means that he likes himself, feel accepted by his family and friends and
believes that he can do well.
Primary school children’s self - concept is influenced not only by their parents.
But also by the growing number of people they begin to interact with, including
teachers and classmates. Children have a growing understanding of their place in
the world. They already know that they can please their parents and teachers.
They are comfortable and show confidence in doing things they are good at , but
also show frustration in things that they find difficult.
School Years
In the transition from pre- elementary to primary school, children tend to

become increasingly self- confident and able to cope well with social interactions.
They are not focused on themselves anymore but are also aware of the needs and
desires of others. The issue of fairness and equality become important to them
as they learn to care for people who are not part of their families. Characteristics
like loyalty and dependability are being considered as well as responsibility and
kindness.

Building Friendships
‘’ What is a FRIEND? A single soul dwelling in two bodies.’’

- Aristotle
Making friends is a crucial but very

important part of children’s social and
emotional growth. As soon as they are able
to walk and talk , they will tend to show
natural inclination to be around other
children.
Children, during this stage , most likely

belong to a peer group. Peer groups are
characterized by children who belong
approximately to the same age group and
same social economic status. It is found
along the stages of childhood through
adolescene. But for children , until the age of
seven or eight, they think of themselves more
than that others. They may play well with
groups but may need some time to play
alone/
Primary school children prefer to belong to peer groups of the same gender.
Many children will use their surroundings to observe and mingle with other
children. Some will see this as an opportunity to make friends while others remain
a bit of a loner.
Antisocial Behavior
Some adult may perceive that some children’s

behavior towards other children as antisocial. When
children poke , pull, hit or kick other children when they
are first introduced, it is fairly normal. Remember that
children at this age are still forming their own world views
and other children may seem like a curiosity that they

need to explore. Parents and teachers can help children to make friends. You can
consider the following:
 Explore the children to kid-rich environments ( e.g. playgrounds park).

 Create a play group in your class and let the children mingle with their
classmates.
 When your children hit other children remind them that their behavior hurt
others.
 Coordinate with the parents and other teachers so that the children will have
greater opportunity to interact with other children.
Self – control
Once children reach school age, they begin to take pride in their ability
to do things and their capacity to exert effort. They like receiving positive
feedback from their parents and teacher. This becomes a great opportunity for
parents and teachers to encourage positive emotional responses from children
by acknowledging their mature , compassionate behaviors.
APPLICATION
Study the situations given below. If you were the teacher, how will you
help these learners cope with their socioemotional difficulties?
Dear Teachers.
I am really heart- broken . My 8 – year old daughter is feeling lonely , isolated and
friendless . It seems that she has felt this way for quiet time a while. She says that she
mostly spend time alone - that she has no one wants to play with
her. She tags along but is usually left out eventually. She can
become angry if things don’t always go her way and also teary . I
don’t know where to turn to help her – the thought that she finds
school painful is heartbreaking .
Sincerely,
Worried Mother

Dear Teacher ,
I am really proud parent. My little boy is

primary grade and he is doing much better than
his classmates. He sometimes becomes restless
in school –he says he knows what the teacher is
talking about. Some teachers even suspect that
he is gifted. But there seems to be a problem. He
is bossy. He always orders people around – his
classmates and people at home. How could I help
him be comfortable in school and lessen his bossiness?
Sincerely,
Concerned Father
SYNAPSES STRENGTHENERS
Read more on the Socioemotional Development of primary school children.

Analyze the perspective of teachers on this stage by reading the research paper
on http://www.aaa.edu.au/07pap/bru07322.pdf.
Write down points for discussion and share your insights in class
Points of Discussion:
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REFLECTION
From the module on the Socioemotional Development of Primary School

Children, I learned that...
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UNIT 5 Late Childhood
- Heidi Grace L. Borabo, MA.Ed.
INTRODUCTION
Does physical growth slow down or speed up in late childhood? Is this what
they call the “troublesome age.” You should be able to answer this after going trough
this Unit.
This unit dwells on the physical, cognitive and socio-emotional development
of the intermediate schooler.

21
Intermediate Pupil
MODULE - Heidi Grace L. Borabo, Ph.D.
LEARNING OUTCOMES
 Identify the different physical characteristics of intermediate schoolers.
 Discuss ways and practices which will aid children in successfully
developing physically.
 Design a simple exercise program appropriate for intermediate school
children.
INTRODUCTION
The steady and gradual changes happening in children at this stage,
especially with their increasing familiarity with school work and other possible
activities provide them with a greater opportunity to develop their motor skill
functioning.
ACTIVITY
Take picture of children in their late childhood (ages 9 to 12). Make a collage
and discuss the common characteristics that you have observed.
MY OBSERVATIONS
ANALYSIS
1. What initial characteristics of children ages 9 to 12 did you observe?

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2. What activities were commonly done by these children which help them to
develop physically?
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3. Based on your observations and readings, do boys follow a different growth

pattern compared to the girls? Explain your answer.
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Physical Changes
Children in their late childhood
always to be in a hurry. They get
so busy with their school work,
interacting with their friends, exploring
other possible activities, but this period of
physical development seems to take on
a leisurely pace.
Children in their late childhood stage
always seem to be in a hurry. They get so
busy with their school work, interacting with
their friends, exploring other possible activities, but this period of physical development
seems to take on a leisurely pace. On the average, girls are generally as much as two
(2) years ahead boys in terms of physical maturity. Puberty may begin early. Budding

breasts for girls- which is the initial sign of puberty. Some girls may also start with their
menstrual period as early as 8 and some as late 13.
Many bodily structures like the liver, muscles, skeletons, kidneys and face
follow a normal curve of development for both girls and boys. Other structures like the
brain, intestines and other organs and bodily systems mature at their own time, thus,
affecting growth patterns.
Children gain and average of 7 pounds in weight, and average of 2 1/2 inches
in height and an average of an inch in head circumference each year. Children at this
stage have growth spurts - sudden boost in height and weight, which are usually
accompanied by increase in appetite and food intake. Increase in body fats also occurs
during adolescence. The body fat increase occurs earlier in girls and is greater in
quantity.
Girls appear to be "chubby" while boys tend to have more lean body mass per
inch of height than girls. These are all normal part of development. These differences
in body composition become very significant during adolescence.
At this stage, children may become very concerned about their physical
appearance. Girls, especially, may become concerned about their weight and decide
to eat less. Boys may become aware of their stature and muscle size and strength.
Since this stage can bring about insecurities, parents and teachers must be
very conscious about their dealings with these childhood. Appropriate activities must
be designed so that children will be guided into right direction. Children must be given
opportunities to engage themselves in worthwhile activities that:
• promote healthy growth

• give them a feeling of accomplishment
• reduce the risk of certain diseases
This stage is also characterized by advanced development of their fine and

gross motor skills. Muscle strength and stamina increase as they are offered different
physical activities.
Children may become more interested in physical activities where they can
interact with friends and family. Activities which they can share with parents (e.g.
biking, running, playing basketball) show children that exercising can be fun.
APPLICATION
1. being healthy physically greatly helps children to succeed in their everyday
undertaking in their late adulthood.
Design a simple exercise program appropriate for children ages 9 to 12. Divide your
program into three parts:
Part 1: Warm Up Activities:

- May include breathing exercises and stretching routines.
Part 2: Exercise Proper:
- May consist of three to four sets of exercises which may focus on the following areas:
(a) Body balance and posture, (b) endurance, (c) muscle strength, (d) agility
Part 3: Cooling Down or Quieting Activity:

- Includes another set of breathing and stretching exercises.
Title of Exercise
Part 1: Warm Up Activities:
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Part 2: Exercise Proper:
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Part 3: Cooling Down or Quieting Activity:

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2. As a teacher, what ideas can you give in order to help intermediate school children
develop physically?
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 ___________________________________________________________
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 ___________________________________________________________
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 ___________________________________________________________
____
Children in their late childhood are often concerned about their physical appearance.
They may suffer physical conditions. Read in researches in the area of physical
development of intermediate schoolers such as health issues.
Summarize one research by stating the following research problems:
 Research Methodology
 Findings
 Conclusions
 Recommendations
 Reference

22
MODULE Intermediate Pupil
- Heidi Grace L. Borabo, MA.Ed.
“It is with children that we have the best chance of studying the development of logical
knowledge, mathematical knowledge, physical knowledge and a faith”
-Jean Piaget
LEARNING OUTCOMES
 Examine the cognitive characteristic of intermediate school children
 Discuss important factors that affect the cognitive development of
intermediate school children.
 Enumerate ways on how
teachers can promote
creativity in the learning
environment, learning activities
and instructional materials.
INTRODUCTION
Since children in this stage are
already in their late childhood, rapid
development of mental skills is
evident. According to Jean Piaget,
concrete operational thinkers can now
organize thoughts effectively, although they can only logically perceive the
immediate situation. They can apply what they have learned to situations and
events that they can manipulate.
Thus their reasoning and logical thinking are still very limited. But with
proper guidance and nurturance from parents, teachers and the rest of the
community, these children can easily succeed in their intellectual endeavours.

