Effects of Ground Failure on Buildings,

Ports, and Industrial Facilities

Jonathan Bray,a) M.EERI, Kyle Rollins,b) M.EERI, Tara Hutchinson,c) M.EERI,
Ramon Verdugo,d) Christian Ledezma,e) George Mylonakis,f)
Dominic Assimaki,g) Gonzalo Montalva,h) Pedro Arduino,i)
Scott M. Olson,j) Robert Kayen,k) Youssef M.A. Hashash,j)
and Gabriel Candiaa)

Soil liquefaction occurred at many sites during the 2010 Maule, Chile, earth-
quake, often leading to ground failure and lateral spreading. Of particular interest
are the effects of liquefaction on built infrastructure. Several buildings were
damaged significantly due to foundation movements resulting from liquefaction.
Liquefaction-induced ground failure also displaced and distorted waterfront
structures, which adversely impacted the operation of some of Chile’s key
port facilities. Important case histories that document the effects of ground failure
on buildings, ports, and industrial facilities are presented in this paper. [DOI:
10.1193/1.4000034]

INTRODUCTION
Soil liquefaction played a key role in the seismic performance of several modern build-
ings, ports, and industrial facilities during the 27 February 2010 Mw 8:8 Maule, Chile, earth-
quake. Although several urbanized areas were strongly shaken by the earthquake, most
buildings within the affected areas performed well. Nevertheless, several modern buildings
were damaged in part due to liquefaction-induced ground failure. Likewise, several port facil-
ities were completely shut down (at least temporarily) due to liquefaction-induced lateral
spreading and damage mainly to quay wall and wharf structures. Lateral spreading also
affected adversely some critical industrial facilities in strongly shaken areas. In this
paper, several important cases that provide insight regarding the effects of ground failure
on buildings, ports, and industrial facilities are documented. Additional cases and details
are described in the Geotechnical Extreme Events Reconnaissance (GEER) report edited
by Bray and Frost (2010).

a)
Dept. of Civil & Environ. Engineering, Univ. of California, Berkeley, CA 94720-1710
b)
Dept. of Civil & Environ. Engineering, Brigham Young University, 368 CB, Provo, UT 84602
c)
Dept. of Structural Engineering, Univ. of California, San Diego, La Jolla, CA 92093-0533
d)
Faculty of Mathematics and Physical Sciences, Univ. of Chile, 2002 Blanco Encalada, Santiago Chile
e)
Pontificia Universidad Católica de Chile, Vicuña Mackenna 4860, Macul, Santiago, Chile
f)
Department of Civil Engineering, University of Patras, 26500 Patras, Greece
g)
School of Civil and Environmental Engineering, Georgia Institute of Technology, Atlanta GA30332-0355
h)
Dept. of Civil Engineering, Univ. of Concepción, Víctor Lamas 1290, Concepción, Chile
i)
Dept. of Civil & Environ. Engineering, Univ. of Washington, Seattle, WA
j)
Dept. of Civil & Environ. Engineering, Univ. of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign, Urbana, IL 61801
k)
USGS, Menlo Park, CA

S97
Earthquake Spectra, Volume 28, No. S1, pages S97–S118, June 2012; © 2012, Earthquake Engineering Research Institute
S98 BRAY ET AL.

Figure 1. (a) Two recorded elastic acceleration response spectra ðξ ¼ 5%Þ compared with 50%
and 84% estimates from two ground motion models for a subduction zone event of M ¼ 8.8 and
R ¼ 40 km. (b) Acceleration-time history at San Pedro School in Concepción (S36.84418°
W73.10866°; Elev. 38 m MSL).

GROUND MOTION CHARACTERISTICS

The sites discussed in this paper were strongly shaken by the Mw 8:8 Maule, Chile, earth-
quake, which ruptured a fault plane with a strike of 14° NW and dip of 19° E. Available
strong motion data (Barrientos 2010; and Boroschek et al. 2010) indicate that the horizontal
peak ground accelerations (PGA) were on the order of 0.5 g in Concepción and Constitución,
0.4 g in Talca and Curicó, 0.3 g in Matanzas, and 0.2 g in Santiago. Ground motion attenua-
tion models for subduction zone earthquakes capture reasonably two available recorded
ground motions in the area (Figure 1a). A representative time history in Concepción is
shown in Figure 1b. Its significant duration and bracketed duration were 70 s and 140 s,
respectively.

