Chapter 4 Outline – Waves and Tides

I. Introduction to Wave Energy and Motion

Wave Formation:
 Wind, earthquakes, and landslides are the most common causes of waves, called generating
forces.
 Wind creates friction between the air and the water causing small capillary waves (ripples) to
form, the smallest of the wind driven waves.
 As capillary waves grow bigger, the surface of the water becomes rougher. This makes it easier
for the wind to grip the water, forming larger waves which can move away from their start
faster than their starting wind.
 These larger waves then settle into swells which are evenly spaces waves with smoothly
rounded crests and troughs. Here the shorter waves dissipate, so only long waves with high
energy are left.
 Earthquakes causes the water above it to move up and down which causes a large amount of
water waves to move away from the source called tsunamis. Tsunamis are very hard to track.
 Landslides (ice breaking of glaciers) moves the water out of the way but returns to normal as the
ice settles or sinks. This movement creates a series of waves that move away from its source.
 Higher wind speeds create larger waves. Areas with a large fetch (distance of open water that
the wind can blow across without changing distance) will produce more waves. Also, the wider
the fetch the more the waves.
 Wind duration also effects wave formation. Waves are easily produced in shallow areas.
 Wave height depends on wind speed, fetch, and wind duration. These factors maximized =
largest waves. The most favorable conditions for wave formation occur between 40S and 50S.
Westerly winds blow in this area, and combined with a large fetch, produce high waves.
 Waves energy eventually dissipates, and the water particles stop moving because of restoring
forces (force that causes the water surface to go back to its undisturbed state). The two
examples are surface tension (restores small capillary weaves) and gravity (restores large
waves).

Wave Energy and Motion:

 Waves have two types of energy, potential and kinetic. Potential energy is from the height of a
wave and is the energy that an object has because of its position above the Earth. Higher wave is
more P.E. Kinetic energy comes from motion of particles and is the energy of objects in motion,
so the particles exert K.E. when in motion.
 Waves carry energy but they do not transport water across the sea. Wave energy travels in the
direction of propagation and moves water particles up and down in an orbital motion.
 When water particles move with waves, then energy cause the particles to first move up, then
forward with the wave energy. However, the particles move down under its original position
and back behind where it originated. When the next wave comes, the particles move up again
completing its orbit.
 The highest point of the wave is its crest and its lowest point is its trough. They can be close
together or far apart. The height of wave is distance from the crest to trough, but scientists use
the amplitude which is one half of the wave height. The wavelength is the distance from crest to
crest or trough to trough.
 Use wavelength and wave period (time for two consecutive crests or troughs to pass same
point) for wave speed. Frequency is reciprocal of wave period and is equal to wavelength
 divided by wave period. In deep water, wave speed depends on wavelength, while in shallow
water it depends on water depth.
 A waves speed can change afterwards but not its period. The period is the generating forces of
the wave, so even as the wave moves its period cannot change.
 The surface of the ocean is a confused jumble of many waves going in different directions
because they were formed by different winds blowing in different directions for varying lengths.
 Wave cancellation is when the crest of one wave meets the trough of another, effectively
canceling out the waves. If both crests collide, they produce a higher wave called wave
reinforcement. These rogue waves are very dangerous and may account for a large portion of
the ships that are lost or disappear.

II. Types of Waves

Deep-Water Waves:
 Deep-water wave is a wave that travels in water that is deeper than one half of its wavelength.
The speed depends on the wavelength. They carry and move energy from place to place.
 Progressive wind waves are generated by wind, restored by gravity, and progress in a particular
direction.
 Deep-water waves form when swell waves originate and travel in water that is deeper than one
half of their wavelength.
Shallow-Water Waves:
 Shallow-water waves travel in water that is less than 1/20 th of their wavelength. The speed
depends on the depth of the water.
 When a deep-water wave approaches the coast, its bottom “feels” the bottom of the ocean,
changing the pattern of the water particles from circles to ellipses.
 The friction slows down the wave and as the waves behind catch up, they come closer giving a
shorter wavelength. The waves become higher and steeper.
 Surf is when the bottom of the wave is slowed down by the seafloor, but the top of the wave
does not slow down. The original energy of wave is expended on shoreline.
 Waves are refracted when moving from deep to shallow water. Waves approach the shore at an
angle. When bottom of wave slows down, the part of wave that remains in deeper water
continues at original speed. Thus, waves “bend” and waves along surf are parallel to shore.
 Longshore transport (particles of water are transported toward the shore and down the beach)
is what moves sand and sediments down a beach when the energy in the wave picks them up.
 The areas where sand can return to ocean are narrow, creating rip currents (areas of rapid
seaward-flowing water).
 Tsunamis are shallow-water waves because of the extremely long wavelength (200km or more),
and they can travel long distances across ocean basins at over 600km per hour.
 Tsunamis are hard to track considering the other swells and disturbances in the ocean. When
tsunamis reach shallow water, they create very large surges of water that can flood the coast.
Other Types of Waves:
 Some waves have traits of both deep- and shallow-water waves, depending on its depth. These
are called intermediate waves.
 Waves can form at any boundary between water of two densities. Waves under the surface are
internal waves. They form where water if stratified in layers of densities.
 Internal waves are important in ocean mixing, and they help mix the less dense fresh water and
the denser seawater together.
  Deep, shallow, internal waves are progressive. Standing waves do not progress because they
form in enclosed bodies of water. They reflect upon themselves.
 The point a standing wave oscillates is the node. The high and low point at each end are the
antinodes. The node of the standing wave is sometimes at the opening to the bay for minimal
water movement at opening and larger movement at end where antinode is.

