Module 2

WAN Technologies

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 WAN Technology
• A Wide Area Network (WAN) is used to interconnect
Local Area Networks (LANs) that are separated by a
large geographical distance.
• A Wide Area Network predominately operates at the
OSI physical and data link layers.
• The WAN provides a data path between routers and
the LANs that each router supports.

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 MAJOR CHARACTERISTICS OF WANS

 The network operates beyond the local LAN’s

geographic scope. It uses the services of
carriers such as Regional Bell Operating
Companies (RBOCs).
 WANs use serial connections of various
types to access bandwidth over wide-area
geographies.
 By definition, the WAN connects devices
separated by wide areas.
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WAN DEVICES INCLUDE:

 Routers that offer many services including

internetworking and WAN interface ports.
 Switches that connect to WAN bandwidth for
voice, data, and video communication.
 Modems that interface voice-grade services;
Include channel service units/digital service units
(CSU/DSU) that interface T1/E1 services;
Terminal Adapters/Network Termination 1
(TA/NT1) that interface Integrated Services Digital
Network (ISDN) services.
 Communication servers that concentrate dial-in
and dial-out user communication.
 WANS use the OSI layered approach for
encapsulation just like LAN's but are mainly
focused on the physical and data link layers.

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 WAN Physical Layer

• WAN physical layer protocols describe how to

provide electrical, mechanical, operational, and
functional connections for wide-area networking
services.
• These services are most often obtained from
WAN service providers such as Regional Bell
Operating Companies (RBOCs), alternate carriers,
and Post, Telephone, and Telegraph (PTT)
agencies.

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 WAN Data Link Protocols

• WAN data link protocols describe how

frames are carried between systems on a
single data path.
• They include protocols designed to operate
over dedicated point-to-point, multipoint,
and multi-access switched services such
as Frame Relay.

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 WAN Standards

• WAN standards typically describe

both physical layer delivery
methods and data link layer
requirements including
addressing and flow control
encapsulation

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 describes the interface between
the data terminal equipment
(DTE) and the data circuit-
terminating equipment (DCE).

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 DTE & DCE
• DTE - data terminal equipment. Device at the user end of a
user-network interface that serves as a data source,
destination, or both. DTE connects to a data network
through a DCE device (for example, a modem) and typically
uses clocking signals generated by the DCE.
• DTE includes such devices as computers, routers, and
multiplexers.
• DCE - Data communications equipment (EIA) or data
circuit-terminating equipment (ITU-T). The devices and
connections of a communications network that comprise
the network end of the user-to-network interface. The DCE
provides a physical connection to the network, forwards
traffic, and provides a clocking signal used to synchronize
data transmission between DCE and DTE devices. Ex:
Modems and interface cards

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 The WAN data-link protocols describe how
frames are carried between systems on a
single path

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 The Data Link Layer: WAN Protocols
High-Level Data Link Control (HDLC)—HDLC is an IEEE
standard. It might not be compatible between different vendors
because of the way each vendor has chosen to implement it.
• HDLC supports both point-to-point and multipoint
configurations with minimal overhead
Frame Relay - Frame Relay uses high-quality digital facilities.
By using a simplified framing with no error correction
mechanisms, Frame Relay can send Layer 2 information much
more rapidly than these other WAN protocols.
Point-to-Point Protocol - Described by RFC 1661. PPP contains
a protocol field to identify the network-layer protocol.
Integrated Services Digital Network (ISDN) - ISDN is a set of
digital services that transmits voice and data over existing
phone lines.

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 Wide Area Networking

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 The WAN Cloud
• An overview of the WAN cloud organizes WAN
provider services into:
– Call setup service—Sets up and clears calls
between telephone users.
– Also called signaling, call setup uses a separate
telephone channel not used for other traffic.
– The most commonly used call setup is Signaling
System number 7 (SS7). SS7 is an out-of-band
signaling system for the exchange of call control
information between network switching offices, in
support of voice and nonvoice services

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 Time-division multiplexing (TDM)
• Information from many sources has bandwidth allocation
on a single media.
• Circuit switching uses signaling to determine the call
route, which is a dedicated path between the sender and
the receiver.
• By multiplexing traffic into fixed time slots, TDM avoids
congested facilities and variable delays.
• Basic telephone service and ISDN services use TDM
circuits.

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 Time-division multiplexing (TDM)
• Transmits multiple signals simultaneously over a single
transmission path. Each lower-speed signal is time sliced
into one high-speed transmission.
• Example: Three incoming 1,000 bps signals (A, B and C)
can be interleaved into one 3,000 bps signal
(AABBCCAABBCCAABBCC).
• The receiving end divides the single stream back into its
original signals.

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 • When your organization subscribes to
an outside WAN provider for network
connections, the provider assigns your
organization the rules for connecting
WAN calls.
• Your organization makes connections
to destinations as point-to-point calls.