BUILDINGS

HOSPITAL PROVINCIAL IN CURANILAHUE

Liquefaction-induced ground deformations affected the seismic performance of the new
regional hospital facility built in the City of Curanilahue, which is about 80 km southwest of
Concepción. The horizontal PGA and significant duration of strong shaking at this site was
estimated to be on the order of 0.3 g and 80 sec, respectively, based on recorded motions
during this event. This modern hospital facility, which was opened in 2008, replaced older
one-story structures at the same site. Most structures in Curanilahue are one or two stories,
and liquefaction was not observed at these sites. However, the new hospital facility has 10
structurally independent wings with heights ranging from one to six stories, with the taller
ones being the tallest buildings in the city. Two of the primary wings of the hospital and a
map denoting the wing numbering and number of stories are shown in Figure 2.
EFFECTS OF GROUND FAILURE ON BUILDINGS, PORTS, AND INDUSTRIAL FACILITIES S99

Figure 2. (a) View of front of Wings 1A and 1B looking southeast (S37.47355° W73.34799°;
03/16/10) and (b) hospital wing locator map, which provides number of stories of each wing.

The lateral load resisting system is composed predominantly of structural concrete pier
shear walls coupled with deep spandrel beams. For the taller structures (wings 1A, 1B, 1C),
where one axis of the building is much shorter than the other, structural shear walls are used
absent of coupling elements along the transverse axis. Interior concrete columns are used to
carry gravity loads with a slab-girder style diaphragm. The diaphragm is conventional cast-
in-place construction. Infill masonry walls are used at ground floor locations at select lower
floors, and the foundation is similar to that observed in the two-story wings, namely shallow
isolated and wall footings with interconnecting grade-beams.
A site geotechnical report states that the natural soils present at the site are heterogeneous
and laterally variable (VST Ingenieros 2003), with an abandoned channel of the adjacent
river running under wings 1A to 1F. The abandoned channel is encountered between depths
of 4 m and 8 m and consists of silty gravel, silty sand, and sandy silts of low plasticity.
Shallower soils consist of fill, nonplastic sandy silt, and low plasticity clayey silt and
silty clay with some gravel. Clayey soils underlie the alluvium. Unlike many areas of
Curanilahue, the 2003 site geotechnical report showed no evidence of organic silt layers.
Compacted fill was placed on the north side of the hospital to raise the grade so that the
entrance on the north side was into the hospital’s second floor, whereas the entrances
into the hospital from its south side and interior courtyards were at the first floor. Penetration
tests conducted at the site by VST Ingenieros appeared to be performed using a donut ham-
mer; however, the testing procedures are not described sufficiently to calculate ðN 1 Þ60 values.
The reported SPT N values reported are high, considering that much of the soils had high
fines contents. In contrast, the authors conducted dynamic cone penetration tests at the site
following the main shock and observed equivalent SPT blowcounts ranging from about
10 to 20 (GEER 2010). Measured shear wave velocities in the upper 6 m were from
about 140 m/s to 180 m/s (GEER 2010), consistent with the medium density implied by
the DCPT results. Groundwater was measured at an average depth of 0.87 m, varying
between 0.65 m and 1.60 m across the site.
Clear evidence of soil liquefaction was observed throughout the hospital grounds adja-
cent to the structures. Sediment ejecta were observed along the west side of the hospital,
S100 BRAY ET AL.

inside the two interior courtyards, along the south side of the hospital, within the walkway
separating wings 1B and 1F from Wing 2G (Figure 3), and at other locations. Index tests
performed on ejecta samples indicate fines contents ranging from 20% to 90% and low plas-
ticity (plasticity index, PI; ≤ 5). Most samples had sufficient fines (i.e., >30%) so that the
fine-grained fraction likely controlled soil response.
Measurements of relative building movement are provided in Figure 4. Wing 1C is the
tallest wing, and it contains the primary elevator shaft. It displaced downward more than the
other wings of the hospital, with about 11 cm of downward movement relative to Wing 1A,
9.5 cm relative to the southwest corner of Wing 1B, and 1.0 cm relative to Wing 1D. The
northeast side of Wing 1D was pulled down locally with respect to Wing 1C and tilted 1.5°
downward toward Wing 1C (measured on the ground floor of Wing 1D in this area). As no
tilt was measured in Wings 1A and 1D, the non-uniform downward displacement of Wing 1C
indicated that it tilted slightly toward Wing 1A. There was also evidence of internal distortion
of these wings and their foundations. For example, Figure 5a exhibits bulging of the ground
slab in front of the elevator shaft in Wing 1C. As shown in the photograph, the slab heaved
about 19 cm relative to the undeformed slab in the foreground. There was also evidence of
floor heave and distortion in other wings of the hospital, such as the extensive warping of the
slab-on-grade in Wing 1B shown in Figure 5b and 5c.
Relative movement between wings 1B and 2G was apparent at the connection of these
two wings. The northeast corner of the Wing 1B extension displaced 4.5 cm downward and

Figure 3. Sediment ejecta observed at hospital: (a) Ejecta observed along exterior staircase of
Wing 1D (S37.47358° W73.34890°), (b) ejecta observed along exterior of Wing 1C (S37.47342°
W73.34829°), (c) ejecta observed along south side of Wing 1D (S37.47375° W73.34851°), and
(d) ejecta observed along east side of Wing 2G (S37.47343° W73.34788°).
EFFECTS OF GROUND FAILURE ON BUILDINGS, PORTS, AND INDUSTRIAL FACILITIES S101

Figure 4. Measurements of relative building movement at Curanilahue Hospital (GEER 2010).

