RSFTSSCR

Reading Strategies
and Activities
for the Social
Studies Classroom
New York, New York Columbus, Ohio Chicago, Illinois Peoria, Illinois Woodland Hills, California
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Table of Contents
To the Teacher . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . vi
To the Student . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . vii
Professional Notes
Effective Teaching Methods . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
Reciprocal Teaching . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
Modeling . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
Recognizing Text Structures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2
Narrative Writing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2
Expository Writing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2
Exploring Expository Texts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
Considerate Text . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4
Text Features . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4
Skills and Strategies for Reading Expository Texts. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4
Before Reading Strategies. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4
During Reading Strategies. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
After Reading Strategies. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
Effective Classroom Procedures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6

Reading Arrangements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6
Independent Reading . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6
Teaching Word Analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7

Decoding and Encoding . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
Strategies for Teaching and Reinforcing Phonic Elements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8
Activities to Reinforce Word Analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8
Glossary of Reading . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9
Consonants . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9
Initial Consonant Blends . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9
Final Consonant Blends . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9
Consonant Digraphs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9
Alternate Consonant Sounds . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10
Silent Consonants . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10
Vowels . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10
Common Vowel Sounds. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10
Vowel Digraphs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11
Diphthongs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11
R-Controlled Vowels . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11
Variant Vowel Digraphs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11
Schwa . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11
Word Families . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12
iii
Word Study . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12
Homophones . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12
Homographs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12
Synonyms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12
Antonyms. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12
Compound Words. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13
Denotation/Connotation. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13
Syllabication . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13
Effective Vocabulary Instruction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14

Strategies for Teaching Vocabulary. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14
Using Context Clues . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14
Using General Context . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15
Using Word Parts. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16
Using Language Structure Clues . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17
Using Classifying and Categorizing. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17
Using Word Maps . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17
Using a Concept-Definition Map . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18
Using a Semantic-Features Chart . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18
Using Possible Sentences. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18
Using Story Elements to Teach Vocabulary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19
Teaching Active Reading Strategies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20

Previewing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20
Activating Prior Knowledge. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20
Predicting. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21
Questioning . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21
Monitoring Comprehension . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21
Visualizing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22
Interpreting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22
Analyzing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22
Connecting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22

Responding . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22
Reviewing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23
Evaluating . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23
Teaching Reading and Thinking Skills . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24

Identifying Main Idea and Supporting Details. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24
Summarizing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25
Making Inferences. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26
Drawing Conclusions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26
Understanding Sequence. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27
Determining Fact and Opinion. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28
Analyzing Cause-and-Effect Relationships . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29
Comparing and Contrasting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30
Analyzing Problem and Solution . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31
Reproducible Graphic Organizers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31
iv
Strategies and Activities
Pre-Reading Strategies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 44
Lesson 1 Previewing the Text . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 44
Lesson 2 Making Predictions and Setting Purposes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 47
Lesson 3 Using a KWLH Chart . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 50
As-You-Read Strategies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 53
Lesson 4 Monitoring Comprehension . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 53
Lesson 5 Understanding Key Words . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 56
Lesson 6 Identifying the Main Idea . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 59
Lesson 7 Taking Notes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 62
Lesson 8 Outlining . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 65
Lesson 9 Reading Maps, Graphs, and Charts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 68
Lesson 10 Interpreting Photographs and Images . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 71
Lesson 11 Comparing and Contrasting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 74
Lesson 12 Understanding Cause and Effect . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 77
Post-Reading Strategies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 80
Lesson 13 Summarizing Information . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 80
Lesson 14 Sequencing and Categorizing Information . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 83
Lesson 15 Making a Study Guide . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 86
Lesson 16 Test-Taking Strategies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 89
Answer Key . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 93
v
To the Teacher
The Importance of Reading
We live in the Information Age. Few things are as important for success today as an ability
to understand, analyze, and act on what we read. Whether in the world of work or in the
home, most of what adults read is nonfiction. Similarly, students’ success depends upon
the ability to read and evaluate nonfiction. The most essential informational reading that
students do is in their content-area textbooks.
Improving Reading Comprehension

Research supports the value of teaching specific reading comprehension skills to students.
Strategies that some good readers intuitively use can be effectively taught to less-skillful
readers. This book is designed to help students learn, practice, and apply effective reading
comprehension strategies. The goal in teaching these reading skills is to enable students
to independently apply reading strategies to construct meaning from text.
In addition to teaching reading strategies, there are other ways you can build reading
achievement.
• Model your own use of reading strategies.
• Encourage students to spend time reading daily.
• Provide carefully selected reading materials.
• Devote class time to meaningful discussion of ideas gained through reading.
• Read aloud to students.
• Remember that the richer the background knowledge, the greater the reading compre-
hension. Before students begin a new textbook lesson and reading assignment, provide
time for students to draw upon what they already know through earlier reading and lis-
tening experiences.
• Research shows that when students are interested in what they read, their reading

achievement soars. Build on students’ curiosity by making connections between their
interests and content-area readings.
• Students with significant reading lags will also benefit from listening to taped recordings
of text while reading along in a book. They can also dictate or write critical information
and then read aloud from their dictation.
To assess students’ current use of reading strategies, have students complete the Reading
Strategy Inventory on page vii. Then, after students complete all the activities in this book,
administer the Inventory again. Have students note the changes in their reading processes.
vi
To the Student
What Is Reading Comprehension?
The primary purpose of reading is comprehension, or understanding. Unless you under-
stand what you read, you might as well be reading words in an unknown language.
Because much of the reading you do in school is to gather information and learn new
ideas, it is critical that you understand what you read.
Some school reading may be difficult for you. That’s okay—all readers struggle at times.
What is important is that you know how to unlock the meaning of a passage. Good
readers use a variety of methods to help them make sense of what they read. This
workbook is designed to help you learn, practice, and apply those strategies. Then, as
you read your school textbooks and research sources, you will be able to use these
strategies and skills on your own.
What Are Reading Strategies?

Reading strategies are the techniques you use to help you understand and remember
what you read. You probably use many reading strategies without even thinking about
them. There are strategies to use before reading, during reading, and after reading. When
you page through a book, scanning the pictures and captions, you are using a pre-reading
strategy. When you take notes as you read, you are using a during-reading strategy. And,
when you summarize a passage after you have read it, you are using a post-reading strategy.
Reading Strategy Inventory
Directions: To help you reflect on what strategies you know and use
regularly, take the Reading Strategy Inventory below. There are no right
or wrong answers to these questions, so take the time to honestly answer
the questions. Write your answers on a separate sheet of paper.
1. How do you choose what to read?

2. What do you do before you begin reading?
3. As you read, what do you do if you come across a word you don’t know?
4. What do you do if you don’t understand a paragraph or a section?
5. As you read, do you do anything special to help you remember the
information?
6. After you have completed a reading, what do you do?
vii
Effective Teaching Methods
The following approaches are among many that can help you teach reading to
your students. Beginning as a whole-class activity and ultimately becoming small-
group reading sessions, reciprocal teaching is a system of working through a text
to maximize student involvement and comprehension. Modeling is a method of
presenting reading and thinking processes with the goal of having students apply
these processes on their own. Recognizing Text Structures and Exploring
Expository Texts provide keys to help students access informational texts.
Reciprocal Teaching
Reciprocal teaching (Palinscar and Brown, 1984) is a method of checking under-
standing during reading that actively engages students, creating in them a feeling
of investment in their own learning process. In reciprocal teaching, the teacher
guides a group of students to apply four reading strategies in a prescribed way with
the goal of achieving comprehension of a segment of text. As students become
familiar with the process, the teacher’s role gradually changes from leader to facil-
itator, and the students take over the process themselves, alternating in the role
of group leader. The order of the strategies may vary depending on teacher pref-
erence. However, students should learn and use the strategies in a consistent
order. Here is a brief description of the reciprocal teaching process.
Reciprocal Teaching Process
Questioning After students Clarifying The leader points Summarizing The leader Predicting The leader now
have read a portion of text, out places in the text that he then summarizes the segment makes predictions about what
the leader asks the group or she found difficult and also of text. Orally summarizing will happen next on the basis
questions about what they invites group members to requires student leaders to of what the group has already
have just read. For student bring up anything that they actively evaluate ideas in the read. Group members partici-
leaders, formulating such found confusing. Students text and to determine the key pate by suggesting changes
questions causes them to discuss these troublesome ideas that should be included to the predictions or by
think about what the impor- places and use information in a summary. Members of proposing new predictions.
tant ideas in the text were. in the text and their own the group also must evaluate Students use their predictions
Answering such questions knowledge to clear up the significance of ideas. They to prepare themselves to read
causes all students in the confusing points or difficult respond by suggesting addi- the next segment of text.
group to review what they terms or concepts. tions or alterations to the
have learned and to look back summary that the leader has
to find answers to what they proposed.
do not know.
Modeling
Modeling is the process of demonstrating a thinking process. To model, the
teacher usually first reads aloud a segment of text as students follow along in
their books. Then, in everyday language, the teacher reasons aloud. The pur-
pose of modeling is for students to understand the steps that readers follow to
solve a reading problem or to analyze a text. The goal is to have students apply
similar reasoning procedures during their own reading processes. The following
is an example of modeling that a teacher might use to demonstrate how using
context clues helps the reader to understand an unfamiliar word.
Professional Notes 1
Modeling I wonder what the word vacant means. From the first sentence
in the passage we have just read, it seems that vacant is a kind of seat on
a bus. The narrator goes on to say that she “took” the vacant seat. To take
a seat means “to sit down.” The narrator would most likely sit only in an
empty seat. So vacant probably means “empty.” Just to be sure, I’ll read a
little further. The second sentence shows the narrator’s surprise that people
were standing even though there was a vacant seat. In other words, people
should sit when there are vacant seats. This confirms that vacant means
“empty,” and a vacant seat must be an empty seat.
To complete the modeling cycle, individual students are asked to think aloud,
demonstrating their own thinking processes as they employ the reading strategy
or skill. Reasoning aloud makes students more aware of what they actually do
as they read. Listening to a student think aloud shows the teacher how the
student’s abilities are developing and where the student needs support and
guidance in applying the strategy (Duffy, Roehler, Herrmann, 1988).
Recognizing Text Structures

Noticing the way ideas are organized in a piece of writing helps students anticipate
the types of ideas they will encounter and prepares them to comprehend the
text, whether the text is narrative or expository.
In fictional narratives, readers can identify with characters and situations. A
human-interest connection potentially exists between readers and the text.
While the concepts in expository writing can be equally interesting to stu-
dents, there are special challenges in comprehending the text. The writing
style, organization of ideas, and author’s objectives are among the differences
between narrative and expository writing.
N a r ra t i v e Wr i t i n g Narrative writing is writing that tells a story. The writing

piece can be fiction or nonfiction (as in a personal narrative or an autobiography).

