Blackwell Science, LtdOxford, UKJCSInternational Journal of Consumer Studies0309-3891Blackwell Publishing Ltd, 200327Original ArticleComparing online and non-online

S.L. Lokken

et al.

Comparing online and non-online shoppers

Sheri L. Lokken, Ginger Wigington Cross, Linda K. Halbert, Gail Lindsey, Christy Derby and Carla Stanford
School of Human Sciences, Mississippi State University, MS, USA

Abstract about online shopping . Five university students and a

family and consumer sciences researcher conducted a
A web-based survey was completed by 130 faculty and staff
web-based survey to answer these questions . The results
from a university located in the south-eastern United States.
of this study will help consumer science professionals
The purposes of this study were to investigate: (a) consumer
and consumer educators to understand trends in con-
characteristics related to online shopping; (b) benefits of
sumer buying behaviour over the Internet and target
online shopping as perceived by online shoppers; and (c)
training and educational programmes for different con-
concerns about online shopping as perceived by non-online
sumer groups better .
shoppers. Responses were analysed using SPSS for tests
of chi-square. Findings suggest that the differences
between online shoppers and non-online shoppers corre- Background
spond with Rogers’1 categories of adopters, and that the
US online retail sales experienced substantial changes
educational needs of consumers also differ based on their
in the fi rst few years of the twenty-fi rst century. Some
previous experience with online shopping.
online retailers went out of business , while others real-
ized that marketing their products via the World Wide
Keywords E-commerce, consumer empowerment, web-
Web was a necessity . According to the National Retail
based survey.
Federation, the number of US retailers with commercial
web sites increased 300% from 1996 to 1998, 4 and this
Introduction number has continued to increase , but at a slower rate .5,6
The number of Internet shoppers has also increased,
The Internet has changed the way in which consumers
now estimated at 21 million. 7 According to a report by
search for information about products and services .
Ernst and Young,8 74% of all US consumers purchased
Online shopping has offered new opportunities to con-
online in 2000. An online study of 39 000 consumers by
sumers, but also has posed new threats . Consumers are
eCommerce Pulse showed that 81.2% of adults with
continuing to adapt to this new technology at high rates .
Internet access have purchased online .9 Consumers are
It is projected that Internet access will reach 75% of all
making more online purchases than ever before , and
US households by 2005 and 90% of US households by
apparel sales surpassed books , music and videos for the
2010.2 These rates are slower than predicted due in part
first time in November/December 2001. 7 Ernst and
to the declining US economy . Currently, adoption rates
Young found that, even though consumer acceptance of
are increasing at much more rapid rates in European
online shopping is growing , customer dissatisfaction
countries.3
with pricing , shipping and product selection is also on
The purpose of this study was threefold: (a) to deter -
the increase.8
mine which consumer characteristics are related to
Even though some of the early projections that phys-
online shopping; (b) to investigate the benefi ts of online
ical retail stores would become obsolete 10 or that con-
shopping as perceived by online shoppers; and (c) to
sumers would do the majority of their shopping online 11
examine the concerns that non-online shoppers have
have not been realized, the projections for online retail-
ing continue to be positive . According to F orrester
Research, 6% of all US retail sales will be conducted
Correspondence
Sheri L. Lokken, School of Human Sciences, PO Box 9745, Mississippi online by 2003, 12 and European retailers have continued
State, MS 39762, USA. E-mail: slokken@humansci.msstate.edu to introduce online sites .7