Figure 5. Distortion of the slab-on-grade: (a) Floor bulging in front of elevator shaft in Wing 1C
(S37.47345° W73.34835°), (b) floor distortion in eastern hallway of Wing 1B (S37.4733°
W73.3478°), and (c) damaged partition wall and attached tiles due to floor distortion in
Wing 1B (S37.4733° W73.3482°).

4 cm southward relative to Wing 2G, and the southeast corner of the Wing 1B extension
moved downward 14 cm relative to Wing 2G. The measured non-uniform relative offset
between these two wings indicates that Wing 1B tilted with respect to Wing 2G, which
appeared not to tilt. The tilt of Wing 1B was measured to be 1.5° with its roof displacing
S102 BRAY ET AL.

to the south relative to its foundation. Additionally, the southeast corner of Wing 1B dis-
placed downward 8 cm relative to Wing 1F, and the northwest corner of Wing 1B displaced
downward 4 cm relative to Wing 1A.
Wings 1F and 1D did not tilt noticeably, except at the northeast corner of Wing 1D, which
was locally dragged down by Wing 1C. Although sediment ejecta were found along its south-
ern sides, no significant relative downward movement with respect to the surrounding walk-
way was observed. However, the walkway pavement indicated that these wings displaced
laterally to the south. At the location of the photograph in Figure 3c, Wing 1D displaced
southward 8 cm (2.5 cm southward relative to Wing 1F). The southeast corner of Wing
1F displaced southward 5 cm (7 cm relative to the southwest extension of Wing 2G).
Wings 2G, 2H, 2I, and 2J, which are two-story structures, did not appear to undergo
significant movement. Ejecta were found adjacent to these wings, and some hairline fractures
were observed in its brick facing on its south side, while on the north side cracks aligned with
the concrete frame. However, no structural tilt or relative ground movements were observed.
The fill placed on the north side of Wing 2 also settled.
Wing 1E is separated from Wing 1D by a walkway. The horizontal separation of the
northwest corner of Wing 1E from Wing 1D was measured to be 2.785 m. Compression
of the sidewalk separating these two wings was observed but could not be measured reliably
(Figure 3c). Wing 1E translated 2 cm to the south, as indicated by compression of its adjacent
curb on its south side, and tilted 1° to the south. The northern side of Wing 1E tilted about
0.5° southward. Structural damage was apparent within the interior of Wing 1E due to the
non-uniform tilt (from South to North ends) of the building.
Structural and nonstructural damage was observed throughout the hospital; however, the
extent of structural damage was minimal due to the isolation gaps provided between the
wings. The most pronounced structural damage was associated with closure of the seismic
gap and resulting contact between wings, particularly between Wing 1C and its neighboring
structures (i.e., wings 1A, 1B, and 1F as shown in Figure 6). Immediately after the earth-
quake, Wing 1C was closed and may be demolished. Select locations of shear wall damage
were identified; however, the extent of this damage was minimal. Inspection of the interior of
wings 1A, 1B, and 1C including at their upper levels, where exterior impact was observed,
revealed no damage to the structural walls in these wings. In contrast, nonstructural damage
was observed and largely attributed to the foundation movement (Figure 5). However, it was
largely confined to partition walls and ceiling systems. Fortunately, due to the isolation of the
various wings, the building services (mechanical, electrical, and plumbing) were designed
with significant flexibility to absorb both anticipated interstory drift within a wing and dif-
ferential movement across the various wings. Engineers on site at the time of the team’s visit
noted no disruption to the mechanical, electrical, and plumbing systems within the wings.
Evidence of minor liquefaction was observed to the north of the hospital in the parking lot
area of a market. Slight pavement distress and minor uplift of manholes in this area were
observed. However, the extent of liquefaction that was observed at the hospital was not
observed here or at other locations in the city. Lastly, ground failure was observed near
the river that is located south of the hospital; however, the streets that ran along the
north side of the river and those within the residential communities to the east and west
of the hospital showed no damage or evidence of liquefaction, indicating that the ground
EFFECTS OF GROUND FAILURE ON BUILDINGS, PORTS, AND INDUSTRIAL FACILITIES S103