As children hear and read narratives from their earliest home and school
experiences, they begin to internalize the structure of stories. They have certain
expectations of how stories will be presented and what they will include. For
example, they expect to find characters, a conflict, and action that resolves
the conflict. Expecting certain kinds of information helps prepare students to
comprehend the story.
This predictable story structure is called story grammar. Narrative stories are
typically structured to include the following:
• a beginning, a middle, and an end
• characters, setting, plot, and theme
• a conflict, a progression of events, and a resolution
• chronological order
E x p o s i t o r y Wr i t i n g Expository writing is nonfiction writing that explains,

informs, or persuades. Essays, articles, reports, and manuals are examples of
expository writing. Expository writing whose primary purpose is to provide
2 Professional Notes
specific or technical information about a topic or event is sometimes called
informational text. The most crucial informational text that students will
encounter is found in content-area textbooks, such as science, social studies,
and math textbooks. Examples of other kinds of informational texts are Web
site resources, reports, proposals, brochures, policy statements, manuals, and
sets of instructions.
Exploring Expository Texts

Unlike narratives, which usually fit a story-grammar structure, the organization
of ideas in expository writing may fit one of several text structures. Teaching
students to recognize the text structure will help prepare them for reading and
comprehending the text (Armbruster, Anderson, and Ostertag, 1989).
The most common text structures are time order, compare-contrast, descrip-
tion, cause-effect, and problem-solution. While an expository selection may
make use of a variety of text structures, almost always one overriding text
structure applies to the whole piece of writing. For example, an author may
compare and contrast two ideas in an essay with an overall cause-and-effect
text structure.
Sometimes signal words help the reader determine the text structure. The fol-
lowing chart defines the text structures and lists examples of signal words that
apply to each.
Text Structure Signal Words
time order
Text is structured in chronological or step-by-step order. on, before, during, after, first, last, now, when, then, next, finally
compare-contrast
Text is structured to show likenesses and differences. in contrast to, in comparison with, on the other hand, similarly, both,
like, unlike, different, too, not only
description
Text is structured to give qualities or characteristics of a for example, characteristics of, a feature of, such as
subject; description causes readers to form mental Details in spatial order: above, near, beside, in front of
pictures based on details in the text. Details in order of importance: first, most important
cause-effect
Text is structured to explain outcomes caused by various because, as a result, as a consequence, the effect was, since, due to,
situations. therefore, thus
problem-solution
Text is structured to present a problem and then show one because, if/then, as a result, therefore
or more solutions.
As students read expository text, they can use various graphic organizers—
concept webs and organizers for compare/contrast, cause-effect, problem-solution,
and sequence—to help them deconstruct and analyze a text’s structure. These
graphic organizers not only teach students to expect certain types of ideas and
organizations in various types of text but also serve as a way to increase
retention of what has been read. They can provide a kind of map or outline
that can be used for reviewing the selection.
Some expository texts are easier to comprehend than others, not because the
concept load is lighter but simply because the organization is clear and the
flow of ideas is cohesive. Such text is called considerate text.
Considerate Te x t Considerate text is “text that facilitates understanding,
learning, and remembering” (Armbruster and Anderson, 1985). Such text is
well organized overall, and it is well organized within paragraphs and sentences.
Ideas are developed logically, and connective words and phrases (such as howev-
er, and, thus, and as a result) are embedded to help the reader understand the
relationship between ideas. Examples of characteristics that might be found in
considerate text are clearly stated main ideas, specialized vocabulary defined at
the point of use, and unified paragraphs that do not contain extraneous ideas.
Introductions as well as summaries that pull together main ideas also help make
a text “considerate.”
Te x t Features Text features can also contribute to considerate text.
Text Features
• Headings and subheadings reveal the hierarchy of ideas in a segment of text.

• Boldfaced type points out key vocabulary and concepts.
• Footnotes and captioned illustrations and graphics clarify concepts.
• A logical layout highlights the author’s progression of ideas.
Text that does not contain the above named features can be difficult to
navigate and comprehend. Such text is called “inconsiderate text.”
Skills and Strategies for Reading Expository Texts

While all the active reading strategies listed on pages 20–23 are important for
reading both narrative and expository texts, several strategies are especially
helpful for exploring expository writing. Among them are the skills and strate-
gies listed below:

Suggested Strategies for Before Reading
• Previewing
1. Have students preview the text’s structure. Noticing the organization of
ideas will prepare them for the types of information they will receive.
2. Have students preview the concepts in the text by looking over the text
features such as headings and subheadings, charted information, illustra-
tions, captions, and graphics (charts, maps, graphs).
3. Have students preview boldfaced terms and footnotes to become familiar
with the specialized vocabulary.
• Activating Prior Knowledge and Building Background

Prepare students to take in new knowledge by helping them bring to mind
what they already know. Use the key concepts and boldfaced terms in the
text to frame general questions that get students thinking about the topic
and sharing ideas. Then bolster their background knowledge by providing
specific information that will enhance their understanding of the subject
they will explore.
• Setting a Purpose for Reading

Have students set a purpose for reading. For example, if a heading in the
text is What Happened to the Dinosaurs? have them decide on something
they would like to know related to this topic, such as Could what happened
to the dinosaurs happen again in modern times?
Suggested Strategies for During Reading

• Varying Reading Rate
Teach students to adjust their reading rate. They need to slow down when
they encounter difficult concepts, connections to previous ideas, new vocab-
ulary, or text that contains a great deal of information.
• Monitoring Comprehension
Students should be aware of their own reading process and notice when they
have missed something. They can monitor comprehension by questioning
themselves as they read. If they do not understand an important idea, they
need to reread, review, or read on to clarify what is unclear.
• Identifying Main Ideas

Students should identify main ideas as they read. Text features—such as
headings, subheadings, boldfaced terms, and graphics—are good indicators
of main or key ideas.
• Tracking Information
Students can make sure they are processing the key ideas in their text by
listing these ideas as they read. They may make an actual list of ideas, create
an outline, or write a series of notes. Another technique is to list main ideas
on a graphic organizer that addresses the overall text structure of the exposi-
tory piece. A Venn diagram, problem-solution chart, concept web, or cause-
effect chart can also be effective ways of listing main ideas and organizing
them so they will aid comprehension and retention.
Suggested Stra t e g i e s f o r After Reading

• Reviewing
Students can use their lists, outlines, notes, graphic organizers, or the text
features in the text itself to review the critical ideas in what they have read.
Through discussion, students can retell, analyze, and evaluate ideas to
process and retain what they have read. Summarizing is another effective
means of pulling together key ideas.
Effective Classroom Procedures
Reading Arrangements
Classroom reading arrangements provide varying degrees of support and guidance
to struggling readers. For example, reading with partners allows students to have
one-on-one assistance. Participating in choral reading allows students to gain
confidence as they take part in a group reading activity. Students might:
• read aloud to partners who can help with difficult words;
• read silently with partners, having partners “on-call” to help with difficult
places in the text;
• read silently to themselves;
• take turns reading aloud in small groups;
• follow along in their books as the teacher, a volunteer, or a designated group
of students reads or as they listen to a taped reading;
• take turns reading in a whole-class activity;
• participate in choral reading to present a portion of text.
Independent Reading
While students will be experiencing literature through reading at school, they
should also be encouraged to participate in independent reading. Following are
some suggestions to encourage independent reading.
• Set up a classroom library of books of special interest to your students. You
might poll your students to create an inventory of books on subjects that are
of interest to them.
• Assign time in the library for groups or individuals. Encourage students to
learn more about subject areas related to the reading selection, or have them
explore additional books by an author.
• Establish in-class discussion groups (literature groups) where students work

together to focus on topics connected to the literature they are reading.
• Assign independent reading of at least thirty minutes a day, to be done
outside of class.
• Have students create products to express what they have learned, noticed, or
enjoyed. They can present their products to the class, in small groups, or to
partners. Students may organize a classroom display of their work. These
products may include
• reports • demonstrations
• posters • multigenre writing
• collages • multimedia presentations
• videos
• Encourage parents to listen to their students read at home. Via newsletters,
suggest that parents read aloud with their students from the literature
selections. Encourage parents to call attention to items in newspapers and
magazines that are of special interest to the family and to read these articles
with their students.
Teaching Word Analysis
Decoding and Encoding
Phonemic awareness is the awareness of the distinct sounds of language.
Decoding is using the knowledge of sounds, and the letters and letter group-
ings that represent those sounds, to pronounce a word. When students decode,
they read printed words by calling to mind the sounds associated with letters.
They then blend these sounds together to say the word. Encoding is using
the knowledge of the correspondence of sounds and letters to spell words.
Phonics and multisyllabic word attack strategies make students aware of
predictable connections between sounds and letters. By knowing the sounds
to associate with various letters and letter patterns, students have the tools to
attack a word they do not know. They know how to sound out a word, where
feasible. They know how to break a larger word into syllables and morphemic
units and apply their knowledge of sound-letter correspondence to figure out
how to say each word part. By saying the word using the correctly associated
sounds, they may recognize the word and find that they already know its
meaning.
Most middle school students should have had phonics instruction when they
first learned to read, but there may be gaps in their skills. Some students may
be reading-delayed for a variety of reasons.
For strategic intervention for students who have gaps in their skills, set aside
a period of time each day to review multisyllabic, morphemic, and complex
phonic elements. You might begin with reviewing the sounds of individual
consonants and the short vowels in one-syllable words. Progress gradually into
more complex phonics skills, such as identifying the syllables in a word and
recognizing special spelling patterns. The letter-sound correspondences, letter
patterns, and sample words in this section can help you prepare phonics les-
sons for your students.
There are many ways to teach phonics and word attack strategies and to
progress through phonics skills. The chart below presents a logical progression
through phonics skills.
1. Initial Consonants 7. Phonograms
2. Final Consonants 8. Vowel Digraphs
3. Short Vowels 9. Vowel Diphthongs
4. Long Vowels 10. R-Controlled Vowels
5. Consonant Blends 11. Silent Letters
6. Consonant Digraphs 12. Syllabication and Morphemic Units
Strategies for Teaching and Reinforcing Phonic Elements
1. Write the letter or letters for the sound you are targeting on the board. Say
the sound associated with the letters and have students repeat the sound
to you.
2. Write on the board several example words that contain the sound-spelling
you are teaching. For each word, review the phonemes, or sounds, in the
word and then model blending the new sound with the other sounds in the
word. Have students repeat the blending procedure for each word with you.
Finally, say each word as you point to it on the board and have students
read each word back to you.
3. Dictate several additional words with the sound-spelling you are targeting.
Have students write these words. Ask individuals to read back the words
they have written.
4. Have one student, or several students simultaneously, write the words on
the board. Discuss the students’ spelling of these words and have them
make corrections as needed.
5. Reinforce the sound-spelling through various reading, writing, or speaking
activities, such as those suggested below.
A c t i v i t i e s t o R e i n f o r c e Wo r d A n a l y s i s
• Have students find words with the targeted sound-spelling combination in a
paragraph or segment of their literature selection; students should read these
words aloud to a partner or within a group.
• Have students generate a list of words based on the example words and the
sound-spelling correspondence taught; have them discuss these words in a
group.
• Have students in a group discuss and sort words that have the specific sound-
spelling you are targeting from a mix of words.
• Have students make flashcards of words that teach the appropriate phonics
principle; have partners quiz each other on the words.
• Have small groups create cloze sentences that should be completed with words

containing the targeted phonics elements. For example, if you are reviewing the
gr blend, students might construct the following cloze sentence: Everyone had a
gr____________ time at the party. After your review, groups may present their
sentences to other groups for completion.
• Have students write sentences, paragraphs, poems, or riddles that make use of
words that illustrate a particular phonics element.
• Have students syllabicate words on word cards. Then have them sort the word
cards and identify the syllabication rule that applies to each group of words.
• Have students break away the prefixes and suffixes from each base word or root
on a list of prefixed and suffixed words. Have students suggest to their partners
what each word means, using their knowledge of the meanings of the base word
or root, the suffixes, and the prefixes. Then have partners reconstruct the word
and pronounce it.
Glossary of Reading
Consonants
Consonant Blends Consonant groupings in which each letter retains its own sound
Initial Consonant Blends
blends with r blends with l blends with s 3-letter blends
/br/ spelled br /bl/ spelled bl /sk/ spelled sc /skr/ spelled scr

brown blue scoot scramble
/kr/ spelled cr /kl/ spelled cl /sk/ spelled sk /skw/ spelled squ

cry clown skim squirm
/dr/ spelled dr /fl/ spelled fl /sm/ spelled sm /spl/ spelled spl

drip fly small splint
/fr/ spelled fr /gl/ spelled gl /sn/ spelled sn /spr/ spelled spr

frills glad snow spray
/gr/ spelled gr /pl/ spelled pl /sp/ spelled sp /str/ spelled str

grin please spiral stripe
/pr/ spelled pr /sl/ spelled sl /st/ spelled st

proud slip start
/tr/ spelled tr /sw/ spelled sw

try swim
Final Consonant Blends

/kt/ spelled ct expect /mp/ spelled mp lamp
/ft/ spelled ft craft /nd/ spelled nd depend
/ld/ spelled ld child /nk/ spelled nk tank