126 International Journal of Consumer Studies, 27, 2, March 2003, pp126–133 © 2003 Blackwell Publishing Ltd

According to a study by F orrester Research, 2 Euro-
pean industries are predicted to experience rapid
growth in online trade . Online sales comprised < 1% of
total business trade in 2001, but are predicted to jump
to 22% by 2006. Although the number of US Internet
users has remained stable , the number of European
users has increased by 14% in the fi rst half of 2002. 13
Online shoppers
According to a study by Harris Interactive ,14 the num-
ber of browsers (consumers who gather information
online and purchase offl ine) has remained constant or
declined, whereas the number of online buyers has
increased steadily. The online shopping experience has
become more positive for most. Previous studies have
shown that higher amounts of Internet use (for non-
shopping activities) are associated with an increased
amount of Internet product purchases .15 Studies have
also shown that different products have different levels
of customer acceptance via online shopping .16 E-
commerce may lower the initial search costs , but raises
the product examination, payment and after -service
costs.
Consumer compliments and concerns
According to online-shopping consumers , some of the
perceived advantages of shopping online include:
amount of product information, ease of use, speed and
convenience .14,17 Although Internet usage continues to
increase, there are persistent concerns about the credi-
bility and security of online transactions .18–21 According
to a Forrester Research Group study ,22 scepticism about
buying online included: (a) the need to touch, feel and
try a product fi rsthand (48%); (b) the lack of compari-
son shopping (35%); and (c) the desire to speak to a
store clerk before purchasing (31%). Other concerns
involved the facilitation of payment and refunds , reli-
ability, customer service and ability to cancel orders .23,24
Additionalconsumerconcernsaboutonlineshopping
were found in the 1999 World Wide Internet Opinion
Survey conducted by the Direct Marketing Associa-
tion. 25 According to the survey , 42% of the 1494 partic-
ipants cited security as their primary apprehension
about online shopping . Also, 18% of the survey partic-
© 2003 Blackwell Publishing Ltd International Journal of Consumer Studies, 27, 2, March 2003, pp126–133
S.L. Lokken et al. • Comparing online and non-online
ipants cited privac y issues as a point of concern. Accord-
ing to Sarah Andrews of the Electronic Privac y
Information Center in Washington, DC, the US ‘lags
behinds nearly every other country in online privac y
protection for consumers’. 26
Theory of innovations
Rogers’ theory of innovations 1 can be useful in explain-
ing consumers’ adoption of the Internet for shopping .
He has defi ned fi ve stages in the adoption process:
knowledge , persuasion, decision, implementation and
confi rmation. Rogers 1 has also defi ned categories of
adopters: innovators , early adopters , early majority, late
majority and laggards . According to Rogers ,1 innova-
tors need to be able to afford the innovation and there-
fore are typically consumers with higher incomes ,
higher occupational status and higher levels of educa-
tion. They are also considered risk takers and tend to
be inner directed in their decision making . Early adopt-
ers share many of the characteristics of innovators , but
are more integrated into their social groups than inno-
vators. The early majority usually enter the market after
being infl uenced by an early adopter whom they know
and respect. Late majority adopters tend to be lower
income and older . They may be slower to adopt new
innovations because of fi nancial constraints or the fact
that they are not directly infl uenced by others in their
social group. Laggards enter the market after the inno-
vation has been well accepted and when few risks are
present.
Research questions
For the purposes of this project, the researchers inves-
tigated the Internet as an instrument of commerce from
the consumer’ s perspective. The following research
questions were asked: (1) What consumer characteris-
tics are different between online shoppers (Rogers’ 1
innovators , early adopters and early majority) and non-
online shoppers (Rogers’ 1 late majority, laggards)? (2)
What are the benefi ts of online shopping as perceived
by online shoppers? (3) What are the perceived risks of
online shopping as perceived by non-online shoppers?
For this study , online shoppers were defi ned as consum-
ers who had made at least one purchase online . Non-
online shoppers may have searched for product or
127
Comparing online and non-online • S.L. Lokken et al.
service information online , but had never made a
purchase.
Methods
Participants
The population for this study included the faculty and
staff, with E-mail addresses , of a middle-sized university
located in a rural town in the south-eastern region of
the United States . This population was chosen because
the researchers thought that the participants would be
a good representation of online shoppers (i.e . working
parents with higher income and educational levels than
the general public). This population was also chosen
because of resource constraints of this project (i.e . time
and money), but may be generalizable to similar con-
sumers worldwide .
Using an offi cial college directory of faculty and staff
E-mail addresses , the researchers adopted a systematic
sampling procedure for randomly selecting the partici-
pants. The systematic sampling procedure was logisti-
cally sounder than simple random sampling given the
size of the population. 27 Using the systematic sampling
approach, the researchers randomly selected 600 partic-
ipants to participate in this descriptive study of Internet
use as it relates to online shopping .
Procedure
The researchers chose a web-based survey because it
was the most effi cient method of data collection consid-
ering their time and money constraints . As this data
collection method required participants to have E-mail
and web access to complete the survey , it was expected
that the sample would be more likely to be Internet
shoppers than the general population. The non-online
shoppers in this sample were also expected to have
more experience in searching for product and service
information online . Researchers thought that this sam-
ple would be more helpful in answering the research
questions than consumers without Internet access .
This study was approved by the university’ s Institu-
tional Review Board for the Protection of Human Sub-
jects (IRB). An E-mail cover letter was designed, which
briefly explained the purpose of the study , directed the
128 International Journal of Consumer Studies, 27, 2, March 2003, pp126–133
participants to a web page that contained the online
survey and assured them of their anonymity . The cover
letter served as the informed consent required by the
IRB. Participants were informed that the web page
would be posted for 7 days. The E-mailed letters were
sent to the faculty and staff who were selected randomly
from the college directory via the systematic sampling
procedure. The participants were given 7 days to com-
plete the survey and submit it to the researchers elec-
tronically. After the 7-day period, the survey web page
was deactivated.
Instrumentation
The survey included 16 general questions that all par -
ticipants were asked to answer . These answers provided
demographic information as well as information about
general online purchasing experiences . After the initial
16 questions were answered, those participants who had
made purchases via the Internet (online shoppers) were
asked to complete a set of nine additional questions
regarding their satisfaction or dissatisfaction with their
purchasing experience . Those who had never made an
online purchase (non-online shoppers) were asked to
complete four additional questions regarding their rea-
sons for not making purchases via the Internet. After
completing the survey , participants were thanked for
their participation and informed that their answers
would be held in the strictest confi dence and used for
research purposes only .
Data analysis
A variety of demographic variables were analysed with
chi-square to determine differences between online
shoppers and non-online shoppers (research question
1). Demographic variables investigated included gen-
der, age, ethnicity, marital status, education level and
income . Other variables examined included computer
access, skill level, enjoyment of interaction while shop-
ping, preference for convenience or privac y, enjoyment
of retail stores , previous credit card problems and pref-
erence for Internet browsing . Descriptive statistics such
as frequencies and means were used to answer research
questions 2 and 3.
© 2003 Blackwell Publishing Ltd
 S.L. Lokken et al. • Comparing online and non-online