Figure 6. Key observations of structural damage: (a) Pounding damage and resulting permanent
gap developed between Wings 1A and 1C due to rocking of Wing 1C (the gap was measured by
hospital staff as 37 cm) (S37.4734° W73.3485°), (b) damage to shear wall and plaster of Wing 1C
due to contact with Wing 1D (S37.4736° W73.3485°), (c) local view at the roof line of Wing 1B
observing the pounding between these two wings (S37.4734° W73.3483°), and (d) fallen
masonry facade and spalling of structural wall of Wing 1F due to impact with Wing 1B
(S37.4735° W73.3480°).

failure near the river was localized and did not extend to the hospital grounds. Overall, these
observations suggest that building-imposed shear stresses played an important role in trig-
gering liquefaction at the hospital site. One year after the earthquake most of the nonstructural
damage has been repaired, and the building is almost fully operational. The tallest building on
site, Wing 1C, remains abandoned, and is being considered for demolition. No seismic retro-
fit has been performed as of March 2011.

CONDOMINIO LOS PRESIDENTES IN CONCEPCIÓN

Three of four eight-story condominium buildings named the Condominio Los Presi-
dentes, located at Los Gorriones No. 512, Comuna de Hualpén, Concepción, were damaged
by liquefaction-induced ground movements and strong shaking. The southwest, southeast,
northeast, and northwest buildings at the site are called the Riesco, Errázuriz, Montt, and
Bulnes buildings, respectively. The Riesco and Errázuriz buildings were built around
2006–2007. The Montt and Bulnes buildings were constructed a year later and were not
fully occupied at the time of the earthquake. The buildings have identical designs but
were constructed by two different contractors. The site was visited initially by the GEER
team on 17 March 2010.
The four buildings onsite have identical floor plans and structural details; Figure 7 pro-
vides a typical elevation. Each building has a footprint of 11.43 m by 25.65 m, with two apart-
ment units per floor on each of the north and south wings of the buildings. The estimated height
S104 BRAY ET AL.

Figure 7. Elevation of the Riesco building depicting the general components of its structural
system (S36.790929° W73.081296°; 17 March 2010). View is looking west at the longitudinal
axis of the building.

of the buildings was 18.7 m, with the first floor measuring 2.3 m. The apartment unit pairs are
separated by a full height elevator and stairwell approximately centered along the core of the
building. Seismic load resistance along the longitudinal axis of the building is provided by a
full height, 345 cm-long, structural concrete shear wall at the elevator shaft, with some redun-
dancy and gravity load support provided by short wall segments within the apartment units’ on
either side of the windows. Along the longitudinal axis of the buildings, a 270 cm long by
78 cm deep coupling beam provides continuity in load transfer. The transverse axis of the
buildings is absent of openings. Therefore, the full transverse length of the building comprises
a structural concrete shear wall for gravity and seismic load resistance. The perimeter wall
thickness is 15 cm, and interior partition walls are full height and are 7 cm thick.
The site where these condominiums were constructed consisted of marshy ground before
being developed. Contractors placed sandy fill at the site to raise the ground level. The struc-
tures are apparently founded on shallow foundations that appear to be spread footings with
interconnected grade beams. The exterior wall footings have a design base width of 1.4 m and
a stem width of 20 cm. The slab-on-grade is a floating slab at the first floor living spaces. The
relative compaction of the sandy fill below the footings is not known. However, it is likely
that the fill used for foundation support would have been better compacted than the sandy fill
placed in the open spaces. Groundwater was observed at a depth of 0.5 m on 17 March 2010
and at a depth of 1.6 m to 2 m in hand-augered boreholes excavated on 25 March 2010.
Sediment ejecta, ground cracking, settlement, and other evidence of liquefaction of the
gray sandy fill could be seen throughout the condominium property. However, there was no
evidence of liquefaction in the street that surrounded the site, nor at the adjacent properties
which contained relatively light one- and two-story homes, some of which were constructed
by a different contractor within the same timeframe as the condominiums. Ejecta were com-
posed primarily of well-graded silty sand with approximately 10–15% nonplastic fines.
Hand-augered borings suggested that the source bed was located at 1.5–2 m below
EFFECTS OF GROUND FAILURE ON BUILDINGS, PORTS, AND INDUSTRIAL FACILITIES S105

grade, and consisted chiefly of nonplastic to low plasticity ðPI < 7Þ silty sand to sandy silt
with trace clay. Dynamic cone penetration resistance ranged from about 5–15 in the upper
1.5 m of this stratum. Large amounts of sand and water stains were observed on the northeast
corner of the Riesco Building, as shown in Figure 8. The northeast corner of the Riesco
Building displaced downward about 40 cm with respect to the ground adjacent to the Bulnes
Building, which did not appear to displace permanently. In contrast, the southern end of the
Riesco Building settled only 10 cm, while the ground surrounding the building settled about
19 to 24 cm. The northern end of the Riesco Building tilted approximately 1° to the east and
1° to the north as a result of the differential movement across the building, as illustrated in
Figure 9. The differential movement produced tilting and warping of the interior floor slab,