/lf/ spelled lf shelf /nt/ spelled nt sent
/lk/ spelled lk silk /sk/ spelled sk risk
/lp/ spelled lp gulp /sp/ spelled sp clasp
/lt/ spelled lt wilt /st/ spelled st east
Consonant Digraphs Two consonants that together make one sound
/ch/ spelled ch chapter, chip, chomp, munch, chase, finch, chapped, ranch
/sh/ spelled sh shoelace, shore, shed, shade, refresh, flashlight, dashboard
/th/ spelled th thumb, thing, thunder, anthem, cloth, teeth, south, withhold
/TH/ spelled th that, than, bathed, this, there, father, wither, either, soothing
/hw/ spelled wh wheeze, whimper, wheel, whisker, white, whisper, whenever
/f/ spelled ph phone, photo, physician, alphabet, orphan, typhoon, graph
/ng/ spelled ng ring, opening, sung, clang, wrong, longer, kingdom, cling
Alternate Consonant Sounds The consonants c and g each have two possible
pronunciations.
/k/ spelled c cabin, captain, comma, cassette, collect, carry, second, because, rascal
/s/ spelled c cent, center, cedar, celery, ceremony, cellar, spice, prince, face, decide
/j/ spelled g gem, generous, gentle, gym, ginger, danger, genius, cage, bandage
/g/ spelled g goat, gain, get, golf, gasoline, beg, dog, fog, govern, lagoon, began
Silent Consonants Two consonants in which one consonant is not sounded, or

is silent.
/n/ spelled gn gnat, gnaw, gnome, gnash, gnarled
/n/ spelled kn knowledge, knot, knight, knob, kneepad, kneel, knuckle
/r/ spelled wr write, wrap, wrench, wrath, wrong, wrinkle, wrist
/r/ spelled rh rhino, rhapsody, rhubarb, rhyme, rhythm, rhombus
/m/ spelled mb dumb, comb, succumb, crumb, thumb, numb, limb
Vowels
Common Vowel Sounds Vowel sounds are often referred to as long and short.
_
/a / spelled a favor, acre, razor, radio, paper, pastry, stable, facial, hasty
_
/e / spelled e me, frequency, legal, decode, cedar, legion, femur, senior, sequence
_
/ i / spelled i wild, pirate, idea, rival, tiger, microphone, rind, pliers, silence
_
/o / spelled o over, old, proceeds, obedient, soda, romantic, notion, notice
_
/u/ spelled u unit, fugitive, utility, music, museum, humane, humidity, cuticle

__
/oo/ spelled u tuba, tuna, duty, plumage, tulip, rumor, judo, judicial
/a/ spelled a apple, tax, fact, van, sat, shadow, castle, gallery, habit, accident
/e/ spelled e send, stress, bed, self, lens, web, tennis, pencil, beggar, freckles
/i/ spelled i slip, thick, rim, lid, bin, lift, finish, gimmick, income, rinse, film
/o/ spelled o knot, drop, bottle, nod, job, ponder, otter, object, property, lobster
/u/ spelled u strung, tumble, club, rustle, mud, umbrella, ruffle, rustic, umpire
Vo w e l D i g raphs Pairs that make one sound
_
/a / spelled ai pail, retail, waist, drain, obtain, faint, waitress, afraid, daily, rainbow
_
/a / spelled ay say, fray, subway, essay, holiday, delay, display, repayment, mayor, layer
_
/e / spelled ee steep, reed, screen, needle, teeth, freeze, freedom, leeway, gleeful
_
/e / spelled ea cream, leaf, east, pleat, grease, clean, heap, cease, lease, leave, peach
_
/o / spelled oa oak, toaster, throat, coast, float, foam, toad, roast, goal, roam
_
/o / spelled ow grown, throw, stowaway, mow, snowy, shows, slow, yellow
Diphthongs A vowel sound that glides from one vowel sound to another in
the same syllable
/oi/ spelled oi oil, boil, coin, moist, turmoil, appoint, exploit, toil, disappointed, voice, poise
/oi/ spelled oy boy, joy, toy, annoy, voyage, loyal, employ, destroy, decoy, royal
/ow/ spelled ow down, towel, drowse, flower, powder, howling, frown, growl, crown
/ow/ spelled ou proud, sprout, noun, about, amount, slouch, doubt, vouch, round, blouse
R - Controlled Vo w e l s The unique sound of a vowel followed by the letter r
/är/ spelled ar cart, army, garment, tardy, harp, armor, partner, starch, garden
/ûr/ spelled er her, fern, herb, clerk, perk, germ, permanent, stern, herd, nerve
/ûr/ spelled ir girl, first, bird, third, shirt, squirt, flirt, thirsty, circle, birth, thirty
/ôr/ spelled or fort, story, report, orbit, ordinary, storm, orchestra, horn, sport
/ûr/ spelled ur burst, fur, duration, turn, curtsy, curb, curl, churn, furnish, turkey
Va r i a n t Vo w e l D i g raphs Two vowels that make a sound that is neither

long nor short
/oo/ spelled oo look, bookcase, cookie, crook, hook, footprint, took, understood, wooden
__
/oo/ spelled oo soon, gloomy, bloom, tooth, troop, boot, food, school, cartoon
/aw/ spelled au haunt, auto, August, launch, applaud, sauce, pauper, haul, faucet, fault
/aw/ spelled aw awful, awkward, hawk, draw, raw, yawn, claws, straw, crawl, dawn, pawn
Schwa The vowel sound often heard in an unstressed syllable
/ / spelled a ago, alone, caboose, final, fatigue

e
/ / spelled e shaken, item, frozen, eleven, legend

e
/ / spelled i family, quantity, prodigy, fascinate

e
/ / spelled o lemon, gallop, motor, today, opponent

e
/ / spelled u circus, lecture, support, lettuce, status

e
Word Families
A word family is also called a phonogram. A core group of ending letters is
used to make various words by simply changing the initial consonant or conso-
nants. Word families are useful for phonemic awareness activities using substi-
tution and blending. There are hundreds of word families. Ten common word
families are shown below.
at cat, rat, hat, sat, chat, flat, gnat, scat, bat, pat, slat
ack back, sack, tack, black, snack, track, flack, knack, back
ank bank, rank, tank, crank, flank, thank, sank, clank, drank
ay day, say, gray, play, sway, tray, way, may, bray, stray
ell bell, fell, sell, tell, quell, shell, smell, well, spell, dell
ick lick, sick, brick, click, flick, trick, slick, tick, quick
ight light, night, sight, tight, bright, flight, knight, plight, fight
ock dock, lock, rock, sock, block, clock, mock, flock, stock
op mop, top, chop, crop, drop, shop, stop, prop, flop, hop
ug bug, dug, hug, rug, tug, smug, snug, slug, mug, lug
Word Study
Homophones (Sound-Alikes) Homophones are words that sound the same but
have different meanings and usually different spellings.
bare (empty) base (foundation) sighs (exhalations)

bear (animal) bass (deep tone) size (amount)

Homographs (Lo o k - A l i kes) Homographs are words that are spelled the same
but have different meanings and different origins. Some homographs have
different pronunciations.
bill (tells money owed) wound (an injury) fan (admirer)

bill (beak) wound (turned tightly) fan (cooling device)
Synonyms Synonyms are words that have similar meanings.
bite, nibble, munch mistake, error, blunder run, dash, dart
A n t o n y m s Antonyms are words that have opposite or nearly opposite meanings.
correct—wrong busy—idle dim—bright
Compound Words A compound word is made up of distinct words.
classroom blackbird merry-go-round

underground sunrise sparrow hawk
Denot ation/Connot ation Denotation is a word’s dictionary definition.

Connotation is an unstated, often emotional, association connected to the word.
House and home are synonyms, but home has a warm, personal meaning that is
not stated in its dictionary definition.
My house is by the shore. My home is by the shore.
Syllabic ation A syllable is a spoken part of a word that contains a vowel

sound. Breaking a word in syllables helps students decode longer words by
sounding out each syllable.
Rule 1: When two consonants fall between two vowels, divide the syllables between the two
consonants. However, never separate a blend, cluster, or digraph.
VC/CV bat/ter in/dex
Rule 2: In words with two vowels separated by a consonant, divide the syllables before or
after the consonant. If you divide the syllables before the consonant, the first vowel
has the long sound. If you divide the syllables after the consonant, the first vowel has
the short sound.
V/CV spo/ken ba/con
VC/V com/ic sev/en
Rule 3: When a word ends with a consonant and an le, the consonant goes with le to form
the final syllable.
V/C le ca/ble sta/ple trou/ble
Rule 4: A prefix or a suffix (except for common word endings such as -ed) usually forms a
separate syllable.
Affixes prefix/base dis/charge
base/suffix joy/ous
Rule 5: Divide compound words between the distinct words.
Compound Words class/room blue/bird
Effective Vocabulary Instruction
Research tells us that general vocabulary knowledge is a critical component
in determining how well readers understand text (Anderson and Freebody,
1981). As students build both oral and print vocabulary knowledge, they
increase their comprehension skills and their ability to read strategically.
The strategies below provide techniques to develop students’ knowledge of
larger concepts as well as their understanding of individual words. The vocabu-
lary techniques provide both direct and indirect ways for students to interact
with words before, during, and after reading and encourage an ongoing curiosity
about language.
The key vocabulary terms provided in Glencoe social studies textbooks are
words and phrases critical for understanding a selection. They may also be
unfamiliar words that promise to be difficult. For struggling readers, it is espe-
cially useful to teach key vocabulary before students read. Activating prior
knowledge and building background for new vocabulary give students a hook
on which to hang what they learn. Reinforcement of key vocabulary during
and after reading offers students additional exposure to new words and con-
cepts as well as to known words used in new ways.
Strategies for Teaching Vocabulary

Because there is a clear connection between readers’ vocabulary knowledge
and their ability to understand what they read, vocabulary instruction is
essential to developing, strategic readers. Vocabulary learning is not a singular,
isolated activity. Rather, students build vocabulary through repeated encounters
with words in rich oral and written contexts (Nagy, 1988). Teachers who
encourage active classroom discussions, who read aloud to students and have
students read aloud, who encourage wide reading across content areas, and who
encourage students to use dictionaries and other word references to support
meaning and usage reinforce listening, speaking, writing, and reading vocabu-

lary skills. Each encounter with a word provides new clues to its meaning.
Students’ understandings of those meanings build and deepen over time. The
strategies here provide ways for teachers to offer students a variety of interactive
opportunities to become involved in the process of building vocabulary.
Using Context Clues Students can often determine the meaning of a word
they don’t know by using context—the words and sentences that surround the
unknown word. The following chart shows specific context clues for students
to use as they read.
Type of Context Clue Examples
Synonym Look for a synonym to the unknown word. You The waiting passengers were disconcerted to hear their bus would
can often find synonyms in context when two things are be late. The bus driver seemed the most upset of all.
compared.
The service at this restaurant is quick. Is the service at that restaurant
just as expeditious?
Antonym Look for an antonym to the unknown word. Yesterday Sam was despondent, but today he’s cheerful.
Antonyms appear in context most often when two things
Trudy showed up for the interview looking neat and tidy, but Tony
are contrasted.
showed up looking disheveled.
Definition Look for a phrase that defines or describes Mark is interested in herpetology—the study of snakes.
the unknown word. Commas, dashes, or parentheses
In hieroglyphics, the writing of ancient Egypt, picture symbols are
often surround a phrase that gives this type of clue.
used to represent ideas.
Example Look for examples that reveal the meaning of He can’t decide which one of the martial arts to study—karate, judo,
the unknown word. or tae kwon do.
Of all the marsupials, the kangaroo is probably the most familiar.
Using General Context Sometimes the context does not provide a specific clue
to the meaning of an unknown word; however, the general context contains
clues. Direct students to study the main idea of a passage to see if it unlocks
the meaning of an unknown word.
Examples
Since this was the boy’s first infraction of the rules, the principal let
him go with just a warning.
(infraction: breaking or violating something)
A bad storm caused the ship to deviate from its course. It landed
two hundred miles south of its intended destination.
(deviate: turn aside from an established course)
Female crocodiles guard their nests and fight any predator that
comes near.
(predator: animal that preys on other animals)
Techniques for Using Context to Determine Meaning