ACTIVITY
Write your understanding on the statement below.
INTELLIGENCE is…
 The ability to create and effective product or offer a service that is valued in a culture;
 A set of skills that makes it possible for a person to solve problems in life.2. Take pictures
of these children during playtime. Paste them below and discuss important points and
observations with your partner.
 The potential for finding or creating solutions for problems, which involves gathering new
knowledge.
ANALYSIS
Discussion Question:
1. What kind of intelligence is being referred to by Howard Gardner?
_________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________
2. What intelligence do you think is the most evident in this stage of
development?
_________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________
3. Do these intelligences vary among children in terms of age and gender?
_________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________
Initial Cognitive Characteristics
Intermediate school children greatly enjoy the cognitive abilities that they can
now utilize. Their thinking skills have become more effective as compared during
their primary years. Their school work is now more complicated. Reading texts
have become longer; problem-solving has become an everyday part of their lives.
Their ability to use logic and reasoning give them chances of thinking about
what they want and how to get it. They now become very interested in talking about
the future or even their potential careers. They develop special interest in
collections, hobbies and sports. They are even capable of understanding concepts
without having direct hands-on experiences.

Reading Development
Children in this stage. Is marked by a wide application of word attack. Because
of the presence of previous knowledge. They now have a wide vocabulary. Which
enables them to understand the meanings of* unknown words through context
clues. (This is the “reading to Learn” Stage in reading development.) They are no
longer into the fairy tales and magic type of stories but are more interested in
longer complex reading materials. e: g fiction book and series books.
Attention
Older children have longer and more flexible attention span compared to
younger children. Their span of attention is dependent on how much is required by
the given task. In terms of school work. Older children can concentrate and focus
more for longer period of hours especially if they highly interested in what they are
doing.
Creativity
“CREATIVITY is not the finding of a thing but making

something out of it after it is found.”
-James Russwell Lowell
Children at this stage are open to explore new things. Creativity is innate
in children. They just need a little guidance and support from parents, teachers
and people around them. They are usually at their best.
When the work is done in small pieces.
Creativity in children in encouraged when the activities:
 Encourage different responses from each child
 Celebrate uniqueness.
 Break stereotypes.
 Value process over product.
 Reduce stress and anxiety in children.
 Support to share ideas, not only with the teacher / parent but also
with other children.
 Minimize competition and external rewards.
The Impact of Media
“Television viewing is a highly complex, cognitive activity during which

children are actively involved in learning.”
- (Anderson and Collins, 1988)

The dream of having a television unit in every classroom started in the
1950’s. It was considered as one of the first technological advancements in
schools. The impact of the use of television and other media like the computer
has gained popularity because students are given more opportunity to:
 Communicate effectively in speech and in writing
 Work collaboratively
 Use technological tools
 Analyze problems, set goals, and formulate strategies for achieving those
goals
 Seek out information or skills on their own, as needed, to meet their goals
Media and Aggression

Violence and aggression are often dubbed as one of the results of media.
According to the Public Health Summit in 2000, the following are some of the
negative results of media:
 Children will increase anti-social and aggressive behavior.
 Children may become less sensitive to violence and those who suffer from
violence.
 Children may view the world as violent and mean, becoming more fearful
of being a victim of violence
 Children will desire to see more violence in entertainment and real life.
 Children will view violence as an acceptable way to settle conflicts.
The school and the home provide children with unlimited access to media, not
only televisions and computers, but also videos, movies, comic books and music
lyrics. The responsibility now lies with the parents, teachers and the whole
community. It should be a collective effort among the factors working together to
support children in every aspect of development.
Having a role model is extremely important for children at this stage of transition
(from childhood to adolescence). It gives children an adult to admire and emulate.
Role models also provide them with motivation to succeed One of the most
important roles of teachers is to become a very good role model to children.
Teachers…
 need to be an eager participant in children’s growth and development.

 must understand how to use the children’s natural curiosity to help make
the appropriate developmental leaps in their skills and abilities

 must create an atmosphere where risk can be taken and discoveries made
while children remain safe
APPLICATION
1. Write the definition of the following words based on how you understood it.
a. Concrete operational thinkers

b. Reading to Learn” Stage (In Reading Development)
c. Attention Span
d. Creativity
2. What can teachers do to help encourage creativity in children? Consider the

following areas in the teaching – learning progress
The Creative Teachers
The Learning The Planning of The Designing of

Environment Activities Instructional Material

SYNAPSES STRENGTHENERS
1. Read more on the researchers relevant to the Cognitive Development of
Intermediate School Children. Summarize one research report with all the
parts of an abstract given in Part I, Unit I, Module I.
2. Look for the relationship of human and cognitive development.

REFLECTION
From the module on the Cognitive Development of Intermediate School
Children, I learned that...
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23
of the Intermediate Pupil
MODULE - Heidi Grace L. Borabo, Ph.D.
“It is difficult to make children miserable when they feel worthy of themselves.”
- Anonymous
CHALLENGE
In this module, challenge yourself to:
 Identify the socio-emotional characteristics of children in their late childhood
stage
 Determine the qualities of family life that affects other children’s
development including changes in family interactions.
 Interview a parent regarding their child’s socio-emotional development.
INTRODUCTION
At this period of socio-emotional development, children are spending less
time in the home, the bulk of their time is spent outside the home, either alone or
with other children, rather than with adults. Older children have already familiarized
themselves with other children. They are already used to interacting with different
ages and gender. For many of them, these social networks are not sources of
social support but also different forms of learning
ACTIVITY
1. Paste a picture of you when you were in Grade 4, 5, or 6. Recall a significant
event that happened to you. Write a very brief story of what happened.
_______________________________________
_______________________________________
_______________________________________
_______________________________________
_______________________________________
_______________________________________
_______________________________________
_______________________________________

ANALYSIS
Discussion Questions:
As you share you story with a classmate, answer the questions below:
1. Why was this event so significant?
2. What do you think were the factors that made you react or feel that way?
3. How do you think this event has affected you socially and emotionally?
4. Thinking about it, do you think you could have acted or felt differently?
ABSTRACTION
Understanding Self-Competence, Self-Identity and Self Concept
One of the most widely recognized characteristics of this period of
development is the acquisition of feeling s of self-competence. This is what Erick
Erickson referred to when he described the developmental task of middle
childhood- the social crisis industry versus inferiority. Industry refers to the drive
to acquire new skill and do meaningful “work”.
The child should have a growing sense of competence. The child’s definition
of self and accomplishment vary greatly according to interpretation in the
surrounding environment. Varied opportunities must be provided in order for
children to develop a sense of perseverance. They should be offered chances to
both fail and succeed, along with sincere feedback and support.
During late childhood, children can now describe themselves with internal
and psychological characteristics and traits. They mostly likely employ more social
comparison- distinguishing themselves from others. In dealing with other children,
they show increase in perspective-taking. This ability increases with age.
Perspective taking enables the child to: (a) judge others’ intentions, purposes and
actions, (b) give importance to social attitudes and behaviors and to (c) increase
skepticism of others’ claims
Emotional Development
Similar to the other areas of development, children in this stage, show
improved emotional understanding, increased understanding that more than one
emotion can be experienced in a single experience. They may also show greater
ability to show or conceal emotions, utilize ways to redirect feelings and capacity
for genuine empathy.