Figure 8. (a) Evidence of large sediment ejecta at northeast corner of Riesco Building
(S36.79077° W73.08124°), and (b) entrance to the building in the middle of its east facing
side with 1° tilt observed in coupling beam (S36.79089° W73.08131°).

Figure 9. Schematic plan view of the Riesco Building depicting measured building displace-
ments (note that rotation about the transverse axis of the building is believed to largely hinge
about the shear wall-coupling beam interface; measurements taken on 17 March 2010).
S106 BRAY ET AL.

Figure 10. Structural damage: (a) Interior view of the left (north) end of coupling beams (at their
interface with the elevator core) on the sixth floor of the Riesco Building (S36.7908°
W73.0813°), (b) shear cracking of structural wall at ground floor of Montt Building
(S36.7908°, W73.0809°), and (c) typical damage to nonstructural components in the buildings:
partition walls at the ground floor of the Errázuriz Building (S36.7911° W73.0810°).

which appeared to be on grade, and damaged the living spaces. In contrast to the Riesco
Building performance, the Errázuriz and Montt Buildings settled uniformly about 10 cm,
while the surrounding ground settled about 15 cm to 20 cm. The Bulnes Building and sur-
rounding ground did not settle significantly.
The most severe structural damage to these identically designed buildings was observed
in the Riesco Building, which suffered the largest liquefaction-induced differential settle-
ments. Damage was precipitated by the significant liquefaction-induced settlement of the
northern end of the building. As a result of the differential foundation settlements and rotation
of the northern half of the building about its transverse axis, excessive internal deformations
were imposed on the coupling beams (Figure 10a). All coupling beams along the building
height were heavily loaded and exhibited shear failure at their interface with the shear wall at
the elevator core. Spalled regions and extensive cracks were observed along the full depth of
the coupling beam at its interface with the pier wall (Figure 10a). Shear walls in the transverse
direction of the Riesco Building appeared to be undamaged. In contrast, first floor transverse
shear walls in the other three buildings, which did not significantly rotate due to foundation
movement, exhibited a pattern of shear cracks (Figure 10b). Articulation of this shear crack
pattern was most pronounced along the longest transverse end walls of the buildings. Non-
structural damage to these buildings primarily included broken windows and partition wall
buckling and cracking (e.g., Figure 10c). Local officials reported that the Riesco and
Errázuriz Buildings will be demolished, while the Montt Building will be repaired.

HOMES ON ALONSO GARCÍA DE RAMÓN ROAD IN NORTH CONCEPCIÓN

Several upscale homes in the northern part of Concepción were damaged by translational
ground movement. The area is 2 km southeast of the Carriel Sur International Airport in
Concepción, near the intersection of Alonso García de Ramón and García Hurtado de Mendoza
roads (S36.7918°, W73.0570°) and was visited by the GEER team on 17 March 2010. Shallow
groundwater was observed at the site near the toe of the slide. At the back of the slide, the
EFFECTS OF GROUND FAILURE ON BUILDINGS, PORTS, AND INDUSTRIAL FACILITIES S107

Figure 11. (a) Head scarp of the translation slide cut through a house (S36.79126° W73.05719°;
17 March 2010), and (b) apartment building translation and tilt, with no significant structural
damage (S36.79167° W73.05721°).

presence of manholes suggested that storm drains may have supplied water to the affected
zone. There was no obvious change in topography at the head scarp location.
The slide appeared to be relatively shallow with its toe compressing the ground directly
along Alonso García de Ramón Road, its head scarp causing a series of parallel extension
cracks, and its main body showing little evidence of internal distortion. Careful measure-
ments across the head scarp extension zone showed that the zone was initially 9.05 m
wide (as evidenced by regular-sized pavement sections) and extended 1.70 m, so that it
was 10.75 m wide after the failure. At the toe, the ground compressed about 1 m and heaved
about 1 m across a zone that was initially 8.5 m wide.
Structures that were located across the head scarp of the landslide (where ground exten-
sion was most severe) were heavily damaged (Figure 11a). Most damage to surrounding
homes was cosmetic or limited to ground dislocations (Figure 11b). In particular, the
two-story apartment building shown in Figure 11b, which is located near the intersection of
Alonso García de Ramón and García Hurtado de Mendoza roads, showed no evidence of
significant structural damage. Although the building translated to the southwest as a result
of the translational landslide, it did not appear to undergo internal distortion. However, the
building tilted 1° to the northwest and 1° to the northeast, indicating that it tilted as a
rigid body.