• Ask students to look before, at, and after the unknown word for a
context clue.
• Have students connect what they already know with what the author
has written.
• Have students predict a possible meaning.
• Have them apply the meaning in the sentence.
• Ask students if their meaning makes sense. If not, have them try again.
Using Word Parts (Structural Analysis)
Many words can be divided into parts: prefix, base word or root, and suffix.
Knowing the meanings of common word parts can help readers unlock the
meanings of unknown words.
Prefixes
A prefix is a word part that comes before a base word or a root and changes
the meaning of the word.
Prefix Meaning Examples
dis- opposite of disobey, displease, disown, dislike
re- back, again return, rewrite, redo, relive
pre- before prejudge, prepay, preview, preheat
in- not inactive, incorrect, inability, incomplete
non- without nonfat, nonstop, nonresident, nonvoter
Suffixes
A suffix is a word part that comes after a base word or a root. It may change
the meaning of the word or the way the word is used in a sentence.
Suffix Meaning Examples
-less without careless, powerless, fearless, hopeless
-ish like greenish, childish, smallish, foolish
-ful full of playful, thoughtful, joyful, helpful
-ist a person who biologist, artist, violinist, dentist
-ous full of joyous, nervous, spacious, curious

Roots
A root is the part of a word that contains its basic meaning. Unlike a base
word, a root is not a word by itself. Many roots come from Greek or Latin.
Root Meaning Examples
bio life biology, biography, biosphere
tele distant television, telescope, telegraph
dent tooth dentist, trident, indent
port carry porter, portable, transport
spec look spectacles, introspective, circumspect
Using Language Structure Clues
Look for passages that contain parallel structures—words arranged in similar
ways. Words that have parallel functions often contain clues to unknown words.
At the zoo, we saw a herd of zebras, a pride of lions, and a pack of wolves
in free-roaming environments.
(Herd, pride, and pack are all words for groups of animals.)
The permanent pueblos of the Southwestern Indians were much different
from the temporary igloos of the Eskimos or the tepees of the Plains Indians.
(Pueblos, igloos, and tepees are all words for Native American dwellings.)
Using Classifying and Categorizing Current research indicates that the brain is
a pattern detector (Caine and Caine, 1994). Students enjoy sorting and group-
ing items by similarities or separating items by differences. Word sorts—open
sorts (where students choose how to label categories) and closed sorts (where
teachers provide the categories)—offer opportunities for students to organize
ideas. Whenever students can see how words fit into a larger category, they
expand their vocabulary knowledge.
Using Word Maps Many teachers routinely use maps to explore and teach
vocabulary in the classroom. A map can be any kind of graphic that is designed
to show relationships between words or concepts. A commonly used word map
or concept web shows a central bubble containing a key word or idea. Bubbles
that surround the center bubble may be used to show semantic relationships or
to explain structure relationships.
Word Map
Word Map
T35
Using a Concept-Definition Map A concept-definition map (Schwartz and
Raphael, 1985) is a way to define a word visually. The top chart of the graphic
asks What is it? The next chart asks What is it like? The last chart of the graphic
asks What are some examples? Students use their prior knowledge about words
and concepts to complete the map. As a group activity, a concept-definition
map can be a powerful tool for building background.
Concept-Definition Map
What is it?
What is it like?
What are some examples?
T36 Concept Definition Map
Using a Semantic-Features Chart A semantic-features chart (Anders, Bos, and

Filip, 1982; Johnson, Toms-Bronowski, and Pittleman, 1982) is a way to help
students focus on the discriminating features of items in a group. A semantic-

features analysis asks students to complete a grid with marks to indicate a
positive (+), negative (–), or possible (?) correlation.
Animals Fur Feathers Four legs Two legs
cat + – + –
dog + – + –
canary – + – +
fish – – – –
seal ? – ? ?
Using Possible Sentences Possible Sentences (Beck and McKeown, 1983;

Moore and Moore, 1986) is a strategy that allows students to speculate about
word meanings. Especially useful for teaching selections dense with new
concepts or unfamiliar words, the activity requires teachers to choose about
ten key vocabulary terms and write them on the board. Teachers may con-
struct sentences using the words either correctly or incorrectly. They then ask
students to comment on whether the sentences are “possible.” As an alterna-
tive to providing sentences, teachers may ask that before reading a selection,
students construct approximately five sentences from the key terms, taking
educated guesses about unfamiliar words or phrases. As students encounter the
key vocabulary during reading, they note each term’s usage in the selection’s
context. After reading, students return to their possible sentences to discuss
meanings and to rewrite their own sentences as necessary.
Using Stor y Elements to Teach Voc abular y Fictional narratives and descrip-
tions of real events share many of the same elements. They contain characters,
settings, a problem or conflict, actions or events, and a resolution to the story’s
problem. They also contain a theme or message. These elements make up the
story’s structure. Students can use their anticipation of such structures and
their knowledge of other stories to categorize key vocabulary words under
story-element headings before they read (Blachowicz, 1986). Those categoriza-
tions then become students’ predictions for what might happen in a selection.
Conventional story maps also help students organize and remember fictional
works by asking them to use story structure to keep track of key elements
during reading.
Vocabulary Story Map

Characters Setting
Feeling Words Describing Words Action Words

Story Problem Words
Write one question you have about the story.
T38 Vocabulary Story Map
Teaching Active Reading Strategies
In the past, reading has been described as more of a skill than an active mental
process. We now know that reading is neither automatic nor passive. Reading
is a highly interactive process in which students construct meaning from text
(Anderson and Pearson, 1984). Readers do not passively receive an author’s
ideas.
No two students understand a selection exactly the same way, because each
brings a unique background and set of experiences to the task (Rosenblatt,
1978, 1994). Comprehension depends on those individual reader experiences.
It also depends on the characteristics of the written text, the learning context
that defines the reader’s task, and the strategies that are consciously applied by
the reader to construct meaning from printed words on a page.
We know that students learn what they are directly taught and what they have
an opportunity to practice. The strategies and activities that appear on pages
44–91 of this book provide carefully scaffolded unified lessons that develop stu-
dents’ strategic reading behaviors. Through explicit instruction, teachers model
the most effective reading strategies and provide opportunities for students to
practice and eventually internalize the behaviors of effective readers.
Strategies are carefully thought out plans that readers use adaptively to make
sense of what they read. The strategies that follow help students develop
interactive reading behaviors that build comprehension of all types of text.
Previewing
When students preview or look over a selection before they read, they begin
to activate what they already know. They also begin to see what they will
need to know to make sense of the text. As students look at the title, illustra-
tions, headings, picture captions, and graphics, teachers can guide students to
offer what they already know about a specific topic or about the author, genre,
or ideas in the text. As students formulate questions about the text they are

previewing, they can predict the selection’s content and thereby set a purpose
for reading.
Activating Prior Knowledge

By collectively discussing what students already know about a topic, teachers
can capitalize on opportunities to build background where student knowledge
is weak. They can also offer students a chance to learn from the prior knowl-
edge of others. Most important, they actively cultivate the cognitive soil where
future knowledge can be planted. What students learn from the selection they
read is most effectively attached to what they already know. Using a KWL
graphic organizer (Ogle, 1986) helps students activate what they know,
encourages them to generate questions about what they will read, and helps
them record and review what they learn. Elaborated KWLH organizers (Carr
and Ogle, 1987) invite students to consider questions for further research and
to specify where information will be found and how it will be organized.
KWL Chart
Topic:
K - What I Already Know

From Experience From Previewing
W - What I Want to Learn
L - What I Learned
What I Want to Know More About How I Will Learn More
T40 KWL Chart
Predicting
One excellent way for readers to interact with text is to make an informed
guess about what they will read. When students make predictions, they use
their prior knowledge and the information they gather from previewing to
create an expectation for what they will read. This expectation then provides
a purpose for their reading and generates interest in the selection. As students
read, they adjust or change their predictions on the basis of new information
they encounter in the text, or they confirm that their prediction was accurate.
In both instances, using the text to inform their predictions is essential.
Questioning
Several types of questioning are important in reading strategically. Students
need to ask general questions about the text before, during, and after they
read. They also need to question their own understanding of the content as
they read—that is, they need to conduct a running dialogue with themselves as
part of the metacognitive process of thinking about their own thinking. This
metacognitive process will naturally lead students to ask specific questions to
clarify text. Finally, students need to ask themselves questions about what
information is most important in a selection and about what concepts or
information teachers will require them to know.
Monitoring Comprehension
Research suggests that the most efficient readers have mental conversations
with themselves as they read (Dickson et al., 1998). They notice when some-
thing does not make sense, and they apply fix-up strategies appropriate to the
selection organization and to their own learning styles. Often good readers
accept a certain amount of ambiguity in the text and forge ahead, looking for
ways to clarify ideas as they read further. They may also decide to stop, reread
a particular section, or adjust their reading rates. Students need to internalize
a variety of fix-up strategies and to be able to use the strategies flexibly,
depending on their own learning preferences, the structure of the text, or the
demands of the reading task.
Visualizing
One of the most powerful aids to comprehension, especially for younger read-
ers, is visualizing (Pressley, 1977). Effective readers form mental pictures based
on a writer’s descriptions and on their own prior experiences. These mental
pictures help students understand what they read and increase their ability to
recall the information for later use. Visualizing is helpful for both expository
texts and descriptive fiction. Picturing the steps in a process is as powerful an
aid to comprehension as is picturing the descriptive details about characters or
setting in a short story. Students often enjoy sketching what they see in their
mind’s eye as teachers read aloud.
Interpreting
More than just understanding and remembering the actual events in a story or
the information in a textbook, students need to use higher-level thinking skills
to attach meaning to events or to information. When students interpret, they
construct meaning from their own understandings about the world and about
the text.
Analyzing
When students look critically at the separate parts of a selection to under-
stand the entire selection, they are analyzing. For example, students may break
apart a story to look at character, setting, plot, and theme to understand the
story as a whole. They may bring in outside information about the author to

help with their analyses. In a nonfiction selection, students analyze the causes
and effects of volcanoes to understand a selection on the eruption of Mount
Saint Helens. Whenever students use the organizational pattern of a piece of
writing to help determine the main ideas and the author’s message, they are
analyzing text structure.
Connecting
Students who actively connect what they read to events in their own lives as
well as to other selections they have read establish a conduit for constructing
meaning in text. By connecting ideas, emotions, and events to themselves,
students also increase their enjoyment of a selection and increase their abilities
to comprehend and recall information and ideas.
Responding
When students offer personal responses as they read, they are interacting with
a text in an important way. Teachers can help students become engaged in a
selection by asking questions about what students like, what they don’t like,
what surprises them, and how they feel about characters in a story or ideas in a
nonfiction selection.
Reviewing
As students read, teachers should pause at various points to review. Periodic
review is especially important when students read informational text dense
with new concepts. Reading guides help students negotiate their way through
difficult text and keep struggling readers on task. These guides are also helpful
models to use when reviewing a selection. Outlines, charts, graphic organizers,
and other visual aids help students organize information as they read and are
also valuable aids for reviewing information after reading.
Evaluating
As students have access to increasingly larger amounts of print materials,
including a variety of electronic resources, they need to be able to evaluate
what they read. Evaluating requires making a judgment or forming an opinion.
For example, students evaluate when they form an opinion about characters in
a story. They evaluate when they judge a writer’s ability to use compelling
description. They also evaluate expository texts—newspapers, editorials, adver-
tisements, and essays—when they distinguish between fact and opinion. To
evaluate whether information is reliable, students should pose questions such
as Is the author qualified to write on this subject? Is the point of view biased? Is there
another point of view not expressed here? Are opinions backed up with facts, statis-
tics, and examples?
Teaching Reading and Thinking Skills
Effective readers use the strategies described above to maneuver meaningfully
through text. They apply these strategies flexibly and internalize good reading
behaviors so that those behaviors become automatic. To become independent
readers, however, students also need to acquire the reading and thinking skills
built around and supported by those strategies. Teachers need to teach critical
reading and thinking skills and to explain why those skills are important.
Teachers also need to know when and how to teach the skills.
Identifying Main Idea and Supporting Details