III. The Tides

What Causes Tides?:
 Tides are large waves around Earth that are cause by the gravitational pull and rotation of the
Moon and the Sun. The Moon and Earth are held by gravitational attraction.
 Moon’s gravity is strongest on side of Earth closest to Moon. The Moon pulls the water in the
ocean toward the Moon. On the opposite side of Earth, the Moon’s pull is weaker, so the water
doesn’t move towards the moon. It bulges away because of centrifugal force.
 The centrifugal force is there because the Moon does not revolve around Earth… they rotate
together around their combined center of mass which is a point in Earth offset slightly. This is
the Earth-Moon system. The offset causes the system to wobble creating centrifugal force.
 Because Earth rotates, any given point on the surface will alternatively lie under a bulge and
then away from it. High tide is when the point is under a bulge. A full tidal cycle takes 24 hours
and 50 minutes, making the high and low tides vary daily, while having two high and two low
tides every day.
 The produces the same bulges as the Moon but is only half as strong because of its distance
from Earth even though its larger.
 The Sun and Moon effects add together at the full and new moons, and this is where the
difference in water level with high and low tides is large. These are called spring tides. At first
and third quarters, the Sun and Moon cancel each other out, and the tidal range is small. This is
called neap tide.
 A full tidal cycle is the same as lunar cycle, which is 29 ½ days.
 Tide levels change with seasons because the distance between Earth and Sun changes. In winter
at the northern hemisphere, Earth is closer, so the Sun has stronger influence on tides.
However, no matter the season the moon always has strongest influence.
Tidal Patterns:
 Three main tidal patterns: semidiurnal, mixed semidiurnal, and diurnal. Most common
semidiurnal (east of N.A. and most Europe and Africa), is when there is two high and two low
tides at the same height each day. Mixed semidiurnal (West of U.S. and Canada) is when an area
has two high and two low tides of different heights each day. Diurnal (coast Antarctica and Gulf
of Mexico, Caribbean, Pacific) is when there is only on high and one low tide each day, but this is
uncommon.
 The distinctions between the types of tides are not absolute and, in most places, the tidal
pattern varies shift between the different types.
 Tides vary from place to place and time to time because of effect of land and seafloor. The tides
at a given place depends on its location relative to what’s around it. Tides are also affected by
variation of orbits and even weather.
 Strong winds can pile water on the shore, causing higher tides. Tides are also affected by ocean
currents and the Coriolis effect.
 The highest level a tide rises is called high water. The lowest point is low water. In a mixed
semidiurnal tide, it is necessary to distinguish between the higher and lower high water and the
 higher and lower low water. The difference between is called tidal range and is constantly
changing.
 Average low tide is used to determine actual depth of water and when its safe. A minus tide
occurs when a low tide is lower than the average low water level.
 If you’re at the beach during a flood tide, then you might see the beach is shrinking because the
water is moving toward shore. If you notice the beach growing, then you’re there during ebb
tide, when water rushed back to sea. The period between them is slack water, when water is
stationary.
 Tides produce waves that travel far called tidal bores. These can be up to 8 m high and can
travel as fast as 64km/hr, which makes them very dangerous. They are rare, and only occur in
shallow estuaries and river mouths with large tidal amplitudes.
 When flood tide approaches shallow water, it feels bottom and slows down, but because of
large amount of water and force behind, it continues to move toward the short and up the river.
Tide Measurements and Tables:
 We cannot predict the tides by looking at the Moon’s location in the sky. Tide chard can be off
because of the shape of the coast. The tide table for a beach that is just a few miles away might
be slightly different than the observed tides.
 There are 196 tidal stations in the U.S., where tides are measure and kept in a database. Since
they are not everywhere, local features can change the tides along the coast. Underwater
bathymetry and shape of coastline greatly affect tides.