PORTS AND INDUSTRIAL FACILITIES

Chile’s formidable natural barriers, the Andes to the west and the Atacama Desert to
the north, make ports the preferred means for importing and exporting large quantities of
goods. Early in the 21st century, 95% of Chilean exports and almost 90% of imports traveled
through port facilities (Encyclopedia of the Nations 2011). The most important ports are in
Valparaíso, San Antonio, Concepción, and Coronel. Liquefaction-related damage was rela-
tively minor at both the Valparaíso and San Antonio ports; however, lateral spreading and
ground settlement (with displacements reaching 1 m) damaged quay walls and pile-supported
wharfs in older sections of these ports. This paper focuses on the ports at Coronel and
Concepción where liquefaction-induced damage was most severe.
S108 BRAY ET AL.

PORT OF CORONEL
The port of Coronel (S37.0281° W73.1507°) is located in the town of Coronel, in the Bío-
Bío Region, 30 km south of the City of Concepción and 545 km south of Santiago, the capital
of Chile. Cargo is stored onshore in a warehouse and an open area behind a 9 m deep sheet-
pile wall (1.6 m above ground). The sheetpile wall provided a relatively level surface on the
landward side with the natural beach slope extending beyond the wall to the ocean.
Cargo is transferred to ships via two pile-supported piers, which extend 500 to 600 m out
into the ocean as shown in Figure 12. The northern pier was constructed in 1998 and is
supported by battered and vertical steel pipe piles. The southern pier was constructed in
2008 using a base-isolation system. Lead-core rubber bearings sit atop four battered piles
connected together by steel beams. The base-isolation system was designed to work in con-
cert with additional long, flexible vertical piles, which are able to move with the deck during
an earthquake. There was no evidence of damage to the base-isolated pier, although some
pounding occurred at the joint with the conventional pile-supported abutment.
Port personnel reported that about 10% of the cargo containers, which were typically
stacked four high, toppled during the earthquake. In addition, the port experienced significant
lateral spreading, which caused cracking in the pavement as shown in Figure 13a. Based on
digital elevation data, the slope of the beach at the port varies from 4% to 6%. Evidence of
lateral spreading was greatest in the northern part of the port where the surface was paved
with asphalt underlain by a 0.2 m-thick layer of compacted gravel fill (Figure 13b). Move-
ment was less obvious in the southern part of the port where the surface was paved with
bricks underlain by a 0.8 m-thick layer of gravel. Black sand ejecta obtained from cracks

Figure 12. Location of lateral spread displacement measurements relative to sheet pile wall at the
Port of Coronel. Photo from Google Earth (S37.0281° W73.1507°).
EFFECTS OF GROUND FAILURE ON BUILDINGS, PORTS, AND INDUSTRIAL FACILITIES S109

Figure 13. Photographs of (a) lateral spread displacements at the Port of Coronel (S37.028680°
W73.150054°; 1445 hours, 17 March 2010), and (b) closer view at one of the cracks.

in the lateral spread was similar to the beach sand and classified as poorly graded sand (SP)
with a D50 of about 0.5 mm and a fines content of about 2%.
Cumulative horizontal displacements behind the sheetpile wall were measured by the
GEER team by summing the crack widths in the pavement along two lines. The location
of the survey lines is shown in Figure 12, and Figure 14 presents the measured displacements.
Maximum lateral movement at the wall was between 1.0 m and 1.2 m, and relatively little
movement occurred beyond a distance of 25 m behind the wall.
At least four large sinkholes developed in the brick-gravel paved side of the port after the
earthquake. The sinkholes were typically about 3.5 m in diameter and extended to a depth of

Figure 14. Cumulative horizontal ground displacement versus distance from the sheetpile face at
the port of Coronel, Chile. Line 1 and Line 2 locations are shown in Figure 12.
S110 BRAY ET AL.

Figure 15. Sinkholes (2.2 m deep, 3.5 m diameter) developed due to crack in underground pipe
(S37.0339°, W73.1467°; 1513 hours, 17 March 2010).