Trying to find the main idea of a passage is a difficult task—it requires the critical
thinking skill of distinguishing between what is important and what is secondary.
Determining supporting details means locating the ideas or examples that extend
the main idea or give additional information. Essentially readers determine an
author’s purpose when they find main ideas in a selection. To do that, students
need to use information about how a particular text is structured (cause and
effect, compare and contrast, problem and solution, chronological order) and
combine that information with what they know about a topic, idea, or author.
Teachers can help guide students to determine what is important in a selection by
modeling their own thought processes and by discussing how to use text structure
to locate main ideas. Students should be reminded that the main idea of a para-
graph is often found in the topic sentence; however, they will sometimes need to
infer the main idea of a paragraph by using prior knowledge and the information
presented in the paragraph.
Teaching students to find main ideas and supporting details is helpful during
and after reading. It helps students prepare to summarize. By activating prior
knowledge and previewing text before reading, students learn to anticipate
what main ideas they will find.
Details
+
Main
Idea
Main Idea/Details Chart T41
Techniques for Determining Main Ideas and Supporting Details

• Ask students to share prior knowledge about an author or a topic.
• Guide students to anticipate what might be important in a selection.
• Look at the text structure of a selection to see how the author organizes
ideas in a selection, for example, cause and effect, compare and contrast,
or chronological order.
• Invite students to read one paragraph of text and ask questions such as
What one idea are all the sentences in this paragraph about? How does that
idea fit in with what I know about this topic? About this author? About how
this selection is organized? What sentences add information to the most

important idea?
• Remind students to look for headings, captions, illustrations, and other
text features to help them determine main ideas in a selection.
Summarizing
Summarizing is a critical reading and thinking skill. To summarize, students
need to be able to determine the most important ideas in a selection and then
restate those ideas in their own words and in a logical sequence.
Summarizing teaches students to reduce information and allows them to
rethink what they have read. As students summarize, they learn material more
deeply and can more easily retrieve what they have learned for subsequent
academic tasks.
Summarizing is a skill that can be used flexibly both as an oral and written
activity. Students can summarize as often as necessary to monitor their under-
standing of a selection. Teachers should encourage students to summarize more
frequently when text material is difficult.
Techniques for Summarizing

• Ask students What is this passage about?
• Invite students to begin their summaries by answering who, what, where,
when, why, and how?
• Remind students that only main ideas should be included in a summary
but that all the main ideas should be included.
• To determine if students have included all main ideas, ask: Can your
summary be easily understood by someone who has not read the selection?
• To help students determine if they have included unnecessary informa-
tion, ask: If this information were excluded, would your summary still sound
complete?
Making Inferences
Making inferences requires that students use their reason and their experience
to take educated guesses about what an author implies or suggests. Because
writers often do not directly state what they want readers to know, making
inferences is essential to constructing meaning in a selection.
Selections that encourage character analysis or that suggest a theme for discus-
sion provide good opportunities for students to learn to make inferences.
Techniques for Making Inferences

• Guide students to look for text clues. Encourage them to notice descrip-

tions, dialogue, events, or relationships that might signal information a
writer is suggesting.
• Ask students to think about what they already know–either from prior
text clues or from their own experiences.
• As students read, ask questions that require them to think beyond the
literal events of a selection.
• Model your own process of inferring when you read aloud.
Drawing Conclusions
A conclusion is a general statement that can be made and explained with
reasoning or with supporting details. Drawing conclusions is part of the process
of inferring. For example, if students read three separate selections about tor-
nadoes—a fictional story about a boy who loses his family in a tornado, an
informational selection about how weather forecasters chart wind speeds and
directional paths of tornadoes, and an autobiographical piece by someone who
survived a terrible tornado—they may conclude that tornadoes are monumen-
tal forces of nature that can inflict unimaginable damage. Students may draw
conclusions about character traits of people in stories based on events and
dialogue within a selection.
Drawing conclusions helps students see connections between ideas and
events as they read and is useful both in constructing meaning in fiction and
nonfiction and in analyzing and interpreting ideas.
Techniques for Drawing Conclusions

• Ask students to notice specific details about characters, ideas, and
information as they read.
• Invite students to use the information they have and their own prior
knowledge to think about a larger or more general statement that might
be made.
• Caution students not to overgeneralize and not to draw unsound
conclusions based on insufficient or inaccurate information.
Understanding Sequence
The order in which thoughts are arranged is called sequence. A good sequence
is logical. When writers present the steps in a scientific process or provide
technical directions for operating machinery, they follow a logical sequence.
Cookbooks rely on a specific sequence to help readers follow a recipe. Some
writers choose to arrange their ideas by order of importance, placing the most
important idea either first or last. In narrative writing, chronological, or time,
order is used most often.
If a written sequence is either illogical or incomplete, readers may fail to com-
plete an important task, follow a complicated thought process, or understand
events as they occur.
One of the best ways for teachers to help students recognize sequence in a selec-
tion is to teach them to look for signal words, transitional words and phrases
that indicate chronological order, steps in a process, or order of importance.
Techniques for Identifying Sequence

• Have students preview the selection. Does the author intend to tell a
story? To explain how something works? To present information?
• Ask students to consider what sequence might be most logical given the
writer’s purpose.
• Direct students to look for clues, or signal words, to help them determine
sequence.
• Have students restate the sequence in their own words.
Sequence Signal Words
Chronological order first, second, next, then, earlier, later, eventually,

finally, last, earlier, later
Steps in a process first, then, add, proceed, finally
Order of importance most important, least important, most significant,

the chief reason, most meaningful
Determining Fact and Opinion

A fact is a statement that can be proved or tested. An opinion, on the other
hand, is a statement of belief that cannot be proved. Writers, though, can
often lend validity to their opinions by gathering support from experts and by
supporting opinions with facts.
The ability to distinguish fact from opinion has never been more important
than it is today. Internet sites and other online resources provide a vast
amount of information that is not always accurate. Whenever students read
expository texts, they need to determine whether they are reading fact or
opinion.
Techniques for Determining Fact and Opinion

• Ask students what information is presented.
• Have students determine the source or sources of the information. How
is the information supported? Can it be proved? How reliable are sources
used to prove statements?
• Is the author or source of information qualified to speak with authority?
What are his or her credentials?
• Invite students to evaluate the motivation of the writer. Sometimes writers

slant information to convince readers to agree with them.
Analyzing Cause-and-Effect Relationships
A cause is an action or event that makes something happen; an effect is the
result of that action or event. A single cause (for example, a tornado) can pro-
duce multiple effects. Similarly, a single effect (for example, a war) may have
several causes. Writers use clue words to indicate cause-and-effect relationships.
Students who can determine why something occurred and what happened as
a result can more clearly see relationships that will allow them to interpret,
analyze, and evaluate ideas in a selection.
Cause and Effect/Problem and Solution
Cause and Effect/Problem and Solution Chart T43

Techniques for Analyzing Cause-and-Effect Relationships

• To help students find the cause in a passage, ask the question Why?
• To help students find the effect, ask the question What is the result?
• Ask students to look for clue words that signal cause-and-effect relation-
ships, such as because, since, as a result, so, the reason that, and consequently.
• Caution students that just because one event precedes another, causality
is not necessarily established.
Comparing and Contrasting
Students who are able to see similarities and differences in events, people, and
ideas in text are better able to construct meaning from a selection. Comparing
means to look at the ways items, people, or ideas are similar. Contrasting
means to look at the ways things or people are different.
When writers compare items, they frequently use signal words such as both,
same, alike, like, also, and similarly to provide clues.
Signal words such as unlike, but, although, yet, however, on the other hand, instead,
and even though provide clues to contrasting items.
Writers may juxtapose two dissimilar characters or ideas to make each more
distinct. They may also compare an unfamiliar person or idea with someone or
something familiar to help students understand and interpret what they read.
T44
Venn Diagram
Both
Venn Diagram

Techniques for Comparing and Contrasting
• Ask students to look carefully at the descriptions and other details an
author includes in a selection.
• Have them look for clue words that signal that the author is comparing
or contrasting items.
• Invite students to think about why a writer might compare or contrast
things or people. Is there a larger purpose or idea an author may wish to
convey?
• Tell students that sometimes there are no signal words to indicate
comparison or contrast. Students must use descriptive details in those
instances to infer similarities or differences between items.
Analyzing Problem and Solution
In both fiction and nonfiction, readers often need to identify a particular
problem and its solution. Certainly story grammar is organized around a problem,
or conflict, known as the plot and a series of events that lead to a solution, or
resolution. Informational texts and other expository materials may also ask
readers to reflect on a problem or challenge. Sometimes writers provide solu-
tions they think are logical and appropriate, and sometimes they ask readers
to consider what steps or actions might work to solve a particular problem.
Helping students identify and analyze a problem in a selection enables them

to see the complexity of an issue or an idea that a writer presents. Asking
them to define, evaluate, or even determine a solution to a given problem
gives students practice in thinking logically and systematically.
Techniques for Analyzing Problem and Solution

• Ask students to identify through their reading the main problem in a
passage or selection.
• Ask students how that problem is defined. Does a person in a story have
the problem? Is the problem part of an academic task (such as a math
problem) or the beginning of the explanation of a process (such as a
science experiment)?
• What logical steps or actions may be taken to solve the problem?
Are possible or partial solutions presented? If so, what are they?
• What happens as a result of the steps or actions taken?
• What other actions may be taken to provide a more permanent solution?
• Ask students to evaluate why a solution did or did not work. How might
they have solved the problem differently?
Reproducible Graphic Organizers

To enhance your teaching of reading skills and strategies, see the reproducible
graphic organizers that follow.
Word Map
Word Map 33
Concept-Definition Map
What is it?
What is it like?
What are some examples?
34 Concept-Definition Map
Semantic-Feature Analysis Grid
Semantic Feature Analysis Grid

res
atu
Fe
Category
35
Vocabulary Story Map
Characters Setting
Feeling Words Describing Words Action Words
Story Problem Words
Write one question you have about the story.
36 Vocabulary Story Map

Story Map
Title:
Setting:
Characters:
Problem:
Event 1
Event 2
Event 3
Event 4
Event 5
Solution:
Theme:
Story Map 37
KWL Chart
Topic:
K - What I Already Know

From Experience From Previewing
W - What I Want to Learn
L - What I Learned
What I Want to Know More About How I Will Learn More
38 KWL Chart
Details
+
Main
Idea
Main Idea/Details Chart 39

40
Sequence Chart
Sequence Chart
Cause and Effect/Problem and Solution
Cause and Effect/Problem and Solution Chart 41

42
Venn Diagram
Both
Venn Diagram
AND
ACTIVITIES
STRATEGIES
43
PREVIEWING THE TEXT
Teaching Strategy 1
OBJECTIVES
• To preview a sample reading passage
• To preview a lesson from a social studies textbook
WHY IS THIS SKILL IMPORTANT? Assign Activity 1 for students to complete

independently. After students finish, have
Previewing text provides a systematic them tell what lesson they chose and then
process for helping students to identify the share their answers to the preview ques-
topics and concepts they are likely to tions. If several students chose the same
encounter as they read. Previewing helps lesson, have them compare and contrast
students focus their attention. It can also their answers. Help students to under-
prompt students to recall prior knowledge stand that a preview can help them begin
and to establish purposes for reading. In to think about topics and ideas, and that
addition, students who build strong pre- as they read they will learn more.
viewing strategies will be able to apply
similar strategies as they review and study
their reading.
TEACHING THE SKILL
To introduce the process, work with stu-

dents to preview the features and contents
of their social studies book or another text-
book. Draw attention to the book’s title
and ask students to tell what general topic
they would expect to find there. Tell stu-
dents to turn to the table of contents and
together read the chapter titles. Ask stu- EL ACTIVITY Previewing vocabulary

dents to tell which chapters cover specific is especially important for English
topics. Point out special features in the Learners since unfamiliar language can
book, such as the glossary, atlas, and limit reading comprehension. As they
index. carry out the Applying the Skill activity,
have these students list the key vocabu-
Then have students look at a lesson. Guide lary terms and then find each word and
students to note specific text structures its definition in the glossary. Encourage
such as checkpoint questions, end-of-les- EL students to learn the meanings of
son summaries, graphic organizers, and unfamiliar terms each time they preview
any other features that students might find a new lesson.
helpful as they preview.
44
Name Date Class
ACTIVITY 1: Previewing the Text