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Demarcation (or demarc)—
• The point at which the CPE ends and the local
loop portion of the service begins.
• Often occurs at the Point of Presence (POP)
of a building.
Local loop (or “last-mile”)
• Cabling (usually copper wiring) that extends
from the demarc into the WAN service
provider’s central office.

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Central office (CO) switch
• A switching facility that provides the
nearest point of presence for the
provider’s WAN service.

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Toll network
• The collective switches and facilities (called
trunks) inside the WAN provider’s cloud.
• The caller’s traffic may cross a trunk to a
primary center, then go to a sectional center,
and then to a regional- or international-carrier
center as the call goes the long distance to its
destination.
• Switches operate in provider offices with toll
charges based on tariffs or authorized rates.

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• A key interface in the customer site
occurs between the data terminal
equipment (DTE) and the data circuit-
terminating equipment (DCE).
• Typically, DTE is the router.

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• DCE is the device used to convert the user
data from the DTE into a form acceptable to
the WAN service’s facility.
• In the graphic, the DCE is the attached
modem, channel service unit/data service unit
(CSU/DSU) or Terminal Adapter/Network
Termination 1 (TA/NT1).

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Data communication over WANs
interconnects DTEs so they can share
resources over a wide area.
• The WAN path between the DTEs is called
the link, circuit, channel, or line.
• The DCE primarily provides an interface
for the DTE into the communication link in
the WAN cloud.
• The DTE/DCE interface acts as a boundary
where responsibility for the traffic passes
between the WAN subscriber and the WAN
provider.
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 DSU/CSU

• A pair of communicating devices that connect an in-house

line to an external digital circuit (T1). It is similar to a
modem, but connects a digital circuit rather than an
analog one.
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 CSU

Terminates the external line at the customer premises.

Provides diagnostics and allows for remote testing.
If the customer's communications devices are T1 ready
and have the proper interface, then the CSU is not
required, only the DSU.
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 DSU

Does the actual transmission and receiving of the signal

and provides buffering and flow control.
DSU and CSU can be in the same unit.
DSU may also be built into the multiplexor, (combines
digital signals for high-speed lines).
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Forms of WAN services with routers.
The most common are:
– Switched or relayed services.
• Frame Relay
• ISDN (Integrated Services Digital Network)
• ATM (Asynchronous Transfer Mode)
• X.25
– Peer Devices
• HDLC (High-level Data Link Control)
• PPP (Point-to-Point Protocol)
• DDR (Dial on Demand Routing)
• LAPB - point to point and X.25

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Both Frame Rely and X.25 use the concept of virtual
circuits
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 X.25
• The first packet switched networks
• X.25 provides a connection-oriented
technology for transmission over highly-error
prone facilities.
• Error checking is performed at each node,
which can slow overall throughput and and
therefore would not make X.25 a choice for
voice and video
• X.25 can be very cost effective because tariffs
are based on the amount of data delivered
rather than connection time or distance

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 Asynchronous Transfer Mode (ATM)

• Lower latency at higher bandwidths

• Data rates beyond 155 Mbps
• Cell-based rather than frame-based
• Cell are a fixed length of 53 bytes
• Also uses PVCs
• Less efficient because of the small size

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 Digital Subscriber Line (DSL)

• Uses existing telephone lines

• Uses multiple frequencies within the same
physical medium to transmit data
• Bandwidth can vary
• Distance of the local loop is a factor – must
be less than 3.5 miles

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 Cable Modem

• Two-way, high-speed data transmissions

using the same coaxial lines that transmit
cable television.
• Always on

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 WAN Frame
Encapsulation Formats

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Layer 2 Encapsulation
• Each WAN connection type uses a Layer 2
protocol to encapsulate traffic while it is
crossing the WAN link.
• To ensure that the correct encapsulation
protocol is used, you will need to configure
the Layer 2 encapsulation type to use.
• The choice of encapsulation protocol
depends on the WAN technology and the
communicating equipment.

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PPP
• Common for dialup single-user-to-LAN
(dialup and ISDN) or LAN-to-LAN
(router-to-router) access.
• PPP is standardized, so it supports
vendor interoperability.
• It also supports the encapsulation of
multiple upper-layer protocols
including IP and IPX.

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HDLC
• The Cisco default encapsulation type on
point-to-point links.
• It is used typically when communicating with
another Cisco device.
• If communicating with a non-Cisco device,
synchronous PPP is a viable option.
• HDLC is normally proprietary between
vendors.

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LAPB (layer 2 of the X.25 protocol stack)
• For packet-switched networks, the LAPB
protocol is used to encapsulate X.25 packets.
• It can also be used over point-to-point links, if
the link is unreliable or there is an inherent
delay associated with the link, such as in a
satellite link.
• LAPB provides reliability and flow control on
a point-to-point basis.