Another milestone in this stage is the development of the children’s
emotional intelligence (EQ), which involves the ability to monitor feelings of one
self and others and use this to guide and motivate behaviour.
Emotional Intelligence has four main areas:
 Developing emotional self-awareness
 Managing emotions (self-control)
 Reading emotions (perspective taking)
 Handling emotion (resolve problems)
Building Friendship
As children go through their late childhood, the time they spend in peer
interaction increases. For them, good peer relationships are very important. The
approval and belongingness they receive contribute to the stability and security of
their emotional development. Peer size also increases and less supervision by
adults is required. At this stage, children prefer to belong to same-sex peer group.
There are five types of Peer Status:
 Popular – frequently nominated as the best friend and one who is rarely
dislike by peers.
 Average – receives an average number of positive and negative nomination
from peers
 Neglected – very seldom nominated as best friend but is not really dislike
 Rejected – infrequently nominated as a best friend but one who is also
disliked by peers
 Controversial – frequently nominated as a best friend but at the same time
is disliked by peers
Popular children which peers find very positive have the following skills and
as a result they become the most favoured in the group:
1. They give out reinforcement
2. They act naturally
3. They listen carefully and keep open communication
4. They are happy and are in control of their negative emotions.
5. They show enthusiasm and concern for other
On the other hand, here are the characteristics of why the group or majority
of the peers develop negative feelings toward rejected children:

1. They participate less in the classroom
2. They have negative attitudes on school tardiness and attendance
3. They are more often reported as being lonely
4. Aggressive
a. In boys:
 They become impulsive, have problems in being attentive and
disruptive
 They are emotionally reactive and slow to calm down
 They have fewer social skills to make and maintain friends.
Family
Family support is crucial at this stage which characterized by success and
failure. If children do not find a supportive family when they find their interest (e.g.
in hobbies like riding a bike or playing a musical instrument) they can easily get
frustrated. If families are seen as a primary support system, failures and setbacks
become temporary and surmountable rather than something that is attributed to
personal flaws or deficit. This time is a critical time for children to develop a sense
of competence. A high-quality adult relationship, specifically, family relationship
enables them to successfully go through this stage of development.
BIG IDEAS
This module stresses that:
 During late childhood, a wide variety of biological, psychological and social
changes take place across the developmental domains and social changes
take place across the developmental domains.
 As children progress through late childhood, the family environment remains
extremely important, while the community environment – including the
school – also becomes a significant factor in shaping the child’s
development.
 During late childhood, peers have an increasingly strong impact on
development; peer acceptance becomes very important to well-being

APPLICATION
1. Based on the readings and researches that you have, what are the factors
which greatly affect the socio-emotional development of children in their late
childhood stage.
FACTORS THAT GREATLY AFFECR THE
SOCIO-EMOTIONAL DEVELOPMENT OF
INTERMEDIATE SCHOOLERS
2. Interview a parent or a teacher of an intermediate schooler. Use the question

s below as your guide. write your conclusions and insights
Name of Parent (Optional)
________________________________________________________
Age and Grade level of the child:
________________________________________________________
Gender of the Child: ________________________________________
Questions:

a. What were some marked changes in your child as he/she reached the
intermediate level (Grade 4 to 6)
b. How can you describe his/her interactions with parents, sibling(s)-if any,
teacher and peers?
c. What can you say about your child’s self confidence and self-esteem?
d. What activities in the home do you do to help your child interact with people
around him/her?
My Insights:
____________________________________________
____________________________________________
____________________________________________
____________________________________________
____________________________________________
____________________________________________
____________________________________________
____________________________________________
___
1. Read more on researches related to the socio-emotional development of
intermediate school-aged children. Research on how children emotionally
respond to the following events in life:
 Death
 Parents’ separation
 Rejection from peers
RESEARCH
Give an abstract of at least 1 research which you did in Synapse Strengtheners
follow the parts of an abstract given in Part I, unit I, Module IV.

REFLECTION

Scholars, I learned that.
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24
MODULE High School Learners
-Paz I. Lucido, Ph. D
“Adolescence is just one big walking pimple”

- Carol Burnett
LEARNING OUTCOMES
 Define Adolescence.
 Describe the Physical and Sexual changes accompanying puberty.
 Identify the Psychological consequences of early and late maturation in the
period of adolescence.
 Identify symptoms, causes of possible habit disorder and ways of coping
with them.
ACTIVITY Share
your real-life experiences along the following aspects:
 Individual perceptions whether your growth was slow or fast, smooth or by

spurts, etc. Any sense of curiosity or concern (especially as to such
incidences as menstruation for girls and wet dreams for boys).
 How your self-image (esteem) was affected by your physical growth
(possibly too thin or plump, lanky or short, homely-looking, etc.)
 Parental relationship during these years, as you may have sought more
independence, privacy, etc.
ANALYSIS Answer
the following questions as a group:
1. Was there anything common in the experiences shared?

2. Was there anything unique?

ABSTRACTION
Defining Adolescence
The period of adolescence begins with biological changes of puberty and ends
with the role and work of adult life. The specific ages for this period varies from person
to person but distinct phases ages have been identified. The advent of puberty may
come early for some and late for some others. But everyone goes through these
stages. These stages are: 1). Early Adolescence characterized by puberty mostly
occurring between ages 10 and 13; 2). Middle Adolescence characterized by identity
issues within the ages of 14 and 16; and 3). Late Adolescence which marks the
transition into adulthood at ages 17 and 20.
Adolescence is a period of transition in terms of physical, cognitive and socio-

emotional changes, physical transition being particularly coupled with sexual
transformation. This module is focused on physical development that takes place
during adolescence. All the while, the aspect of individuality in adolescent
development is unique to each individual, although there are common issues that
depend on race and culture, inclusive of dependence versus independence, changes
in parent-adolescent relationship, explanation need for more privacy and idealization
of others
Pubertal changes
In all cultures, biological change comprises the major transition from childhood
to early adolescence. This is manifested by a change in physical appearance, a more
rapid rate of development (next to the speed of growth of the fetus in the uterus) known
as growth spurts. The phenomenon commonly results in a feeling of awkwardness
and unfamiliarity with bodily changes.
In addition, alterations sleeping habits and parent-adolescent relationship may

be experienced accompanying puberty changes
The growth spurts
Throughout life, the growth hormone conditions gradual increases in body size,
and weight, but hormone flooding occurs during adolescence causing an acceleration
known as the growth spurt. Body changes include change in body dimensions (leg

length, shoulder width, trunk length). In particular, spurt in height is ascribed to trunk
growth rather than leg growth.
In girls, the growth spurt generally begins at age 10 reaching its peak at age 11
and-a-half, and decreasing at age 13, while slow continual growth occurs for several
more years. Boys begin their growth spurt later than girls at around age 12, reaching
a peak at 14 and declining at age 15 and-a-half.
At age 16 and 1/4, girls reach 98 percent of their adult height, while boys do so
at age 17 and ¼ growth in height is conditioned by stages in bone maturation. The
muscles also grow in terms of size and strength, while a similar spurt occurs for weight,
muscle size, head and face maturation, and especially the development of the
reproductive organs.
Briefly, all the muscular and skeletal dimensions appear to take part in the
growth spurt during adolescence.
Sexuality maturity
The series of hormonal changes accompanying in puberty is complex.

Hormones are recognized to be powerful and highly specialized chemical substances
that interact with bodily cells. The triggering by hormones of the hypothalamus glands
on hormones of the pituitary glands signals the entire process of sexual maturation.
During the process, gonadotropic hormones are secreted by the anterior pituitary,
which lies beneath the base of the brain and are situated approximately at the
geometric center of the human head. Gonads, which are the ovaries in the female
and the testis in the male, are then stimulated by the gonadotropic hormones, in turn
stimulating their own hormones. When the male testis is stimulated by the
gonadotropic hormones, testosterone is secreted, while estrogen is secreted when
the female ovary is stimulated.
Secondary male sex characteristics are stimulated by testosterone, comprised

by the growth of the testis and scrotum (recognized to be the first sign of puberty),
penis and first pubic hair; the capacity for ejaculation, the growth spurt, voice change,
facial hair development/ beard growth, and continuing growth of public hair. The
acceleration of the growth of the penis precedes the growth spurt in height. Pubic hair
growth precedes the first appearance of facial hair growth. Occurring late in puberty,

the lowering of the voice, caused by the enlargement of the larynx and double
lengthening of the vocal cords, is viewed to be the most obvious aspect of adolescent
development.
In girls, estrogen secretion triggers the beginning of breast enlargement, the

appearance of pubic hair, the widening of the hips, a growth spurt, and menarche
(first menstruation). The elevation of the female breast is the first external sign of
puberty in girls, while the growth of the uterus and vagina accompanies continued
enlargement of the breast. Generally, girls achieve menarche beginning 11 to 11.5
years (5 percent), up to 12 and 12.5 years (25 percent) and at age 13 (60 percent).
There are, however, differences in reaching menarche in accordance with ethnic
differences. Studies show that African American and European American girls may
exhibit secondary sex activities as early as 8.87 years and 9.96 years; menarche as
early as 11.6 years and 12.4 years, respectively.
In contrast with menarche, sperm ache signals the first sign of puberty and
sexual maturity in boys. At about age 12 or 13, boys experience the enlargement of
the testis and the manufacture of sperms in the scrotum, most likely experiencing their
first ejaculation of semen a sticky fluid produced by the prostate gland. The need to
discharge semen occurs more or less periodically following pressure caused by the
production of seminal fluid by the prostate gland. Nocturnal emissions or “wet dreams”
occur during sleep often caused by sexual dreams.
Masturbation or manipulation of physical sexual organs is caused by conscious

fantasizing, both among boys and girls. It is important to note that science and religion
differ in their regard to masturbation. Modern medical science sees it as an inevitable
transitional phenomenon among adolescents. On the other hand, religion generally
regards it as gravely sinful, ascribing sin even to sexual fantasies. To view the issue
objectively, a guilt complex on the matter is unhealthy to growth. On the other hand,
habitual masturbation is an aberration when it can inhibit the growing adolescent from
confidence in heterosexual (male-female friendship) relationship. In the end, while the
growing youth need not feel guilty about natural sexual urges, they need to be
forewarned about habitually giving in this urge. Outgrowing the acts of masturbation
is wholesome especially during adulthood when males and females need to relate to
each other in a mature relationship.