of university faculty and staff was a heterogeneous

Results
population, primarily Caucasian (92%), married (80%),
between the ages of 26 and 55 years (84%) and with
Sample description
high levels of income and education.
A response rate of 21.67% was achieved with 130 par -
ticipants completing the survey within the 7-day time
Characteristics related to online shopping
period (see Table 1 for details). As expected, the sample
Gender , age, ethnicity, marital status, education level,
income , computer access , skill level, enjoyment of inter -
Table 1 Sample (n = 130) action while shopping , preference for convenience or
privacy, enjoyment of retail stores , previous credit card
Variable n Percentage problems and preference for Internet browsing were
cross-tabulated with online shopping experience . Chi-
Gender
square analyses indicated that age ( c2 = 6.73, d.f. = 2, P
Male 53 41
Female 77 59
£ 0.05), self-reported skill level ( c2 = 22.74, d.f. = 2, P
Age (years) £ 0.01), retail store shopping enjoyment ( c2 = 3.80,
18–25 7 5.4 d.f. = 1, P £ 0.05) and preference for using the Internet
26–35 39 30.0 for information search ( c2 = 23.65, d.f. = 1, P £ 0.01)
36–45 32 24.6
were signifi cantly different between the groups (see
46–55 37 28.5
Over 55 14 10.8
Table 2). Online shoppers were more likely to be
Education younger, with 47.3% aged 35 years or younger . Non-
High school graduate 3 2.3
Some college 25 19.2
College graduate 30 23.1
Master’s degree 39 30.0
Doctorate degree 30 23.1
Table 2 Chi-square tests of characteristics related to online
Professional degree 3 2.3 shopping
Ethnicity
Caucasian 120 92.3 Online shopping
African–American 5 3.8 experience
Native American 2 1.5
Other 3 2.3 Online Non-online
Marital status shopper shopper
Single 15 11.5 Variables (%) (%) Total (%) c2 (d.f.)
Married 103 79.2
Divorced 10 7.7 Age (years) 6.73 (2)*
Widowed 1 0.8 35 and younger 38 (47.3) 9 (20.9) 47 (32.6)
Income 36–45 20 (23.0) 12 (27.9) 32 (24.6)
< $25 000 10 8 46 and older 29 (33.3) 22 (51.2) 51 (39.2)
$25 000–49 999 32 26 Skill level 22.74 (2)**
$50 000–74 999 37 30 Novice 2 (2.3) 9 (21.4) 11 (8.6)
$75 000–99 999 24 20 Intermediate 54 (62.8) 31 (73.8) 85 (66.4)
≥ $100 000 19 16 Expert 30 (34.9) 2 (4.8) 32 (25.0)
Computer competency Shopping at retail stores 3.80 (1)*
Novice 11 9 Enjoy 54 (62.1) 34 (79.1) 88 (67.7)
Intermediate 85 66 Do not enjoy 33 (37.9) 9 (20.9) 42 (32.3)
Expert 32 25 Information search 23.65 (1)**
Shop online Prefer Internet 74 (86.0) 19 (45.2) 93 (72.7)
‘Online shoppers’ 87 67 Prefer retail stores 12 (14.0) 23 (54.8) 35 (27.3)
‘Non-online shoppers’ 43 33
*P £ 0.05; **P £ 0.01.

© 2003 Blackwell Publishing Ltd International Journal of Consumer Studies, 27, 2, March 2003, pp126–133 129
Comparing online and non-online • S.L. Lokken et al.

online shoppers were more likely to be older , with Table 3 Online shopping advantages as perceived by online
51.2% aged 46 years and older. The majority (80.9%) shoppers
of the younger consumers in this sample (aged 35 years
n (%)
or younger) had made at least one purchase on the
Internet. Reviews and recommendations from experts 18 (20.7)
The majority (66.4%) of consumers in this study clas- Saving time 17 (19.5)
sified themselves at an ‘intermediate’ skill level with Convenience 14 (16.1)
computers. Interestingly, only 2.3% of the online shop- Access to opinions of others 12 (13.8)
Availability of information from vendors 10 (11.5)
pers classified themselves as ‘novice’ computer users ,
No pressure from sales people 10 (11.5)
and only 4.8% on the non-online shoppers classifi ed Better prices 6 (6.9)
themselves as ‘expert’ computer users . This finding sug-
gests that consumers with lower computer skills are less n = 87.
likely to shop online , and consumers with expert com-
puter skills are more likely to shop online .
Chi-square results also indicated that a higher per - Table 4 Online shopping disadvantages as perceived by non-
centage of online shoppers do not enjoy shopping at online shoppers
retail stores and a higher percentage of non-online
n (%)
shoppers do enjoy shopping at retail stores . The major -
ity of online shoppers (86%) prefer to search for infor - Security issues 27 (62.8)
mation about a purchase on the Internet, whereas Happy with local shopping 4 (9.3)
54.8% of non-online shoppers prefer to search for infor - Don’t have Internet access at home 3 (7.0)
mation about a purchase in a retail store . Lack of product demonstration 3 (7.0)
Lack of information about how to shop online 2 (4.7)
Privacy issues 2 (4.7)
Perceived benefits of online shopping Other 2 (4.7)

Those who had made at least one purchase online n = 43.