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 HDLC
• HDLC is Cisco’s default encapsulation for serial
lines.
• This implementation is very streamlined.
• There is no windowing or flow control and only
point-to-point connections are allowed (no
multipoint).
• 2-byte proprietary type code is inserted after the
control field, which means that HDLC framing is
not interoperable with other vendors’ equipment.

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 WAN Design Basics

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When leased line connections are made:

•a router port is required for each connection,

•along with a CSU/DSU and

•the actual circuit from the service provider.

The cost of dedicated line solutions can become significant

when deployed to connect many sites

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Dedicated
connectivity,
also referred to
as leased lines,
provides full-
time
synchronous
connections.
Dedicated, full-
time
connectivity is
provided by
point-to-point
serial links.

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 Network Design

• Network designs tend to follow one of

two general design strategies:
• mesh
• hierarchical

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 Mesh structure
• Net topology is flat
• All routers perform essentially the
same functions
• Usually no clear definition of where
specific functions are performed.
• Expansion of the network tends to
proceed in a haphazard, arbitrary
manner.

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 Hierarchical structure the network is
organized in layers that each have one
or more specific functions.
Benefits to using a hierarchical model
include the following:
– Scalability
– Ease of implementation
– Ease of troubleshooting
– Predictability
– Protocol support
– Manageability

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 The three-layer model consists of:
• core
• distribution
• access layers

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Core layer -
• Provides fast wide-area connections between
geographically remote sites, tying a number
of “campus” networks together in a corporate
or enterprise WAN.
• Core links are usually point-to-point, and
there are rarely any hosts in the core layer.
• Core services are typically leased from a
telecom service provider (for example, T1/T3,
Frame Relay, SMDS, and so on).

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 Distribution layer -
• Refers to the distribution of network
services to multiple LANs within a
campus network environment.
• This layer is where the “campus
backbone” network is found, typically
based on Fast Ethernet.
• This layer is implemented on sites that
are large and is used to interconnect
buildings.
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 Access layer -
• Usually a LAN or a group of LANs, typically
Ethernet or Token Ring, that provide users
with frontline access to network services.
• The access layer is where almost all hosts are
attached to the network, including servers of
all kinds and user workstations.

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 • The three layers are bounded by Layer 3
devices or other devices that provide
separation into broadcast domains.
Note: A three-layer model can usually meet the
needs of most enterprise networks.
• However, not all environments require a full
three-layer hierarchy—a one- or two-layer
design may be adequate.
• Even in these cases, however, a hierarchical
structure should be maintained.

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 The distribution layer would include the campus
backbone with all its connecting routers.
• Because policy is typically implemented at
this level, we can say that the distribution
layer provides policy-based connectivity.
• Policy-based connectivity means that the
layer 3 routers are programmed to only allow
traffic on the campus backbone that the
network manager has determined acceptable.

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 The access layer connects users into LANs,
and LANs into campus backbones or WAN
links.
• This approach enables designers to distribute
services across the CPU’s of devices
operating at this layer.
• The access layer allows logical segmentation
of the network and the grouping of users
based on a function.

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 • The one-layer design is typically implemented
where:
• Only a few remote locations in the company
• access to applications are mainly done via
the local LAN to the site file server.
• Each site is its own broadcast domain.

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 In a two-layer design, a WAN link is used to
interconnect separate sites.
• VLANs may be implemented to create
separate logical networks without requiring
additional routers.
• Inside the site multiple LANs may be
implemented with each LAN segment being
its own broadcast domain.
• Router becomes a concentration point for
WAN links.

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• Remote sites can access the WAN core network
using WAN technologies other than dedicated
links.
• Frame Relay or ISDN are two such alternatives.
• If a remote site is small and has low demand for
access to services in the corporate network,
ISDN would be a logical choice for this
implementation.
• Perhaps another remote site cannot get access
to dedicate WAN links from their service provider
but has access to Frame Relay.
• In either case an entry point needs to be
established for these types of WAN connections
in to the WAN core.
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 • One of the advantages of hierarchical WAN
design is it provides a method for controlling
data traffic patterns by putting Layer 3
routing points throughout the network.
• Since routers have the ability to determine
paths from the source host to destination
hosts based on Layer 3 addressing, data
traffic will flow up the hierarchy only as far as
it needs to to find the destination host.

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• If Host A were to establish a connection
to Host B, the traffic from this
connection would travel to Router 1
and be forwarded back down to Host B.
• Notice that this connection did not
require any traffic be placed on the link
between Router 1 and Router 2, thus
conserving the bandwidth on that link.

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 • In a two-layer WAN hierarchy, the traffic
patterns are still governed by host
source and destination addresses and
path determinations of the router.
• In this model again the traffic will only
travel up the hierarchy as far as needed
to get to the destination thus
conserving bandwidth on other WAN
links.

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 Module 2
WAN Technologies

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