The secular trend
The striking tendency for children to become larger at all ages has been
perceived during the past one hundred years. Known as the Secular Trend, the
phenomenon reflects a more rapid maturation compared with that occurring in
previous millennia. In 1880, for example, the average age at which girls had their first
menstrual period in well-nourished industrial societies was 15 and 17 years. This is
not true, however, in depressed societies wherein this period is a bit later at about 15.5
years.
One hundred years ago, boys reached their adult height at ages 23 and 25 and
girls at ages 19 and 20. Today, maximum height is reached between 18 and 20 years
for boys and 13 and 14 for girls.
The occurrence of the secular trend is ascribed to many factors, among which
are; the complex interaction of genetic and environmental influences, improvement in
health care, improved living conditions, and the control of infectious diseases. Better
nutrition is a major factor, since this provides more protein and calories for humans
from conception secular trends, industrialized countries appear to experience the
levelling off in achievement of physical maturation and greater height and weight at
earlier ages.
Adolescent sleeping habit
Studies show that teenagers are not getting enough sleep, and would want
more sleep. Actually, lack of sleep is likely caused by changes in adolescent
behavioral patterns. Teens often stay up late because they enjoy it, especially with the
advent of internet music listening, video watching, message/photo/e-cam
communication, chatting, and blogging. About 90 percent of teenager high school
student report going to bed later than midnight. Socializing with peers add to the
problem, causing difficulties in waking up early and causing teenagers to struggle to
stay alert and function productively.
Shorter sleep time also contributes to increased levels of depression, daytime

sleepiness, and problems with sleeping. The school and teachers should therefore
take time to impart healthy sleeping habits, to prevent fluctuations in moodiness and
anemic conditions among teens

Exploration
Instinctively, adolescent become aware of changes in sexuality, thus

undergoing a period of exploration and adjustment. Learners from sectarian (religious
and gender exclusive) schools are more likely to consider sexual openness to be
dangerous, if not sinful. The case is not perceived among non-sectarian or gender
mixed schools, although more dangers exist relating to heterosexual relationship and
early pregnancy among students in non-exclusive schools.
The drug culture, especially in urbanized communities, presents a serious

danger to students who are undergoing the exploratory phase of adolescent
development.
Pluses and minuses in early or late maturation
Early or late maturation deserves due consideration, as this can be a factor for
adolescent acceptance and comport or satisfaction with his-her body image. Among
girls, physical changes are more dramatic, but perceptions of not being well developed
as compared with their peers can be a cause for timidity or shyness, if not frustration.
In the case of late maturing boys, the slack in growth in body build, strength, motor
performance and coordination may inhibit their performance in curricular and extra-
curricular activities, such as in sports. Being physical weaker, shorter and slimmer
would make them less apt to be outstanding in leadership activities and in sports. On
top of these, late maturing teens are seen by their peers as being more childish, more
inhibited, less independent, less self-assuring, and less worthy of leadership roles.
Meanwhile, teens who develop faster than their peers may be overly conscious
of this phenomenon. It helps to know that early maturing teens undergo a more
intensive growth spurt than late maturing teens. It can be a great plus for boys, who
become bigger than their age, more muscular, more physically attractive and more
athletic. It is obvious that the early maturing teens can gain social advantage, in
esteem and greater expectation on the part of others, resulting in lessening the
experience of the freedom in more steady growth.

The ideal masculine and feminine physiques
Most adolescents desire an “ideal body," which is the same as being physically
attractive or handsome in face (features of the eyes, nose, lips, hair, etc.) and in body
(tall and muscular for boys and tall and slender for girls).
In the developed countries like the U.S about 10 percent of adolescents have
been known to take anabolic steroids in tablet or in injectable form for cosmetic and
athletic performance purposes. It is important to forewarn adolescents about the
severe harmful effects of long-term use of steroids: liver dysfunction, cancer, and
damage to the reproductive system. Short-term effects are hair loss, severe acne, high
blood pressure, shrunken testicles and low sperm production. Girl users develop
irreversible masculine characteristics, such as growth of facial hair. Steroids may also
foster aggressive and destructive behavior. Finally, giving up the drug may lead to
depression and suicide.
Adolescents and nutrition
Necessary for adolescent years are sufficient amounts of vitamin B12 (found in
animal proteins), calcium, zinc, iron, riboflavin and vitamin D. Magic diet schemes
suggested by advertising and magazines to lose weight, give a radiant hair, whiten the
skin, etc. should be met with caution. The vegetarian fad can also be disastrous
especially to adolescents who need vitamins, minerals and protein which vegetables
diets cannot provide. Vegetable intake is good, but this should be balanced with food
intake to form high-quality nutrition including eating protein sources such as milk, dairy
products and eggs.
It is a recognized fact that teens are the poorest eaters among age groups, as
they often meals, frequently take snack foods (hamburger, fries, pizza, soft drinks,
etc.) at fast-food eateries.
The ideal body
It’s important that adolescents feel confident about their body image. The
physical features of human body (facial looks, body size, color of skin, etc.) depend
on genetic heritage which must generally be respected. However, with advancement
in hair and skin technology, change in hair color and skin are no longer impossible.

There is more to body image than physical looks and these concern good habits in
relation to:
 Cleanliness and grooming

 Proper wearing of clothes following current styles
 Erect bodily posture
 Eye contact while communicating
 Decorum (good form and confidence) and decency
APPLICATION
1. Cite at least 5 big ideas from this Module. Give a concrete application of each in
your personal life.
Big idea from this module Concrete Application

in your Life

2. Play the role of medical expert who can provide wholesome knowledge and
attitudes on physical transition in puberty (menstruation, wet dreams, sperm ache etc.)
and give a powerpoint presentation to a group of adolescents.
3. Organize a fun cooking activity making nutrition an element in the group activity.
4. Organize a symposium on poise and grace (walking, grooming, eye contact, etc.)
for adolescents. Each one must have a topic to talk about or demonstrate.
5. Do group sharing on your aspiration and ideals (celebrities, achievers, etc.) during
the period.
6. Prepare a life-map which can assist in guiding future students towards academic
and future achievement (patterned after the possible life-map of achievers, such as
the Filipino Mt. Everest climbers).
REFLECTION
Journal Entry
Reflect on how as a future teacher can you foster the development of

adolescent high school learners, such that the learners:
1. become aware of the personal transition-problems and stresses springing from

physical changes affecting him/her as an adolescent;
2. can overcome possible problems and stresses as adolescents;
3. are capable of identifying the problems and stresses peculiar to Filipino high school
students, different from students of other cultures (e.g. Americans, Europeans, etc.);

4. acquire wholesome and balanced attitude towards modern IT technology (internet
surfing, chatting, e-mailing etc.) as a tool in learning and personal growth;
5. develop approaches to foster self-esteem and wholesome attitude towards their

physical growth (whether naturally/genetically tall, thin, homely looking, etc.) among
learners;
6. can envision lifelong values related to their physical development (inclusive of grace
and refinement) contributing to their personal success and a sense of fulfilment in life
WEBSITE ACTIVITY
Surf the net for information on the genetic physical features of different
nationalities; such as Filipinos, Chinese, Japanese, Americans, etc. and how
geography, climate, nutrition, and racial mix (as case of Fil-Ams and Euro-Asians)
affect physicality.