(online shoppers) were asked to identify the reasons
why they use the web for purchasing products or ser -
vices. ‘Reviews and recommendations from experts’
and ‘saving time’ were the two most frequently cited
responses (Table 3). Convenience , other shoppers’
opinions , vendor information availability and lack of
sales pressure were also selected frequently . Of the
reported online shoppers ( n = 87), 88% indicated that
they were very satisfi ed with the product(s) and/or ser -
vice(s) that they purchased online . Seventy-two per cent
of these consumers claimed that they would rather
browse the Internet to research a product than go to a
retail store to gather information about a product.
Interestingly, 70% claimed that they felt convenience
was more important to them than privac y.
non-online shoppers indicated that they had used the
Internet to research various products that were later
purchased offl ine. When asked what infl uenced their
decision not to shop online , the majority of non-online
shoppers (62.8%) indicated security issues , such as
credit card safety (See Table 4).
Non-online shoppers were also asked to rank several
conditions on whether likelihood of shopping via the
Internet would be increased. Each condition was
ranked on a fi ve-point Likert-type scale from ‘1’ (very
unlikely) to ‘5’ (very likely). Assurance of credit card
security and lack of local product availability had the
highest mean scores (Table 5).

Concerns about shopping online Discussion

Although 33% ( n = 43) of the survey sample indicated The results of this study indicate that online shoppers
that they had never shopped online , 83% of these are younger and have more self-reported computer