Pre-Reading Strategy
When you go to an unfamiliar restaurant, what do you do? You probably start
with a quick look at the menu. You may read the headings that point to meal choices
or daily specials. You glance at the pictures. Finally, you settle in to read the details
before you order and enjoy your meal. Preparing to read nonfiction follows a similar
process. You take a look around the text before you dig in. Previewing text can help
you get comfortable with what lies ahead so that you will understand and enjoy
your reading more completely.
LEARNING THE SKILL
Previewing the text means browsing a passage before you start reading.
The purpose of previewing is to help you get a general idea of what you will be
reading. By knowing what to expect, you can be more aware of important
details and facts.
Directions: Follow these steps to preview nonfiction text.
1. Read the title of the unit, chapter, or lesson to learn the topic.
2. Read the headings and subheadings. What topics and ideas are named?
How is the text organized?
3. Scan the graphics. Notice the graphs, maps, photos, diagrams, and time
lines. Read the captions to see what information each shows.
4. Skim the opening paragraph to get a quick overview.
5. Look for text features that point out key words and concepts. Do check-
point questions focus your attention on main points? Are key words
shown in bold print or in color? Read the questions and preview the
vocabulary.
6. Use your own words to tell the topic and key ideas you expect to read
about.
Previewing the text means browsing a passage to get a general idea of what
you will be reading.
45
Name Date Class
ACTIVITY 1: Previewing the Text (continued)

PRACTICING THE SKILL
Directions: Preview this excerpt from a history textbook. Then answer the questions
that follow in the spaces provided.
The Eastern Woodlands

Almost all of the Native Americans groups—those who spoke Algonquian
in the Eastern Woodlands provided for (al•GAHN•kwee•UHN) languages
themselves by combining hunting and and those who spoke Iroquoian
fishing with farming. Deer were plenti- (IHR•uh•KWOY•uhn) languages. The
ful in the region, and deer meat regu- Algonquian-speaking peoples included
larly supplemented the corn, beans, most of the groups living in what later
and squash the people planted. Deer became known as New England.
hide was also used for clothing. Among these peoples were the
Wampanoag in Massachusetts, the
The Peoples of the Northeast Most
Narragansett in Rhode Island, and the
of the peoples of the Northeast were
Pequot in Connecticut.
divided into two major language
1. What is the topic of the passage?
2. What key words does the passage emphasize?
3. In which section of this passage would you expect to find information

about peoples living in what is today Connecticut?
4. If this passage included a map, what part of the world would it most
likely show?

APPLYING THE SKILL
Directions: Previewing Your Social Studies Text Choose a lesson in your social stud-
ies textbook. Follow the steps listed on page 45 to preview the text. Then answer the
questions below in the spaces provided.
1. What is the topic?
2. List two vocabulary words taught in the lesson.
3. Name three ideas, events, or topics that are discussed in the lesson.
46
MAKING PREDICTIONS AND SETTING PURPOSES
Teaching Strategy 2
OBJECTIVES
• To make predictions and set purposes for reading (based on a sample paragraph)
• To make predictions and set purposes for reading a social studies lesson
WHY IS THIS SKILL IMPORTANT? Some students may complain that their
only purpose for reading is because a par-
The point of making predictions and set- ticular text is assigned reading. Discuss
ting purposes is to engage readers more these concerns, but encourage students to
fully in noticing and remembering what establish their own purposes. Have stu-
they read. Reading is an active process dents think about why the teacher or oth-
that involves a give-and-take between ers might consider a particular lesson to be
readers and text. The more active the read- important. Urge students to identify key
er, the more he or she gains. Even when concepts or questions the text is likely to
reading assigned text, students should be address. Prompt students to think of at
encouraged to establish their own purpos- least one reason why a selection might
es for reading. interest them.
Assign Activity 2 for students to complete
independently. After students finish, dis-
cuss the sample passage and have stu-
dents share their answers to the questions.
TEACHING THE SKILL
Model the strategies for making predic-

tions and setting reading goals. Have stu-
dents join you in looking at a page from a
social studies book or other textbook.
Verbally preview the page with students.
To do this, draw a web diagram on the
board, listing the main topic as the hub of
the web. Ask students to call out words or EL ACTIVITY The lack of back-
phrases that relate to the topic and to ground knowledge can adversely
briefly tell how their ideas relate to the impact English Learners, particularly
topic. Based on students’ prior knowledge in social studies. Suggest that some
and the web, have students tell what they students acquiring English may want
predict the text might discuss. Then have to pre-read the lesson to compensate
students identify questions they hope the for a lack of familiarity with the subject.
text might answer. Record their ideas on Then have these students use what they
the board. Conclude by asking students to learned by pre-reading as the basis for
share how they might read the passage to making predictions and establishing
best answer their questions and learn reading purposes.
about the ideas they expect to find there.
47
Name Date Class
ACTIVITY 2: Making Predictions and Setting Purposes

Good readers think about a text before they begin to read. They form ideas about
what to expect. They identify what they want to find out and why they need to find
it. Sometimes a reader’s goal is narrowly focused, such as to answer a specific ques-
tion. Other times the goal is broader, such as to learn new concepts and facts. In
either case, knowing what, why, and how you want to read a text can help you
boost your understanding and memory of what you read.
LEARNING THE SKILL
Making predictions about text means stating what you expect to find as
you read. Then as you read, you can compare your findings against your
expectations. Setting purposes means identifying goals for what you want
to get from a passage and why you want that knowledge. You can use your
predictions and goals to help you determine how best to read a passage.
Directions: Follow these steps to make predictions and set reading purposes.
1. Preview the text to identify the topic. Then think about what you already
know about this subject. Is the topic familiar— or is it one you have
never given much thought to? What personal experiences have you had
that aid your understanding?
2. Use your prior knowledge and what you learned from your preview to
make predictions. Identify key topics and concepts you expect to find.
3. Set your reading purposes. List questions you hope to answer. Identify
possible problems, such as unfamiliar words or ideas to watch for as you
read.

4. Decide how to read the text. If the material is unfamiliar, you may need
to read more slowly or read it several times to gain full understanding.
You might decide to take notes or create an outline as you read. Perhaps
reading with a buddy and then discussing the text would best help you
meet your goals.
Predict what you expect to learn as you read. Set reading purposes to tell what
you want to find out, why it matters, and how you can best meet your goals.
48
Name Date Class
ACTIVITY 2: Making Predictions and Setting Purposes (continued)

Directions: The following paragraph introduces a lesson about amend-

ments to the United States Constitution. Preview the passage. Think about
what you already know about this topic. Then answer the questions that fol-
low to record your predictions and identify your reading purposes.
A Congressional Session
Three amendments to the Constitution passed as a result of the Civil
War. These amendments extended the rights of African Americans in
the United States. The amendments ended slavery, guaranteed equal
protection under the law for citizens, and granted African American
men the right to vote.
1. Recall what you know about the topics introduced in this paragraph.
Write one fact or idea that relates to this subject.
2. Write two topics or ideas you would expect to find in this lesson.
3. List two questions you have about this topic.

4. Write a plan for how you would read a lesson on this topic in order to
best remember the information.
APPLYING THE SKILL
Directions: Making Predictions and Setting Purposes Choose a lesson

from your social studies book. Preview the lesson. Think about your back-
ground knowledge on the subject. On a separate sheet of paper, write three
things you expect the lesson to discuss. Write three questions you want
answered by the reading. List two new words or concepts you will watch
out for as you read. Write a plan for how you will read the lesson to get the
most from it.
49
USING A KWLH CHART
Teaching Strategy 3
OBJECTIVES
• To complete a KWLH chart based on a short paragraph
• To draw and complete a KWLH chart for a textbook lesson
WHY IS THIS SKILL IMPORTANT? Assign Activity 3 for students to complete

independently. For the Applying the Skill
A KWLH chart provides a tangible struc- exercise, you might want to choose an
ture for enhancing students’ involvement upcoming lesson in a textbook and have
in their own reading. The chart prompts students begin the chart now and add to it
students to access prior knowledge, identi- as time goes on. After students finish
fy their own purposes for reading, reflect Activity 3, have them share their KWLH
on and summarize text, and identify unan- charts. Guide students to see that because
swered questions. It also provides an each person’s background knowledge,
opportunity for students to take charge of questions, and responses differ, there are
their own learning by identifying ways to no right or wrong answers for KWLH
explore topics in greater depth. charts.
TEACHING THE SKILL
On the board write the following phrases.

Access prior knowledge
Set purposes
Reflect EL ACTIVITY Pair English Learners
Go further with other students to preview and
read the textbook lesson. Encourage
Explain to students that these four phrases partners to share what they know about

describe some of the ways that good read- the subject, then list some of their shared
ers prepare for and respond to their read- background knowledge. Have them
ing. Then draw a KWLH chart on the discuss what they might want to find
board. (See the example on the student out from the lesson before they record
activity page, page 51.) Discuss with stu- their questions. Then have partners take
dents how the four strategies listed above turns reading the lesson and completing
relate to the four questions listed on the the last two columns on the chart
KWLH chart. together.
50
Name Date Class
ACTIVITY 3: Using a KWLH Chart

Good readers are active readers. They prepare themselves for reading before tack-
ling new material. They stay involved as they read. One way to get the most from
your reading is to use a KWLH chart. You start a KWLH chart before you begin to
read. As you read you add to the chart. Complete the chart after you have finished
reading.
LEARNING THE SKILL
KWLH stands for Know-Want-Learn-How. A KWLH chart provides a

place to record what you know, what you want to find out, what you learned,
and how you can learn more. A KWLH chart helps you to think about your
reasons for reading, make links to the things you already know, reflect on
what you are learning, and identify new questions and ways to explore.
Directions: Follow these steps to use a KWLH chart.
1. Draw a KWLH chart on a separate sheet of paper. Use the chart below as
a model.
2. Before you begin to read, preview the passage. Identify the topic.
Brainstorm what you know about this subject from past experience and
reading. Write your comments in the first column of the chart.
3. Think about your reading goals. What do you want to find out from the
passage? Record your questions in the second column.
4. Read the passage and respond in the third column. Take notes on key
points. Summarize what you learned. Respond to the questions you
asked earlier.
5. Identify new questions. How does the information connect with what
you already know? What new questions or problems does it raise? How
can you follow up? Record your ideas in the fourth column.
A KWLH Chart
K W L H
What do you know What do you want What did you learn How can you learn
about this topic? to find out? while reading? more?
51
Name Date Class
ACTIVITY 3: Using a KWLH Chart (continued)

Directions: Read the title of the following passage, then fill in the K and W
columns of the KWLH chart below. Then, read the passage and complete
the last two columns on the chart.
THE PYRAMIDS OF EGYPT
The ancient Egyptians built pyramids on the west bank of the Nile
River. They built the pyramids as huge tombs for their pharaohs, or
rulers. It took thousands of people and many years to build the pyra-
mids. Stonemasons cut huge blocks of granite and limestone. Barges
carried the stones across the Nile River. Workers dragged the huge
stones up mud ramps to lay the stones in place.
K W L H
What do you know What do you want What did you learn How can you learn
about this topic? to find out? while reading? more?
APPLYING THE SKILL
Directions: Using a KWLH Chart Select a short lesson in a textbook.