25
MODULE High School Learners
-Paz I. Lucido, Ph. D
‘Adolescence is that time when I think it can be….’

-Anonymous
LEARNING OUTCOMES
1. Describe the theories of cognitive thinking and relate these to the phases of
teaching-and-learning.
2. Identify the avenues for the adolescent learner’s acquiring metacognition,
elevating his thinking ability base.
3. Define overachievement and underachievement and propose possible
solutions to underachievement.
4. Explain the outcomes of the adolescent’s new thinking skills, inclusive of
egocentrism, idealism and increased argumentativeness.
ACTIVITY
Share real life experiences about the following and relate them to your cognitive
development.
 Your grades (possible awards, recognition) and how these affected you.
 Special projects that gave you opportunities for higher thinking (e.g. IT
research, workshops planning, discovering, organizing, finishing a project) and
what cognitive processes were demanded you.
 Field study and how this helped you develop cognitively.
ANALYSIS
Answer the following questions:
1. All the activities you shared are cognitive in nature. What changes are included
in cognitive development?
2. Did you suddenly blossom into the thinker, the planter, the organizer, the
researcher, the analyst that you are? What processes came along with these
form of cognitive development? Did this come along with physical development
of the brain?
ABSTRACTION
Similarly, remarkable as the physical changes in the transitional period of
adolescence, are changes in thinking patterns. These changes are marked by the

acquisition of new cognitive skills due to the brain’s increasing in weight and refining
synaptic connections (technically known as the corpus collosum) which join and
coordinate the two hemispheres of the brain. Another brain development is the
process of continuous concentration of the brain cells in the prefontal cortex and
related temporal and parietal areas (technically known as myelination). This second
development covers the brain systems whose executive functions relate to attention,
verbal fluency, language and planning.
Through brain scanning, three peaks in brain maturation have been identified
by neurological scientists and these are at age 12, age 15, and age 18.5, coinciding
with the operational thinking processes of logical reasoning. Accompanying brain
changes in cognitive capability, the adolescent begins to acquire spatial awareness
and formulate abstract or general ideas involving numbers, orders, and cause-effect.
All these changes propel the adolescent from the world of the sensible and concrete
thoughts to the world of the possible and the universal (abstract ideas, such as on the
generally good, true and beautiful).
Piaget’s Formal Operational Thinker
Piaget formulated the theory of Formal Operational Thinking which
demonstrates how the cognitive capacity of the adolescent allows him/her to go
beyond the sensible and concrete to dwell on what is abstract, hypothetical,
multidimensional and possible. In this realm of thought, the adolescent begins to attain
subtlety in thinking, entering the sphere of possible and futuribles. More specifically,
formal operational thinking consists in:
(a) Propositional thinking - making assertions outside visual evidence, and
stating what may be possible in things not seen by the eyes (for example,
whether an unseen object is red or green, big or small, flat or round);
(b) Relativistic thinking- subjectively making an opinion on facts – involving
one’s own bias, prejudice of distortion of facts - which may be either right or
wrong (for example’ arguing for or against the superiority of the races,
whether white, brown yellow, or black);
(c) Real versus possible- examining a situation and exploring the possible in
terms of the situations or solutions (e.g. possible success in implementing
student projects or a school policy).
For Piaget, one indication of the presence of formal operational thinking is the
ability of the adolescent thinker for combinational analysis, which is his taking stock
of the effects of several variables in a situation, testing one variable at a time, and not
randomly. An application of a situation which requires combinational analysis is the
school laboratory experimental activity wherein high school students test chemical
elements singly and in combination resulting in an understanding of chemical changes.
A new thought capacity, known as hypothetico-Deductive Reasoning, emerges
in the adolescent reasoning from general facts/situations to a particular conclusion.
The school pendulum experiment is an example of deducting from variables and

generating and recognizing a truth, express by the transitional process of deriving a
conclusion from a hypothesis.
Scientific evidence show that while adolescents may obtain the capacity for
formal operational thinking, only experience and education will allow them to actually
practice it. School math and science courses, such as in performing Physics-type
problems (balance scales, pendulums, projection of images and shadows, etc,)
certainly help in actualizing formal operational thinking, although only 40 to 50 percent
of adults in Western cultures have shown evidence of success in formal cognitive
thinking processes.
Outside formal operational thinking which can be developed by mathematical
and science studies, the adolescent enters into a new capability which makes him a
Problem-Solving Thinker. This involves identifying problems and seeking new and
creative solutions for them. The problem finding thinker is one who is able to rethink
and reorganize ideas and ask important questions, even defining totally new problems
not previously seen.
The adolescent may further experience an increase in depth of thoughts. Thus,
he/she is able to bring what is logically “best” for everyday life, whether or not this may
be the objectively correct solution or response to a situation or problem.
Siegler’s Information-Processing Skills
As in information-processing theorist, Robert Siegler views the influence of the
environment on thinking. He sees cognitive growth, not as stages of development, but
more of sequential acquisition of specific knowledge and strategies for problem
solving. He observes the quality of information the adolescent processes, or those
information influences him/her in his facing tasks at hand through strategies and rules.
In his experiments, Siegler used rule models in relation to balance, weight,
distance, conflict-weight, conflict-distance and conflict balance problems. He
examined the correct and wrong answers to each of the problems, drawing out rule
models in thinking and knowing.
Thereupon, adolescents may show: (a) speed in information processing,
coupled with greater awareness and control and acquired knowledge base-a more
efficient kind of thinking compared with that of the child (b) complexity by way of
considering longer term implications and possibilities beyond the here-and-now, and
(c) increased volume of information processing, coupled with longer memory span.
Metacognition
Among the developmental cognitive advances in adolescence is
metacognition. This involves the ability to think above thinking, evidenced by
awareness of and capacity to identify one’s own thinking processes or strategies-
perception, comprehension, memory and problem solving.
The knowledge acquired through experience is stored in long term memory and
now becomes more declarative (“I know that”), as well as procedural (“I know how”).
Thus, the learners become aware of his/her poor memory, such that the adolescent

may be prodded to muster cognitive capacity to supplement poor memory by
employing a memory aid, for example, a list of things to do and a mnemonic device.
The learner may also spend time with and attention to a material to be learned,
demonstrating higher thinking skills.
Another important information-processing trend is the adolescent’s ability to
acquire an increased amount of knowledge and skills along many areas or domains.
From a novice, he/she becomes a next –expert. Information is also processed more
rapidly, while showing increased levels of memory performance.
Overachievers
Achievement and IQ tests are standard measurements of the learner’s abilities, as
well as potentials for success in given areas. While IQ tests alone do not measure the
great number of abilities that are part of human intelligence, they are still relatively
good predictors of success in school achievement. Indirectly, IQ tests are a beneficial
instrument in identifying learning deficiencies in learners.
In many societies, students who get IQ scores that place them in the top 3 and
5 percent on the bell curve are considered gifted. Still those whose IQ tests are not in
the top 3 and 5 percent on the bell curve may actually achieve very high academic
grades. The latter type of learners is rated overachiever.
The case of overachiever serves as a reminder that the IQ test is not only
determinant in school achievement. There are other factors such as, motivation,
interest, work habits and personality development. Beyond what are statistically shown
by achievement in curricular subjects (in English, math, Science, Araling Panlipunan,
etc.), overachievers demonstrate superior work habits, greater interest in school work,
more consistency in doing assignments, and more grade/performance consciousness.
Overall, they show more responsibility, consciousness and planning compared with
normal achievers. Listed as characteristics of overachievers are:
1. Positive self-value (self-esteem, confidence, optimism)
2. Openness to authority (responsive to expectations of parents and teachers)
3. Positive interpersonal relations (responsive and sensitive from feelings of
others)
4. Less conflict on the issue of self-autonomy (feels freedom to make right
choices, initiates and leads activities)
5. Academic orientation (disciplined work habits, high motivation to discover and
learn, interest in study values and varied fields of study)
6. Goal-orientation (efficiency and energy in organizing, planning, setting target,
prioritizing longterm goals over short-term pleasures)
7. Control over anxiety (well composed and relaxed in performing organized task)
Underachievers
Individuals whose performances are below the measured IQ levels are labelled
under achievers. In spite of possible potentials to learn and scores in the top quarter
on measured academic ability, their grades are below their measured aptitudes for

academic achievement. Underachievement becomes more pronounced with the
begging of adolescent years in high school when class work becomes more
demanding.
As to types of underachievers, the withdrawn underachievers are described as
having a more pronounced tendency to be passive (their overt behavior being
submissive and docile). They follow the path of no-resistance, not reacting against
given assignments and actually following school regulations. Generally quiet, they
tend not to participate in class activities. Meanwhile, the aggressive underachievers
tend to be talkative, if not disruptive and rebellious.
Parental involvement
There are many theories on underachievement, but generally the influence of
parents appears to be the dominant influence on the adolescent's achievement level,
more than peer group influence. A summary of differences between parents of high
achievers and underachievers will help teacher educators understand the significance
of parental involvement in adolescent learning and involvement in school activities.
Generally, parents of high achievers demonstrate:
1. Positive attitudes about learning, school, teachers, and intellectual activities,
such as by exposing their children to stimulating books, word games,
wholesome sports, travel, etc.;
2. Harmonious and supportive relationship, inclusive of open, free enjoyable
interaction within the family;
3. Their own capabilities for success, conflict management, independent choice
with which children can identify;
4. Encouragement and support for their children's achievement without undue
pressure;
5. Active involvement in the school program and in parent-teacher-community
activities.
Meanwhile, parents of underachievers show little or none of the above traits, while
possibly showing:
1. Indifference and disinterestedness in academic and extracurricular activities of
their children;
2. Authoritarian, restrictive and rejecting attitudes or the opposite, namely being
excessively lax so as to leave their children on their own without any
involvement or support;
3. Excessive indulgence, solicitousness, and protectiveness, thus stifling their
children's self-initiative.
4.
Possible adolescent behavior during cognitive growth