130 International Journal of Consumer Studies, 27, 2, March 2003, pp126–133 © 2003 Blackwell Publishing Ltd

Table 5 Conditions that would increase likelihood of
shopping online
n Mean
How likely would you be to use the Internet for purchase if:
Credit card security was insured 42 3.71
You could not purchase the desired product locally 41 3.54
You could search across different catalogues for 42 3.40
the desired item
The pictures and the descriptions of the items 41 3.37
were better
It took less time to download 39 3.28
It was easier to use the web sites 42 3.24
Delivery was quicker 41 3.20
You understood how shopping online works 41 2.98
You had access to the Internet at home 41 2.68
skills than non-online shoppers . This supports online
shoppers fi tting in Rogers’ 1 categories of innovators ,
early adopters and early majority and non-online shop-
pers falling into Rogers’ categories of late majority and
laggards. Online shoppers were also found to be less
likely to prefer shopping in retail stores and more likely
to prefer searching for product information online ,
another innovative trait. Online shoppers revealed
several perceived advantages of shopping online includ-
ing product reviews , saving time and convenience .
Credit card security was the main concern for non-
online shoppers .
Survey results indicated that, as the respondents’
sense of computer competenc y increased to the level of
expert, the more likely they were to make purchases
online . This suggests that computer -literate persons are
more likely to feel competent in their choice of making
purchases online than those who are less computer
literate.
Consumers who would rather browse the Internet or
use it to search for product information are more likely
to follow through and make an online purchase . This
corresponds with previous research suggesting that
most online shoppers begin by searching for product
information electronically .14
The results from this study did not indicate a signifi -
cant relationship between gender and shopping experi-
ence. Also, income and shopping experience had no
© 2003 Blackwell Publishing Ltd
S.L. Lokken et al. • Comparing online and non-online
significant relationship . One may assume , as in the case
of computer experience , that if income and computer
literacy were highly correlated, persons of higher
SD
income level would be more likely to make purchases
online . This, however , was not the case . Fifty-six per cent
1.38 of the respondents within the income range of $25 000
1.29 to $74 999 had made purchases online , whereas only
1.25 36% in the $75 000 to $100 000 range had done so . This
may be attributed to the age of higher level administra-
1.16
tors in this income and occupational category . From the
1.07 respondents who made less than $25 000, only 8% had
1.05 shopped online . This finding could be attributed to lack
1.01 of access to personal computers , the need to be more
1.08
frugal in their shopping or simply shopping less for dis-
1.15
cretionary items because of a tighter budget.
Finally, online shopping and experiences with credit
card fraud, enjoyment of retail shopping and attitude
towards shopping had no signifi cant relationship . This
suggests that more research is needed to determine cus-
tomer incentives and deterrents to shopping online ,
specifically security and privac y issues, customer service ,
comparison shipping and the desire to see , feel and try
a product fi rsthand. This finding may also show that
traditional retail shopping will not be reduced or
replaced by online shopping in the future .
Some potential limitations are important to consider
in the interpretation of the results of this study . Perhaps
the primary limitation of this study was the over -
representation of Caucasian (92%) and married (80%)
participants in the sample . Similarly, 84% of the sample
comprised persons 26–55 years of age. Additional infor -
mation regarding the online shopping experiences of
those ethnic , marital status and age range groups who
were under -represented in the sample would be neces-
sary to portray the university’ s faculty and staff accu-
rately. A second limitation was the low return rate
(21.67%) of the study survey . The use of E-mail as the
vehicle for distribution of the surveys may have caused
the low return rate . Using E-mail to distribute the
survey also potentially biased the results , favouring
consumers already using the Internet at a higher rate .
E-mail is an inexpensive and simple way of distributing
questionnaires , but requires caution in relating the
results to all consumers . Although these concerns limit