2.2 m to 2.4 m, as shown in Figure 15. At the base of one hole, a crack in an underground
pipeline was observed. Sand flowed into this gap and produced the sinkhole at the ground
surface. A major pipeline runs parallel to the shore in the North-South direction, while sec-
ondary pipelines run perpendicular to the sheetpile wall at a number of locations. These
secondary pipelines were likely subjected to extensional strains due to lateral spreading,
which could have damaged the pipes. Water and sewer services at the port were disrupted
as a result of pipe failures.
Lateral spreading caused the 0.5 m-diameter steel pipe piles supporting the northern pier
to rotate 14° from vertical, as shown in Figures 16a and 16b; however, there were no obvious
signs of distress along the pile surface. Pile rotation due to lateral spreading caused buckling
of the stiffeners on the compression side and yielding of the stiffeners on the tension side of
the support beam (Figures 16c and 16d).
In a small fishing port located about 600 m north of the main port (S37.0246°
W73.1553°), liquefaction-induced lateral spreading significantly damaged paved areas
and a small pier extending 80 m into the ocean. Figure 17 provides an aerial view of the
pier and the line along which displacements were measured. Two borings drilled offshore
near the pier in May 2010 (see Figure 17) indicate that the soil profile consists of 10 m of
relatively loose fine sand and silt ðSPT N ≈ 3-5 blows=0:3mÞ underlain by relatively dense
sand (SPT N values ranging from 20 to 100 blows/0.3m) to a depth of 25 m (MOP 2010).
A photograph of the damage to the pavement and an adjacent wall produced by lateral
spreading is shown in Figure 18. Horizontal ground displacements were measured by the
GEER team relative to a concrete wall on the beach as shown in Figure 17 by summing
crack widths in the concrete pavement. Maximum displacements reached nearly 3 m and
movement extended about 90 m behind the wall (Figure 19). Ground slope above the
water level at this location ranged from 3.5% to 5%.
Damage to the pier resulting from the 3 m lateral spread is shown in Figure 20. The pier
was pulled apart on its landward side producing gaps of 0.5 m and 1.1 m between two
segments; however, at its seaward end, the pier appeared to be in compression, as no
gaps were present, and the pier appeared to have heaved relative to the rest of the pier.
EFFECTS OF GROUND FAILURE ON BUILDINGS, PORTS, AND INDUSTRIAL FACILITIES S111

Figure 16. (a) Rotation of pile supported pier at Port of Coronel due to lateral spreading
(S37.0280° W73.1508°; 1555 hours 17 March 2010); (b) connection details for longitudinal sec-
tion relative to the pier; (c) yielding of stiffeners on connection beam; and (d) connection details
for transverse section relative to the pier.

The pier was supported by a combination of battered and vertical piles. Battered piles were
used on alternating supports along the pier. Based on field measurements, pile batters were
approximately 20° seaward and landward. A photo and sketch of a pile cap supported by
battered piles are provided in Figure 20a. Lateral spreading caused the landward piles to pull
out of the cap, moving down 0.8 m and horizontally 0.3 m, leaving it within 10 cm of impact-
ing the seaward piles. These measurements indicate that the pile-supported pier moved less
than the surrounding ground. Similar battered pile failures also occurred at the fishing pier in
the Port of Lota, south of the Port of Coronel.
S112 BRAY ET AL.

Figure 17. Location of lateral spread measurement line and damaged pile cap with battered piles
supporting pier at fishermen port north of the main Port at Coronel (S37.024622° W73.155272°).

Figure 18. Photograph of (a) lateral spreading destroyed pavement and cracked walls at the
fishermen’s Port of Coronel (S37.0247° W73.1550°; 1348 hours 17 March 2010). (b) Damage
to pile-supported pier at small fishermen’s Port of Coronel due to lateral spreading (S37.024319°
W73.156210°; 1321 hrs on 17 March 2010).

PORT AT CONCEPCIÓN AREA (SAN VICENTE INTERNATIONAL TERMINAL)

Liquefaction and lateral spreading was observed at the Concepción port area (S36.727°,
W73.132°), including the neighboring San Vicente International Terminal (SVIT). Although
the GEER team was not allowed to visit the commercial port, local port engineers reported
EFFECTS OF GROUND FAILURE ON BUILDINGS, PORTS, AND INDUSTRIAL FACILITIES S113

Figure 19. Cumulative horizontal ground displacement versus distance from concrete wall face
due to lateral spreading at Pier on small fishermen’s port at north end of Port of Coronel.

Figure 20. (a) Photograph of pile cap with battered piles supporting pier at small fishermen’s
Port of Coronel showing pull out of trailing row piles (S37.024319° W73.156210°; 1322 hrs on
17 March 2010) along with (b) measurements of the pile cap and orientation of the piles after
the lateral spreading.

that the SVIT wharf moved approximately 50 cm, and exhibited cracks in the pavement,
approximately 2–3 m deep. The fishing industry in this area halted due to damage at a fishing
wharf and, more importantly, damage to a nearby fish packaging facility. In contrast, pet-
roleum facilities in this area, which provide a significant portion of gasoline to Chile, are
located farther from the coastline and suffered little damage, with only minimal service dis-
ruption. Figure 21 documents the approximate extent of lateral spread observed at the fishing
wharf area, while Figure 22 shows photographs of the spread. Figure 23 plots the measured
S114 BRAY ET AL.