Accompanying cognitive growth are possible behaviors which need to be
understood for proper guidance of the adolescent:

1. Egocentrism. This is the tendency among adolescents to think too much of
themselves, such as to be too sensitive to social acceptance of their
appearance, actions, feelings, ideas, etc. Feeling they are being watched like
an actor on a stage, they keep an imaginary audience making them anxious
about what to wear, how to behave, etc. One egocentric strain is one's feeling
exaggeratedly self-important, leading to dangerous situations such as entering
into early-girl relationships, reckless escapades and adventures.
2. Idealism. The adolescent opens thought on the possible, an avenue to possibly
imagining what is far-fetched and less ideal to situations at home, in school and
in society. Imagining the world of the impossible (such as utopia or heaven on
earth), the adolescent may become discouraged as social realities (e.g. family
discord) fall short of the ideal.
Developing occupational skills

Generally, the high school curriculum tends to focus on academic cognitive
learning, neglecting attention to occupational skills. In the Philippines, there is
evidence that high school graduates lack skills to directly enter the labor sector.
Generally, college education is viewed as the path to occupations and careers in life.
Unfortunately, even college graduates are viewed to lack occupational skills needed
for employment in the present-day commercial and industrial sectors. The possible
mismatch between academic preparation and the professions need to be examined.
Schools which are diploma mills certainly do not contribute to social progress.
Today, experts believe that high schools can go more along the area of
developing occupational skills than they are currently providing adolescent students in
high school. It is important therefore, at least two guide students on their future career
choices to view how personality types match occupational interests and potential skills.
Theorist John Holland has identified basic personality factors match with attitude and
work preferences. These personality factors are as follow:
 Realistic-This personality type prefers practical tasks, often requiring physical
labor and motor coordination, and less of interpersonal skills, e.g. in
construction (carpenters, drivers, etc.)
 Investigative-They prefer to think rather than act, being interested in tasks that
use conceptual skills e.g. in the field of the sciences and technology (chemist,
scientists, technologists, etc.)
 Social-They are social and tend to engage in interpersonal situations and social
interaction, e.g. in the social sciences (social workers, physicians,
broadcasters, etc.)
 Conventional-They prefer structured tasks, and can subject their needs to
those of others, e.g. in office jobs (clerks, manual workers, etc.).
 Enterprising-They are skilled and constructive in thoughts and actions, and
are capable of leading others, e.g. in business, industries (sales, enterprises,
etc.)

 Artistic-They prefer unstructured tasks and may show ability for sel-
expression, e.g. in the arts (artists, musicians, performers, etc.)
It is understood that early enough, an adolescent may show various personality

factors making him capable of performing more than a single task. Thus, we have
cases of physicians entering into business ventures, scientists enjoying artistic
pursuits and the like.
Adolescents can show abilities for gainful work, such as those who work part-time
or full time in fast-food restaurants as kitchen help, in retail stores as sales clerks, and
in offices as messengers and utility personnel. High school students who work can
benefit by acquiring the attitudes and abilities needed for gainful occupation. These
are:
 Self-reliance (working without being stressed).
 Ability to manage money (not spend money on luxuries, much less on alcohol
or drugs)
 Social responsibility (cooperation and respect for others including superiors)
 Mature work orientation (pride in the work done, quality work)
 Personal responsibility (Independently competing tasks)
 Positive attitudes about work (it is not a burden, but a gainful and wholesome
activity that contributes to personality growth.
APPLICATION
Give one important concept that you learned under each then give its
application in the teaching-learning process.
One Concept Learned An application in the teaching-
learning process
1. Piaget’s formal operational stage 1.

2. Siegler’s information-processing 2.
skills
3. Metacognition 3.
4. Overachievement 4.
5. Underachievement 5.
REFLECTION
Reflect on the practices of your past teachers. Which ones encouraged your
cognitive development as adolescent and which ones did not. As a future teacher,

what lessons have you learned from your past teachers regarding ways of enhancing
adolescents’ cognitive development?
WEBSITE ACTIVITY
Internet research, report and group discussion on notable adolescent
achievers:
 “Little” Stevie Wonder who at age of 10 wrote his first musical composition,
“Lonely Boy.”
 Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart at age 12 wrote his first opera.
 Anne Frank at age 13 wrote her famous diary during the Nazi occupation of
Holland in 1942.
 Galileo at age 17 began his study of Physics in 1581.
 Leonardo Da Vinci at age 20 was admitted to the Painters’ Guild in 1472.

26
Physical Development of High
MODULE School Learners
--Paz I. Lucido, Ph. D
“Adolescence isn’t
“ Adolescence isn’t just
justabout
aboutprom
promororwearing
wearingsparkly dresses.”
sparkly dresses.”
-Jena Malone -Jena Malone
INTRODUCTION
During adolescence, the teen shows manifestations of growth as he/she begins

to have friends in school, attends parties, goes to discos and keeps intimate friends
with the same or with the opposite sex. These external manifestations are signs of
socio-emotional growth which usher in self-knowledge, self-identity, social
relationships, and what scholars see as an intensification of stereotypical gender roles
(males tend to be different from females).
LEARNING OUTCOMES
 Identify the socio-emotional changes in the adolescent.

 describe how self-image develops among teens.
 determine the wholesome attitudes and values in teenage friendship.
 discern the causes of moral reasoning and feeling, while understanding
religiously imposed morality.
 recognize the need of the adolescent for freedom and privacy, also
known as adolescent emancipation
ACTIVITY
Student-teachers share real-life experiences on their personal development as

adolescents. The class may be divided with groups of 5 or 6 to draw up group
findings on socio-emotional issues, such as:
(1) Developing self-esteem in the family

(2) Developing self-esteem in school
(3) Friendships during adolescence
(4) Joining cliques (barkadas) and consequences
(5) Intimate same-sex friends
(6) Intimate opposite sex friends
ABSTRACTION
Adolescence, as expressed in the book “The Tale of Two Cities” can be the
best of times… the worst of times.” While it is a time of excitement, discovery and joy,
it can also open undesirable experiences related to adolescent anxiety, concerns and

troubles. Hanging out, frequenting parties, and feeling first loves are typical to
adolescents, but are typical to other age groups. Meanwhile, juvenile violence and
drug use frequently occur during teenage years. Fortunately, most adolescents go
through happy times and can get themselves together to be able to go through college
education.
Self-Understanding
Physical and cognitive developments do not come in isolation but are

accompanied by growth in self-image and maturation of feelings among adolescents.
The formation of a self-concept is of paramount significance since this relates to
enduring traits that make the person fully human. Inhumanity, as sadly demonstrated
by the egotistic, the cruel and the despotic (think of Herod, Hitler, Stalin, etc.) have
caused much suffering and sadness to mankind in human history.
In early adolescence (10-13 years), the teen begins to acquire a reflective idea
of one’s self, not only in terms of the immediate present which younger children also
see, but in terms of their past and their future. During adolescent years, the teen also
begins to see his/her role and importance to society. This development requires self-
thought or introspective thinking along generalized ideas, such as in thinking that one
is bright, flexible, intelligent, etc.
From self-image, there is all important value known as self-esteem. This is

an appreciation of who one is, regardless, of possible limitations or deficiencies in
bodily and mental qualities. In the end, it becomes useless and unhealthy to seriously
compare ourselves with others in self-pity (e.g. not being as good looking or not having
high class grades as the other fellow). One can only think of unlimited number of
personages who are incomparable in physical traits (such as the beautiful people of
the celebrity world) and in intellectual acumen (Aristotle, Einstein, Bill Gates, etc).
Since the growing youth ordinarily cannot be these people, making comparisons of
self with others is really a futile exercise.
Stereotypes in gender differences
Scholars refer to gender differences, as studies in countries like U.S. show that
boys have higher self-esteem in achievement and leadership, while girls see
themselves better in terms of congeniality and sociability (Hattie and Marsh, 1996).
These studies also show that boys are more self-sufficient, while girls are help-
seeking. Other studies show that girls have a higher self-esteem in relation to
competence in spelling, penmanship, neatness, reading and music (Elcless, et a;
1993). Meanwhile, boys feel more competent in math subjects, while girls prefer social
and verbal skills (Marsh, 1989). In terms of general abilities and self-confidence,
however, no significant differences were observed.
Meanwhile, another U.S. study shows that Hispanic American girls view
themselves stereotyped as more “feminine,” therefore more submissive and
dependent, than their European American counterparts. On the other hand, European

American girls tend to see themselves as stronger and more active, nurturing and
expressive compared with their Hispanic counterparts (Vasquez-Nuttal, et al., 1987).
Within the family domain, there are also stereotyping concepts of adolescent
American boys and girls. Boys tend to prefer activity and autonomy of children, while
girls prefer family relationship, connection, and openness. On feelings, girls
experience more anxiety, self-doubt in making choices, isolation/individualism in the
family, compared with boys. Generally, girls are a more emotional lot compared with
boys (Olver et al., 1990).
In adult life, studies show that men see themselves as separate and distinct
persons, while women tend to see themselves through others, for example as a
daughter, wife, or mother. Consequently, women tend to give way to the wishes of
others, even sacrificing their own interests. On the other hand, men more easily know
their own needs and their genuine desires in life (Izard and Ackerman, 996).
If this research finding apply also in Philippine setting? Find out.
Developing self-esteem
Some scholars see the roots of self-esteem in the mother-child relationship.