the overall generalizability of the results , the fi ndings
may be germane to those university faculty and staff
International Journal of Consumer Studies, 27, 2, March 2003, pp126–133 131
Comparing online and non-online • S.L. Lokken et al.
internationally who share similar characteristics to
those identifi ed in this sample .
Implications
This research shows that there are differences between
consumers who are online shoppers and consumers who
have never used the Internet to shop , which support
Rogers’ defi ned categories of adopters .1 According to
McGregor ,28 empowering the consumer is the ultimate
goal of consumer education. When consumer science
professionals and consumer educators develop curricula
for domestic consumers interacting in the electronic
global market place , which is essential according to
Goldsmith and McGregor ,29 they need to note the dif-
ferent needs of online shoppers and non-online shop-
pers. Online shoppers , who tend to be more risk-taking ,
would benefi t from training in the possible dangers of
online purchasing . Potential for consumer fraud has
increased with the Internet (e .g. credit card security,
privacy issues). Although it was not statistically signifi -
cant, a higher percentage of online shoppers in this
study were concerned with convenience than with
privacy.
The Internet can empower consumers and allows
them the opportunity to make informed purchase deci-
sions. Consumers who have never used the Internet
for shopping , who tend to be risk averse , should be
informed of some of the helpful features available
to them. For example, online price comparison ser-
vices (e.g. bottomdollar .com, consumerworld.org ,
mysimon.com, shopper .com) are an effi cient way for
consumers to fi nd the lowest prices for goods with the
click of a button. Helpful information can be shared
among consumers using discussion forums and chat
rooms . Consumers may also benefi t from knowledge of
services such as grocery delivery and other online shop-
ping conveniences such as 24-h access , gift registries and
wish lists.
Even though the sample in this study represents fac-
ulty and staff from a university in the south-eastern
USA, the results can be generalized broadly as the
Internet has no geographical boundaries . Further
research with a larger , more diverse population is
needed to explain more fully the dynamics of online
shopping; however , the fi ndings of this study imply that
132 International Journal of Consumer Studies, 27, 2, March 2003, pp126–133
consumers can benefi t from using the Internet as a
potential resource for their shopping needs . In addition
to informing consumers about the opportunities that
online shopping may present, it is essential that they are
also educated in the potential risks involved in purchas-
ing goods and services via the Internet.
References
1. Rogers, E.M. (1995) Diffusion of Innovations, 4th edn.
The Free Press, New York.
2. Felson, L. (2001) Netting limitations. Marketing News, 43,
43.
3. Anon (2002) Online trade will account for 22% of all
European business trade in 2006 Forrester calculates
[WWW document]. URL http://www.forrester.com/ER/
Press/Release/0,1769,742,FF.html.
4. Holstein, W.J., Gregory Thomas, S. & Vogelstein, F.
(1998) Click ‘til You Drop. US News and World Report,
December 7, 42–45.
5. Pastore, M. (2000) Online consumer sales keep increasing.
CyberAtlas [WWW document]. URL http://
cyberatlas.internet.com/markets/retailing/article/
0,6061_349891,00.html.
6. US Department of Commerce (2000) Retail E-commerce
sales in second quarter 2000 increased 5.3% from first
quarter 2000. Census Bureau Reports [WWW document].
URL http://www.census.gov/mrts/www/current.html.
7. Pastore, M. (2001) Retailing: new records predicted for
holiday E-commerce. CyberAtlas [WWW document].
URL http://cyberatlas.internet.com/markets/retailing/
article/0,6061_908021,00.html.
8. Ernst and Young (2001) Consumer trends in online
shopping. In Global Online Retailing: An Ernst and Young
Special Report. Stores, 83 (1), 5–9.
9. Pastore, M. (2001, April 24) Half of American adults now
shop online. CyberAtlas [WWW document]. URL
http://cyberatlas.internet.com/markets/retailing/article/
0,6061_751021,00.html.
10. Cope, N. (1996) Retail in the Digital Age. Bowerdean,
London.
11. Chou, D.C. (1999) The economics of taxing electronic
commerce. Information Systems Management, 16, 712.
12. Green, H., Morris, K., Palmer, A.T., Anderson Forest, S.
& Hamm, S. (1999) The great Yuletide shakeout. Business
Week, 3653, 18–25.
13. Reinhardt, A. & Passariello, C.W. (2002) E-commerce
starts to click. Business Week, 3796, 56.
© 2003 Blackwell Publishing Ltd