Preview the lesson. Draw a KWLH chart. In the first column, list facts,
vocabulary terms, and ideas you already know about the topic. In the sec-
ond column, write at least two questions you hope to have answered by
reading the lesson. Then read the passage. Jot down notes and ideas as you
read. Record them in the third column. After you finish reading, record new
questions and ideas for exploration. Write how you could learn more about
the topic.
52
MONITORING COMPREHENSION
Teaching Strategy 4
OBJECTIVES
• To read a paragraph and answer comprehension questions
• To monitor comprehension and compare the reading strategies used on two
types of reading material
WHY IS THIS SKILL IMPORTANT? • Which passage was easier to understand?

• What did you know about the current event
Comprehension is the heart of reading. No before the reading? What did you know
matter how good a student is at decoding about the topic in the reference source?
words, without comprehension, there is no • How did your prior knowledge affect your
reading. Good readers generally under- understanding of each passage?
stand most of what they read. They know Guide students to understand that being
that different reading purposes require able to say each word is not the same
them to use different reading strategies. thing as reading. Reading involves com-
They continuously monitor their own prehending, or understanding, what you
comprehension by asking questions, paus- read.
ing to reflect on the meaning of a passage,
and by comparing what they have read Assign Activity 4 for students to complete
with their own experiences and prior read- independently. After students finish, have
ing. Experienced readers know that when them share strategies they used to monitor
their comprehension is weak, they need to their comprehension and what they did
apply new strategies to improve it. when they noticed that they were having a
hard time understanding what they read.
TEACHING THE SKILL
Choose a few sentences from a familiar

current-event story in the newspaper.
Choose a passage of equal length on a
complicated topic in an encyclopedia, EL ACTIVITY Remind English

almanac, or other reference. Copy both Learners that unfamiliar vocabulary
passages onto the board or on an overhead and grammar may make full compre-
transparency. Have a volunteer read aloud hension more difficult for them. Because
the passages while students follow along context can often clarify difficult terms
silently. To gauge students’ comprehen- and sentence structure, suggest that
sion, ask them factual questions about EL students use the read-ahead and
each passage. Then have students reflect rereading strategies for complicated
on the difference between the two reading materials.
passages by asking questions such as:
53
Name Date Class
ACTIVITY 4: Monitoring Comprehension

As-You-Read Strategy
Do you like to watch your favorite movies over and over? Each time you watch,
do you notice new things? Reading a book can be somewhat the same. Each time
you read, you learn something new. Your understanding deepens and your memory
for details—both big and small—improves. The primary purpose of reading is com-
prehension. Comprehension means understanding what you read. Good readers
monitor, or check, their comprehension. When comprehension breaks down, they
take action.
LEARNING THE SKILL

You’ve probably noticed that you don’t read a magazine or an entertain-
ing story in the same way as you read a textbook. What you want out of the
two materials is different. Monitoring comprehension requires you to com-
pare what you are learning from a text against what you want and need to
learn.
Directions: Follow these steps to monitor your comprehension and take steps to
improve it.
1. Stay alert as you read. Does the text make sense? Are you finding the
needed information? Ask yourself questions about the material. Do you
know the answers?
2. When you get to the end of a paragraph or section, stop reading. Look
away from the book and use your own words to retell what you have
just read. You cannot retell what you don’t understand. Retelling also
helps you remember what you’ve read.
3. If your comprehension is not as good as it needs to be, change your read-

ing rate. Reading slower might give your thoughts enough time to catch
up with your eyes!

4. Read ahead to see if things clear up. The next sentences could clarify the
point. This is a good strategy to use when a specific fact or word confus-
es you.
5. Reread the passage. Rereading can help you find details you didn’t see
before. Sometimes the fine points are just what you need to make sense
of the text. You may need to return to an earlier section and reread it, too.
Authors often layer facts and ideas on top of earlier ones. If you do not
remember or understand a concept that was introduced before, you may
fail to understand the current one.
Monitoring comprehension means checking to see that you understand

what you’re reading.
54
Name Date Class
ACTIVITY 4: Monitoring Comprehension (continued)

Directions: Read the following passage and answer the questions that fol-
low in the spaces provided. Monitor your comprehension as you go along.
UNITED STATES COURTS OF APPEALS

Federal courts of appeals hear cases that have come to them on
appeal from lower district courts or from federal regulatory agencies.
Congress established these courts in 1891 to ease the burden of the
United States Supreme Court, which had more cases than it could han-
dle.
There are no trials held in federal courts of appeals. Instead, judges
hear arguments from attorneys for both sides of the case. The judges do
not decide questions of guilt or innocence. They rule only on whether a
defendant’s rights have been protected and on whether he or she
received a fair trial.
1. When and why did Congress establish the United States courts of appeals?
2. What kinds of cases appear before federal courts of appeals?
3. On what rights do judges in federal appeals courts base their rulings?

4. Think about the way in which you read the passage above. Consider the
process you used to answer the questions. Did you remember the infor-
mation after one reading? Explain how you found the answers to the
questions above.
APPLYING THE SKILL
Directions: Monitoring Comprehension Choose two different kinds of

reading material— one that is light and easy to read and a second one with
many facts and concepts. Read each passage. On a separate sheet of paper
write a short paragraph to compare and contrast the way you read these
materials. Discuss your comprehension of each one. What strategies could
you use to improve your understanding and memory of the more compli-
cated passage? Why might this be helpful?
55
UNDERSTANDING KEY WORDS
Teaching Strategy 5
OBJECTIVE
• To use word parts, related words, and context to identify the meaning of key
words
WHY IS THIS SKILL IMPORTANT? Then ask students to name other words
they know that are related to reformation,
To understand content-area concepts and such as reform and reformer. Ask volunteers
facts, students must understand and then to explain the meanings of reform and
learn relevant vocabulary. Learning to use reformer. Then have students use the con-
a variety of strategies to unlock the mean- text of the sentence and the meanings of
ings of unfamiliar terms can help boost word parts and related words to develop a
reading comprehension and fluency and working definition for reformation. Ask a
decrease students’ frustration with com- volunteer to find the word in the diction-
plex materials. ary and read the definition aloud. Discuss
how students’ informal definitions com-
pare with the dictionary definition.
independently. After students finish have
TEACHING THE SKILL them brainstorm a list of other words
formed from the word parts shown on the
Write the following sentence on the board. chart. List students’ ideas on the board.
Have volunteers check these words in the
During the 1400s and 1500s, many Europeans
dictionary and read the definitions aloud.
began to call for a reformation in the teach-
ings and practices of the Roman Catholic
Church.
Read the sentence aloud, drawing atten-
tion to the word reformation. Tell students
to read the sentence silently to determine

the meaning of reformation. Prompt stu- EL ACTIVITY Point out to English
dents to use the context of the sentence to Learners that knowing word parts
figure out the word’s meaning. Without can help them determine the meaning
asking students to share their contextual of many new words. Have EL students
definitions, move on. Point to the prefix re- complete Practicing the Skill independ-
in reformation and ask students to tell what ently and then complete the Applying
it means (again). Ask students to tell how the Skill assignment with a native
the prefix re- changes the word form (by English-speaking partner.
changing form to mean “to form again.“)
56
Name Date Class
ACTIVITY 5: Understanding Key Words

All readers occasionally have trouble understanding key words. Sometimes

you’ve heard a word before but have never seen it in print. Sometimes a word is
completely new to you. Good readers know how to use a variety of strategies to
unlock unfamiliar words.
LEARNING THE SKILL
What do you do when you come across a new word? The first step is to
say it. Use what you know about letter-sound relationships to sound out the
word. If the word is a long one, break it into smaller parts or syllables, then
sound out each part. Use the dictionary’s pronunciation guide to check
yourself.
Once you can say the word, take these steps to understand and learn its meaning.
1. Use context clues. Read the surrounding sentences. An author may
define the term or give enough information so that you can build an
informal definition on your own. Sometimes a description, an example,
or a comparison in the text will help you understand the new word.
2. Think of related words that you know. For instance, dictatorship contains
the word dictator. If you know what dictator means, you can figure out
the meaning of dictatorship.
3. Look for familiar word parts, such as prefixes, suffixes, and roots. The
root anthrop means “human.“ The root logy means “study of.“ Knowing
the meaning of these roots allows you to figure out the meaning of
anthropology.
4. Consult a dictionary or the textbook glossary when context, related

words, and word parts don’t help.
5. Learn the word. Using and reusing a word is one way to remember it.
Another way is to make word cards. Think of a picture that will help you
remember the word. Write the word and draw a picture on one side of an
index card. Write the definition on the back. Quiz yourself.
6. Create a word map. Draw a web with the new word in the center.
Surround the word with a list of related words, words with similar
meanings, and examples. (For an example of a word map, see page 86.)
To understand a key word you should say the word, determine its mean-
ing, and then commit the word and its meaning to memory.
57
Name Date Class
ACTIVITY 5: Understanding Key Words (continued)

Directions: Use the chart at right,

the context of the sentences below, Word Part Meaning
and your knowledge of related anti against
words to answer the following
aqua water
questions. Circle the letter of the
correct answer. arbor tree
chrono time
circum around
deca ten
hemi half
neo new
polis city
pro for
1. Which of the following terms means “to bend around“?

a) circumflex b) hemisphere c) antithesis d) chronology
2. During his 1992 presidential campaign, Arkansas governor Bill Clinton

proclaimed that he was a new kind of liberal politician, different from
those of the past. Which of the following terms best fits Clinton’s
statement?
a) anti-liberal b) hemi-liberal c) pro-liberal d) neo-liberal
3. Roman engineers devised a canal or passage that was used to bring

water from remote locations to the city of Rome. What term below is the
name of this invention?

a) arboretum b) aqueduct c) antithesis d) circumference
4. As Mesoamericans began to abandon their nomadic way of life and stay

in one place, their villages developed into large, impressive cities. Which
term gives another name for these great areas of settlement?
a) decagon b) hemisphere c) metropolis d) arboretum
APPLYING THE SKILL
Directions: Understanding Key Ideas In a textbook, select five unde-

fined and unfamiliar words. On a separate sheet of paper, write each word.
Use word parts, context clues, and related words to write a working defini-
tion for each word. Then find the words in a dictionary. Write the defini-
tions and compare them to your own.
58
IDENTIFYING THE MAIN IDEA
Teaching Strategy 6
OBJECTIVES
• To identify the main idea in a paragraph
• To identify the main idea in a news article
WHY IS THIS SKILL IMPORTANT? about the numbers of people who went to
California, where they came from, and
Whether it is a paragraph, an article, or a how they got there.
chapter, most content-area reading focuses Then present the following sentences.
on a main idea that is developed with
facts, details, and examples. Students can Successful stores, hotels, and law firms served
learn to use this text structure to help the miners.
them comprehend and remember key con- Homebuilders stayed busy constructing big
cepts and information. In addition, know- houses for wealthy miners.
ing how to identify the main idea and sup-
porting details provides the basis for Landowners made huge profits selling land to
developing other critical reading and settlers.
study skills, including outlining, note-tak- Explain that these three sentences present
ing, and test-taking strategies. supporting details. Have students offer a
main idea that is supported by these sen-
tences. (Possible answer: The gold rush
brought success to many people who worked
outside mining.)
TEACHING THE SKILL Assign Activity 6 for students to complete
independently. After students finish, have
On the board write the following sentence. them share their current event and tell the
News of the gold rush brought a wave of new- main idea of the article.
comers to California.
Ask students what topic, or subject, they
think this sentence introduces. (California’s
gold rush) Then ask students to identify the
author’s main idea or point about the gold

rush. (great numbers of newcomers rushed to
California because of gold) Guide students to
see the difference between a topic, which EL ACTIVITY Pair English Learners
simply identifies the subject, and the main with fluent English speakers to
idea, which makes a point about the topic. buddy-read a news article. Then have
Then ask students to speculate about what fluent speakers write a sentence stating
type of details they might expect to read in the main idea. Have second-language
a paragraph with this opening sentence. learners use their own words to
Help students to understand that the rephrase and then write the sentence.
author might include specific information
59
Name Date Class
ACTIVITY 6: Identifying the Main Idea

As you read textbooks and other nonfiction materials, you come across historical
dates, events, and names. These details are easier to understand and remember
when they are connected to one main idea. Understanding the main idea will help
you to grasp the whole story. By understanding the big picture, you can better
understand the significance of the details and the relationships between them.
Identifying the main idea can also help you to know what ideas and details are most
important to review as you study for tests and quizzes.
LEARNING THE SKILL
Identifying the main idea means understanding the author’s main point. The main
idea is more than a topic. A topic names a specific subject. The main idea makes a point
about the topic. Often an author states the main idea of a paragraph in the first sentence.
Then other sentences support the main idea with details, facts, and examples. Sometimes
the main idea appears at the end of a paragraph. In this case the author presents
supporting details that lead up to the main idea. When the author does not directly
express the main idea, the reader can infer it by looking for the connections between
the supporting details.
Directions: Follow these steps to identify the main idea in a paragraph.
1. Read the first sentence, the title, and the headings to identify the topic.
2. Read the passage, noting the specific details. Ask yourself, why does the
author include this information? How are these details connected?
3. Think about what you just read. Consider the most forceful statements in
the material. What message does the author want you to understand or
remember?