Thus, boys develop a masculine trait in self-esteem since there is more distancing
between mother and son, compared with the closer emotional connection between
mother and daughter. The high involvement and intrusion by mothers in the lives of
their daughter are observed to cause delay in the development of self-individuation
among girls.
As girls begin to separate themselves from the matrix of emotional connection

with their mother (7-11 years), they gain strength and self-confidence, trusting their
own feelings and knowledge. They also begin to engage more freely in sports and the
arts with more courage, competence, and energy. But at age 14 (middle adolescence),
the danger surfaces foe girls to lose their assertiveness, as their personality becomes
more self-concious and deferential. It appears that at this stage of development, girls
tend to lose their flexibility, optimism and spirit of adventure.
While the results of these U.S studies may not be applicable to youths of other
countries and cultures, these are useful ideas that can serve as safeguards to ensure
the proper directions of reorienting youths during their adolescent growth. It does
appear, however, that the effects of adolescent transitions and acquisition of self-
esteem are mixed.
More important to note are some established facts, namely:
 Self-esteem means appreciation of one’s self or self-love, regardless of genetic

potential endowments (physical, mental, emotional).
 Potential endowments can be developed to a great extent through family
formation, school education, and social influence.

 The personal attitude-and-will to grow depends on the individual, although
motivational influences can help progressive growth (coming from parents,
siblings, friends, teachers, etc.).
 Popularity and external appearance (such as body physique, comely looks),
admiration by others, social position and prestige, are among the many external
factors that contribute to self-esteem, but these are passing or vanishing
contributions to growth. They may last for many years, but in the end, self-
esteem must grow from internal appreciation of oneself, regardless of external
circumtances in life.
 Self-appreciation, self-reliance, autonomy, energy, courage, and other internal
positive motivators are more permanent factors which can lead the adolescent
to the progressive self-concept he/she needs in adult life.
Friendship and Intimacy
Teenage friendship is a social system which can be wholesome in terms of

sharing of thoughts and feelings, caring for one another, and responding to one
another’s deeper psychological needs. Adolescents tend to spend more time with
friends (up to 16% of their time, studies show), comprising an emotional investment
they can benefit from.
The peer groups or cliques with which early adolescents (age 10-13) identify
may enlarge. Belonging in larger groupings is especially true in the case of middle
adolescents (age 14-17), particularly among interests providing companionship and
security to each other, the larger peer group or crowd can be comprised by 10-20
members sharing common interests in social activities. Sexually, same-sex cliques
can enlarge into heterosexual cliques and interact with others in large crowd activities
such as athletic meets and social gatherings. The middle adolescent may separate
from identifying with a crowd as he/she enters serious boy-girl heterosexual intimate
relationships.
Several types of friendship can be distinguished:
(a) acquaintance who meet periodically;

(b) companions who share common interest through regular contacts, and
(c) intimates or best friends with depth of self-disclosure/feelings/caring, romantic
partners in intimate heterosexual relationship.
Intimate friendships are viewed to be especially important during early

adolescence. Compared with those who have not been involved in intimate friendship,
adolescents who have friendships characterized by compassion, openness and
satisfaction tend to be more sociable and more competent, while being less anxious,
depressed and hostile. The intimate parent-child relationship appears to also wane as
adolescents develop intimate friendship with a romantic partner.

The world of friends can be equally important, if not more important than the family
world. Talking with friends and sharing things with them can be rewarding in the sense
that friends see both sides of the story, unlike parents who normally impose their side
of an issue. As to the sexes, girls are viewed to be more capable than boys forming
intimate friendships, benefiting more from social support they can get from close
friends. Evidence further shows that friendship and car less about being listened to
and being understood.
Identity Issues
The active search which adolescents engage in to try to gain a new

understanding of self along sexual, occupational, religious, political self-image is
referred to as identity issues. This process ushers in a sense of confusion as
adolescents bring together all the things they have learned as son/daughters, students
and friends. And try to make sense of their self-image.
The major task in developing self-identity is the formation of inner sameness

and continuity in personality. Only when adolescents see themselves in a definite and
reasonably unique self can they accept themselves and the physical/social world they
are in. Self-identity, however, is not a stagnant end point, but rather a continuous
change and evolvement of oneself throughout life’s course. This process of change,
however, maybe disrupted by a traumatic experience that can create havoc to a
person’s personality, shattering the self-image he has gained in the previous stages
of life.
It is important to view the development of self0identity to be gradual and

cumulative throughout life. One finds self-more and more, accumulating or losing
values and standards acquired since childhood. During early adolescence, there is
often the case of over-identification that leads to conformity with peers, resulting in a
stereotypical or carbon copy teenager. Here, there is the case of a youth culture which
provides a ready-made identity, setting the adolescent apart from his former identity
as a child in the world of family.
Identifying with the crowd, the adolescent may reach the stage of
distinguishing self from the crowd, in a process of exploration. The teenager may also
try out a variety of attitudes, persuasions, commitments, involvements revolving
around the inner search for “Who I really am,” “What do I want for life,” “How can I
achieve my ideals?”
Phases of identity status
John Marcia expanded on Erikson’s theory on identity by identifying four

phases in the attainment of an identity status. Commitment and crisis are two
dimensions that combine to define these stages:
1. Identity foreclosure. This is the case of an adolescent who is a follower, finding

security in others not in his/herself.

The adolescent makes a commitment before asking about
alternatives. This commitment arises from values or expectations of other
people (such as a parent, relative, or friend), which may be premature as
foreclosure is rooted in commitment to obey, follow a strong leader,
respect authority, a most vulnerable kind of self-esteem develops.
2. Moratorium. This is the case of an adolescent searcher.

The adolescent enters a crisis by becoming aware of alternative
roles, values and beliefs. Thus, he explores and experiments becoming a
prober and critic without any permanent commitment to follow authority or
be part of a system. The moratorium status is viewed as a most
sophisticated mode of identity search and achievement.
3. Identity achiever. This is the point where the adolescent fully finds
himself/herself.
An optimal sense of identity is experienced. One feels at home
with one’s body, with one’s knowledge and awareness of where one is and
where he/she is going in addition to the possible recognition for deeds done.
Identity seekers have looked at alternatives and have made their choice with an
optimal feeling of themselves.
4. Identity diffusion. This is the case of the adolescent failing to find

himself/herself.
There is hardly a knowledge of who one is, uncertainty running
through episodes in life. Identity-diffused persons lack goal orientation, direction
and commitment. While they may have expressed interest in a future career,
they are vague about it and are unaware even of the advantage’s ad
disadvantages of the work they want to do. Setting goals, they frequently change
them as they have no commitment to any given aim in life. As a result,
adolescence is prolonged, unable to reach maturity due to a diffused or
fragmented personality. Inability to explore alternatives and make choices may
be due to psychosocial factors, springing from a complexity of reasons, such as
disdain or hostility to playing a role in the family or community. Told by parents
to do well in school so that he can enter a prestigious college, the person may
out of spite do poorly, even quit school deliberately.
Promoting a sense of identity
It is a clear that successful identity achievement is crucial to developing an

integrated personality. The highest self-esteem is achieved by identity achievers,
followed by those in moratorium, foreclosure and identity diffusion status.
Overall, the ingredients that make up an optimal sense of personal identity are:

1. Inner confidence about self-competence and ability to learn and master new
tasks;
2. Ample opportunity to try out new roles either in one’s fantasy or in actual
practice, and;
3. Support from parents and adults.
Clearly, parental relationship plays an important role in self-identity development.