14. Pastore, M. (2000) Stores vs. web sites: the battle
continues [WWW document]. URL http://
cyberatlas.internet.com/markets/retailing/article/
0,6061_482461,00.html.
15. Citrin, A.V., Sprott, D.E., Silverman, S.N. & Stem, D.E.
(2000) Adoption of internet shopping: the role of
consumer innovativeness. Industrial Management and
Data Systems, 100, 294–300.
16. Liang, T.P. & Huang, J.S. (1998) An empirical study on
consumer acceptance of products in electronic markets:
a transaction cost model. Decision Support Systems, 24,
29–43.
17. Rowley, J. (1996) Retailing and shopping on the Internet.
International Journal of Retail and Distribution
Management, 24 (3), 26–37.
18. Atwood, B. (1997) The age of armchair shopping.
Billboard, 109 (11), 86–87.
19. Ginsburg, L. (1996, February 19) Eshop’s approach to safe
net shopping. Communications Week, 597, IA 6.
20. Libbon, R.P. (1999) Data dog. American Demographics,
21 (2), 35.
21. Maignan, I. & Lukas, B.A. (1997) The nature and social
uses of the Internet: a qualitative investigation. Journal of
Consumer Affairs, 31, 346–371.
22. Forrester Research (2000) [WWW document]. URL
http://www.forrester.com/Home/0,3257,1,FF.html.
© 2003 Blackwell Publishing Ltd International Journal of Consumer Studies, 27, 2, March 2003, pp126–133
S.L. Lokken et al. • Comparing online and non-online
23. Jones, J.M. & Vijayasarathy, L.R. (1998) Internet
consumer catalog shopping: findings from an exploratory
study and directions for future research. Internet Research:
Electronic Networking Applications and Policy, 8, 322–
330.
24. Vijayasarathy, L.R. & Jones, J.M. (2000) Print and
Internet catalog shopping: assessing attitudes and
intentions. Internet Research: Electronic Networking
Applications and Policy, 10, 191–202.
25. Jeffrey, D. (1999) Survey details consumer shopping
trends on the net. Billboard, 111 (22), 47–48.
26. Anon (2001) Protecting your privacy online Fortune,
142, 27–29.
27. Gall, M.D., Borg, W.R. & Gall, J.P. (1996) Educational
Research: an Introduction, 6th edn. Longman Publishers
USA, White Plains, NY.
28. McGregor, S.L.T. (September 2000) Consumer education
and the OECD electronic commerce consumer protection
guidelines. International Journal of Consumer Studies, 24,
170–178.
29. Goldsmith, E. & McGregor, S.L.T. (2000) E-commerce:
consumer protection issues and implications for research
and education. International Journal of Consumer Studies,
24, 124–127.
133