Figure 21. Lateral spread at the fishing wharf area (S36.7252° W73.1320°) denoted by red
boundary. Note that spread likely continued to the East of the area documented.

Figure 22. Photographs of lateral spread at fishing wharf (1110 hours 15 March 2010).

cumulative horizontal displacement with distance from the face of the wharf at a point near
the middle of the wharf.
Figures 24–26 document the damage to the fish packaging facility. In total, three build-
ings were to be demolished due to significant ground movement and resulting building
damage. Among these, a four-story masonry building (approximate 8.5 m × 16 m plan
dimensions, Figure 25a) tilted approximately 1.5° about its long axis and 3° about its
short axis (into photograph). Displacements of the front (south) face of this building
EFFECTS OF GROUND FAILURE ON BUILDINGS, PORTS, AND INDUSTRIAL FACILITIES S115

Figure 23. Cumulative horizontal ground displacement versus distance due to lateral spreading
on fishing wharf - measurements taken at center of wharf.

Figure 24. Google Earth™ overview map of fish packaging facility and neighboring structures
(S36.7259° W73.1291°).

were about 30 cm uplift (southeast) and 11 cm settlement (northeast). The water level in this
area was noted to have risen by approximately 1–2 meters, although tsunami waves were not
observed by locals.
Despite the significant damage to the fish packaging facility (Figure 25b), a number of
neighboring structures were operational. The team visited and met with a manager of the
S116 BRAY ET AL.

Figure 25. Damage to fish packaging facility (S36.7260° W73.1288°; 1400 hours, 15 March
2010).

Figure 26. Location of Petrobras gas facility relative to other port structures (S36.7270°
W73.1271°).

Petrobras gas facility, which is one of a number of petroleum facilities in the port area. Within
this facility, one tank was noted to have tilted approximately 1° (Figures 26 and 27), with
sand boils observed near the roadway into this facility (Figure 27). The tank, used for water
storage at the time of the earthquake, was constructed in 1968, had dimensions of 11.6 m
diameter and 12 m height, and was full during the earthquake.
EFFECTS OF GROUND FAILURE ON BUILDINGS, PORTS, AND INDUSTRIAL FACILITIES S117

Figure 27. Tilted water tank at Petrobras gas facility (S36.7270° W73.1272°; 15 March 2010).

CONCLUSIONS
Soil liquefaction and the resulting ground movements directly impacted buildings, ports,
and industrial facilities during the 2010 Maule, Chile, earthquake. Several buildings
were damaged significantly due to foundation movements resulting from liquefaction.
Liquefaction-induced ground failure also displaced and distorted waterfront structures,
which adversely impacted the operation of some of Chile’s key port facilities. Coastal
port and industrial facilities were damaged by liquefaction-induced lateral spreading at sev-
eral locations. Several important case histories that document the effects of ground failure on
buildings, ports, and industrial facilities are discussed in this paper. Importantly, the presence
of building-induced shear stresses likely played a key role in triggering liquefaction at the
building sites described herein. These observations of structure and system performance can
be used to advance the profession’s understanding and to develop improved procedures for
evaluating liquefaction and soil-structure interaction.

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
This material is based upon work supported by the National Science Foundation (NSF)
under Grant No. CMMI-1034831. Any opinions, findings, and conclusions or recommenda-
tions expressed in this material are those of the authors and do not necessarily reflect the
views of the NSF. Additional support was provided by Golder Associates and the Chilean
Air Force. All GEER team members contributed to this effort, including Jonathan Bray,
David Frost, Ramon Verdugo, Christian Ledezma, Terry Eldridge, Pedro Arduino, Scott
Ashford, Dominic Assimaki, David Baska, Jim Bay, R. Boroschek, Gabriel Candia,
Leonardo Dorador, Aldo Faúndez, Gabriel Ferrer, Lenart Gonzalez, Youssef Hashash,
S118 BRAY ET AL.

Tara Hutchinson, Laurie Johnson, Katherine Jones, Keith Kelson, Rob Kayen, Gonzalo
Montalva, Robb Moss, Sebastian Maureira, George Mylonakis, Scott Olson, Kyle Rollins,
Nicholas Sitar, Jonathan Stewart, Mesut Turel, Alfredo Urzúa, Claudia Welker, and
Rob Witter.

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(Received 15 March 2011; accepted 4 February 2012)