In fact, parental indifference and rejection create inner tension among children
affecting their individuation. Meanwhile, the democratic style of parental discipline
makes tasks for children to be more easily fulfilling, encouraging adolescents to
express themselves openly, seek guidance and advice from parents, even identifying
with their parents’ values and rules. The protection of home, which conveys love and
emotional security, can be a safe haven for adolescents, even if they may later on
seek to be independent as a free spirit.
Stereotypical gender roles
Several studies on gender stereotypes show:
On emotional response, girls in early adolescence are more self-concious,

excelling in verbal skills, while they invest more time in forming intimate friendships.
Meanwhile, boys show independence and are less emotional, involving themselves in
sports (Galambos, et al., 1990).
In a cross-cultural study, the female is associated with nurturance, deference

and abasement, while the male is associated with dominance, autonomy, aggression,
exhibition and achievement. In general, the female is described to be less active and
weaker than the male stereotype (Segal et al., 1999).
In a study on gender role in ideology, adolescents in European countries (the
Netherlands, Germany, Finland, England) were most “modern” as they believed in
androgynous (equality of sexes) ways of behaving. Meanwhile, adolescents in African
and Asian countries were most “traditional,” while those in the U.S. were midway, as
girls show preference for feminity and boys for masculinity. In comparing adolescents
in the U.S. and those in Sweden, Swedish youths show their being ambitious, hard-
working, willing to take a stand, also self-reliant and independent. Meanwhile, girls
demonstrate a sense of being more “liberated”. In the U.S. girls responded to show
more expressive ways of being compassionate, caring, eager to assuage hurt feelings.
In general, preparation for adult roles and socialization appear to be major

factors in gender stereotyping differences.
Antisocial behaviors among adolescents
Gerald Patterson formulated a developmental progression for anti-social

behavior which considers (a) the importance of parental monitoring and discipline on
the child in early childhood (b) involvement with peer and schoolwork in middle
childhood, and (c) commitment with peer group in late childhood and adolescence.

In early childhood (ages 10-13), the child is normally subordinated to
conventional authority in the family and majority of children including teens generally
show a reasonable degree of adherence to moral principles, able to succumb to the
temptation to engage in unethical and unlawful behavior.
In legal terms, the juvenile delinquent is a young person under the age of 18,
who has been apprehended and convicted for transgression of established laws.
Juvenile delinquency is an occurrence with 1.4 million juveniles in the U.S.

arrested each year for crimes such as vandalism, drug abuse, running away, and
(almost 900,000 each year) or larceny-theft, robbery and forcible rape. Offences by
male adolescents under the age of 18 account for 17 percent (or almost one-fourth) of
all crimes committed. The crimes of burglary. Auto theft, aggravated assault, and other
aggressive behaviors are committed by males. Girls, more generally, have committed
infractions related to running away from home or deviant/illicit sexual behavior.
Commonly cited are a complexity of reasons to explain the incidence of

juvenile delinquency. These are: (1) family factors, (2) poor parental supervision, (3)
poor parental behavior, (4) feelings of alienation (sense of separation) by children, (5)
external factors affecting the family (economic and social pressures), and (6) child
rejection/abuse/neglect.
Peer factors, lack of recognition, even outright rejection, by peers in early and
middle elementary school grades may result in making the child unfriendly,
troublesome and aggressive. Constant exposure to peers with those who are poor
academically and socially may also affect the teenager. In school those treated as
educationally retarded, such that repeat the grades, are prone to misbehave in class,
become truants and hate school altogether.
Teenage suicides in the U.S. is comparable to those in Australia, Belgium,

Great Britain (Orbach, 1997). However, the incidence of suicides is lower in Canada,
Italy, Norway, the Netherlands, New Zealand and Ireland (Drummond), but
substantially higher in Austria, enmark, Hungary, Japan and Switzerland.
The dramatic rise of teenage suicides in different countries beginning the

1970s has aroused worldwide attention. Suicide rates have begun to double, even
triple especially in the U.S. with those age 15-24 years of age constituting one-fifth of
the victims. The astonishing suicide rates are equivalent to 13 incidences a day or
5,000 a year occurrence. Completed suicides sre higher for boys, although three times
as may girls attempt suicide (D’Attilioet al., 1992). The use of firearms is lethal to boys,
while poisoning through overdoses by adolescent girls is serious, but often not lethal.
Does this picture hold true to the Philippines? Find out.
Identified as common reasons for suicides are physical or sexual abuse by

adults, sexual victimization, and association with a suicidal friend. There are, however,
warming signs that should be attended to as danger signals, foremost of which is
depression.

Depression arises from feelings of being low, sad and weary. It can be minor
depression when the negative mood is mild and easily passes away, but a major one
if it stays and deepens into feelings of despair, pessimism and misery. In its serious
form, depression can influence a person through a pervasive loss of interest or
pleasure and persistent anxiety which can lead to committing suicide.
Pre-suicidal adolescents may change mood in a matter of weeks from being

calm and happy to show manifestations that show the risks of suicidal action, such as
giving away prized possessions, writing a will, making empty threats to end one’s life.
Parent, teacher or any concerned adult should be able to recognize the suicidal cues
and do the appropriate such as provide professional counselling and health
assistance.
Moral development
In this study of Ethics and topics that have interested moral scientists through
the ages, Lawrence Kholberg laid down three stages of moral reasoning among
adolescent:
1. Conventional level
At this stage, the adolescent can understand and conform to social
conventions, consider the motives of peers and adults, engage in proper
behavior to please others, and follow the rules of society.
The focus of thinking of the teen is towards mutual expectations,
relationships and conformity with others. Instead of stealing an object, he/she
may think of other options to acquire that object, such as by asking or saving
money to buy the thing.
2. Post-Conventional level
At this stage, the adolescent wishes to conform to:
(a) law and order (don’t steal because it is against the law)
(b) the social contract (rights such as life and liberty must be upheld to
uphold the welfare of the majority in society). And
(c) universal ethical principles (the universal principles of justice,
equality of human rights, freedom of conscience, etc.)
Do males and females differ in moral reasoning? Some studies show that
women are more focused on issues related to caring and connecting with people, while
males tend to resolve moral concerns by invoking principles of fairness, equality, and
justice.
A more recent consensus among scholars, however, is the theory that

differences in moral tendencies between male and female are not absolute, but
relative to their individual orientations.
Development of guilt
Guilt is a sense of feeling responsible for one’s actions, particularly when harm
has been done to oneself or others.
On the negative side, guilt can threaten self-image, such that if one is unable to
thresh out guilt feelings, there can be serious problems in adjusting to normal living.
Guilt that causes anxiety and fear can usher in a complexity of illnesses, ranging from
chronic fatigue to escapism (e.g. use of drugs to forget the guilty feeling).
On the positive side, guilt makes us aware of possible wrongdoing, serving as

a regulator for individuals to be more responsible in upholding esteemed social values.
As to stages in developing guilt, the first rudimentary feelings of guilt begin

when children think they have caused harm to others. Inaction to change behavior
adds to the initial guilt feelings.
Anticipatory Guilt is felt when the child sees consequences that are detrimental
to oneself or others (e.g. stealing an item may cause others to grieve losing a prized
possession).
Survival Guilt is experienced when one feels blameworthy regardless of

involvement. (e.g. lingering feeling of baseless guilt).
Influence in moral behavior
Peers can encourage positive behaviors (e.g. example of good study habits),
although they can also encourage misconduct or inappropriate behaviors (e.g. use of
illegal drugs). Peer influence should not be underestimated. Compared with influence
of peers, the influence of parents is more pervasive.
The quality of parent-child relationship is most positive when parents show

competence, non-oppressive level parental control, appropriate support and direction.
On the other hand, parent/adult and peer values can occur when parents fail in
providing the appropriate levels of support and nurturance. Thus, parents who do not
care about the whereabouts of their children may lose them to being dependent on
peers.
In the end, the inability of parents to provide quality presence and time can
cause frustration and anger, endangering the teen’s emotional behavior. It is important
for parents to be aware of the life satisfaction and psychological well-being of their
children. Life satisfaction consists of the child’s perception of the quality of his/her life.
Psychological well-being consists of complex multiple dimension of the child’s self-
esteem and sociability. A proper balance between parent-child connectness and
separation is best, allowing for cross-cultural/ethnic differences.
Teacher’s Blog
ACTIVITY
Research on any teenage issue found on pp. 317-325. Pass a summary of
the research by stating the following:
a.) objectives of the research
b.) findings
c.) conclusions and
d.) recommendations
WEBSITE ACTIVITY
Surf the internet for programs meant to help troubled teenagers. Make a list of
these teen programs, their objectives and contact number. Pass this in class.
APPLICATION
Implications for Teaching-Learning
 The socio-emotional world of the adolescent learner is complex and needs to

be approached with care and understanding. Give concrete instances where
you can show care and understanding.
 Self-esteem and/or self-diffusion involves many intricate self-identity issues.
Open discussion, reflection writing, expert lecture, etc. can help adolescent
learners on this matter. List down 5 activities (games included) that you have
for teenagers to enhance their self-esteem.
 Emotional crisis which can lead to depression and suicide should be handled
with care. Positive and progressive values inculcation are antidotes to this
crisis phenomena. Does a PowerPoint presentation on emotional crisis with
the objective of inculcating positive values to counteract emotional crisis?

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BRENDA B. CORPUZ, Ph. D