4. Reread the first and last sentences. Does the author directly state the
main idea? If not, review the details and examples. What conclusions can
you draw?
5. Use your own words to state the main idea or central point.
A topic names the subject. The main idea is the main point. Supporting
details explain, prove, or develop the main idea.
60
Name Date Class
ACTIVITY 6: Identifying the Main Idea (continued)

Directions: Read the following passage to identify the main idea. Then list the topic,
main idea, and supporting details on the graphic organizer below.
Although greatly outnumbered by men, women made important
economic contributions during the California gold rush. Most married
women looked after the family. They cooked, raised a small garden,
and did the sewing and washing. Some wives staked their own claims,
thus giving the couple twice as much land to mine. Single women and
married women who needed to earn a living worked as cooks and wait-
resses. Some women rented out cots, did laundry, or sold home-baked
pies and breads to hungry miners. Women owned their own businesses,
too. They ran hotels and taverns to serve miners and travelers.
Topic:
Main Idea:
:
ls
ai
et
D
g
tin
or
pp
Su
APPLYING THE SKILL
Identifying the Main Idea Select a short newspaper or magazine article about a current
event. Read the headline and the text. Circle the word or phrase that names the topic of
the article. Underline the supporting details. In the space below, use your own words to
write the main idea of your selection.
61
TAKING NOTES
Teaching Strategy 7
OBJECTIVES
• To take notes from a nonfiction passage
• To take notes from a news article and use the notes as the basis for a brief
presentation
WHY IS THIS SKILL IMPORTANT? and details. Tell students that they can use
a chart like the one below as they take
Taking notes keeps students engaged as notes or they can write their notes in any
they read and can help them remember form that is helpful to them.
important information. Note-taking is Assign Activity 7 for students to complete
most beneficial when students take the independently. After students finish, invite
time to reflect on what they read before them to share their notes. Point out that
they write. Rewording the information there are many ways to rephrase and
ensures that students understand what organize information into notes. Then
they read and are not blindly copying have students take turns using their notes
from the text. from the news articles as the basis for
short presentations.
TEACHING THE SKILL
Model the process of taking notes. Choose

a passage from a social studies book or EL ACTIVITY Suggest that English
other textbook. Read the text aloud as stu- Learners read the Practicing the Skill
dents follow along. Guide students in not- passage once through before writing
ing the headings, subheadings, and bold- notes, a second time to strike out the
faced terms in the passage. On the board least important information, and a third
draw a two-column chart like the one time to take notes and complete the
shown below. On the chart, list the topic of graphic. Have EL students work with
the reading. Then identify the first main partners on their news articles. Have
idea. Ask students to tell key facts, exam- one student read the passage aloud and

ples, and supporting details that relate to dictate notes while the partner records
this main idea. Continue the process by the notes.
having students identify other main ideas
Topic:
Main ideas: Facts, examples, and supporting details:
1. 1.
2. 2.
3. 3.
62
Name Date Class
ACTIVITY 7: Taking Notes

One of the best ways to understand and remember what you read is to take notes.
To be an effective study tool, taking notes requires more than copying from the
text. You must decide what is most important and organize the information in a
way that makes sense.
LEARNING THE SKILL
One important skill in taking notes is keeping them brief. Only the most important
concepts and ideas are recorded. Your notes should serve as a shorter version of the text.
Directions: Follow these steps to take notes from a text passage.
1. Read a section or several paragraphs of text. Pay attention to the head-
ings.
2. Think about the information. Ask yourself: What is the main idea? What
details are most important? Which dates, people, or events do you need
to know?
3. Write down the key points. Use your own words. Read the section again
if you do not understand the ideas well enough to retell them.
4. Use graphics. You can show a lot of information in a visual way with
concept maps, webs, sequence charts, flowcharts, and time lines.
5. Leave plenty of space in the margins. Skip lines between key points. You
may want to add related information later.
6. Move on to the next section in the text and repeat the process.
7. Reread your notes when you are done. Use a colored marker to highlight
key points. Keep your notes in a notebook or folder so you can return to
them again.
latitude air movement Show relationships

between ideas and
details in a concept
climate map or web diagram.
altitude ocean currents
Show why an
event occurred Cause Effect
in a cause-and- James Marshall Many people move
effect chart. finds gold in a west to search for
California riverbed. gold.
63
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ACTIVITY 7: Taking Notes (continued)

Directions: Read the following passage. Take notes on the key points and vocabulary
terms. Write your notes on a separate sheet of paper. Then complete the web diagram
below to summarize key points.
Stamp Act Controversy

In 1765 the British Parliament passed the Stamp Act. This law forced
the American colonists to pay a tax on common products, such as
newspapers and playing cards.
Up to this time, the colonists had made their own decisions about
taxes and expenses. Now Parliament was trying to tax them. The
colonists claimed that Parliament violated the right of British citizens
to be taxed only by their elected representatives. Americans did not
vote in elections to Parliament. Angry colonial lawyers, merchants, and
newspaper printers organized friends and neighbors to oppose the
Stamp Act.
Some angry colonists formed a protest group called the Sons of

Liberty. They burned piles of the British stamps. Many merchants
decided to boycott, or refuse to do business with, the British. The
merchants agreed not to buy or sell British goods.

Stamp Act
APPLYING THE SKILL
Directions: Taking Notes Find a current events article in a newspaper or magazine.

Read the article. Draw a line through the least important information. Take notes on the
key points. Put your notes in order, and then use them to summarize your article for your
classmates.
64
OUTLINING
Teaching Strategy 8
OBJECTIVES
• To answer questions based on a partial outline
• To create an outline of a textbook lesson or chapter
WHY IS THIS SKILL IMPORTANT? capital letters, Arabic numerals, lowercase

letters, and numbers in parentheses for
Outlining can provide a structured format subtopics. Explain that each subtopic need
for note taking. It can help students identi- not have further subtopics, but that when
fy and understand the connections they do, at least two items must be listed.
between details and larger concepts. Help students understand that to use an
However, outlining only becomes an effec- outline as a review tool, they should think
tive study skill for reading in a content about key points and details and be sure
area when students actively process and to show them at the appropriate point in
organize the information on their own. the outline.
Using headings and subheadings in the Assign Activity 8 for students to complete
text can help students put names to key independently. You may wish to have all
topics and subtopics, but if students do students outline the same lesson for the
not stop to reflect on links between topics Applying the Skill activity. After students
and the meaningful details that support finish, have them share their answers to
those topics, the value of outlining is the Practicing the Skill questions and then
minimal. compare the outlines they created in
Applying the Skill with those of other class-
mates who outlined the same lesson.
TEACHING THE SKILL
Choose a short textbook passage or lesson

with which students are familiar. With stu-
EL ACTIVITY To help English
dents, create an outline of the text. Ask
Learners identify main topics
students to scan the lesson to note the
and subtopics in the Applying the Skill

heads and subheads. If needed, read aloud
activity, have students write each main
or have students reread the lesson to iden-
topic on a separate sheet of paper. Then
tify the main ideas. Help students choose
have students review the lesson to find
several main ideas to list as main topics in
key words or phrases that belong under
the outline. Record them on the board or
each main topic. Have students list
on an overhead transparency.
them as subtopics on the appropriate
Have students identify subtopics for the pages, leaving plenty of space between
main topics, and then subtopics under items, and then review the passage
subtopics. As you write their ideas on the again to find the details that belong
board, point out the placement and use of under each subtopic.
Roman numerals for main topics, and
65
Name Date Class
ACTIVITY 8: Outlining
An outline is a written plan that shows how information is organized. It pro-

vides an overview of a topic by listing main ideas and details. Outlining a text can
be an effective way to learn and study what you read. However, creating a good out-
line requires more than just copying headings and subheadings from the text. A
good outline requires you to think about the text to summarize the information and
find the links between key concepts and facts.
LEARNING THE SKILL
An outline organizes information into three categories: main ideas; subtopics, or parts
of each main idea; and supporting details. Outlines begin with broad ideas, followed by
more specific ideas. A formal outline follows a standard format.
Directions: Follow these steps to create a formal outline of a reading passage.
1. Read the material to identify the main ideas. Textbook section heads may
provide clues to main ideas. Make each main idea a main topic. Label
each topic with a Roman numeral followed by a period, such as I., II.,
III., and so forth.
2. Identify subtopics that explain the main ideas. Label subtopics with
capital letters and periods, as in A., B., C., and D.
3. List supporting details that provide more information about the

subtopics. Label supporting details with Arabic numerals and periods,
such as 1., 2., and 3.
4. Use lowercase letters and then numbers in parentheses to divide the

subtopics into even smaller subtopics.

5. Check the number of entries. Each level should have at least two
entries— or none. For example, if you have an A. subtopic, you should
also have a B. subtopic. Indent each entry from the level above it.
6. Check the style of your outline. All entries should follow the same form.
In other words, all entries should be either sentences or phrases.
An outline organizes information into topics, subtopics, and levels of sup-

porting details.
66
Name Date Class
ACTIVITY 8: Outlining (continued)

Directions: Read this partial outline. Then answer the questions that follow in the
spaces provided.
I. Federalism B. Implied Powers

A. Definition C. Inherent Powers
B. Benefits D. Denied National Powers
1. Unity without uniformity 1. Bill of Rights
2. State “laboratories” 2. “Constitutional silence”
3. Divides power between state 3. “Destructive” powers
and federal governments 4. Reserved powers of the states
II. Federal Division of Powers E. Exclusive Powers
A. Expressed Powers F. Shared Powers
1. What are the two major topics in this outline?
2. Under what subtopic would you find information about powers shared
by both the federal government and the state government?
3. If you wanted to add information about how experiments in state gov-

ernments influenced the role of the federal government, where would
you put it? How would you label that information in the outline?
4. How could you make this outline a better study aid?
APPLYING THE SKILL
Directions: Outlining Choose a lesson from a textbook. Read the lesson and use the
headings and subheadings to create a brief outline. Then return to the lesson to find
additional subtopics for your outline. Insert sufficient details in the outline to create a
thorough overview of the lesson.
67
READING MAPS, GRAPHS, AND CHARTS
Teaching Strategy 9
OBJECTIVES
• To interpret a political map and a bar graph
• To analyze a map and a chart
WHY IS THIS SKILL IMPORTANT? Ask students how they could use the data
in the paragraph to create a chart or graph.
Maps, graphs, and charts deliver signifi- Guide students to see that such informa-
cant textbook content. By learning to read tion could be displayed in a table or in a
and interpret visuals, students—particu- circle graph. Have students decide how to
larly those for whom reading comprehen- show the data, and then draw their sug-
sion is a weakness—gain valuable infor- gested graphics on the board. Ask stu-
mation. In analyzing charts, graphs, and dents to draw conclusions from the data
maps, students should concentrate on and help them to see that it is easier to
drawing inferences from the data. They draw conclusions when the numbers are
should start by noting the details and in a graphic form rather than embedded in
move on to examining the relationships text. Ask students how they could use a
between groups or categories of data. map to better understand the graphic data.
(They could locate the countries named on the
chart or graph.)
TEACHING THE SKILL independently. After students finish, have
them share the conclusions they gathered
Write the following paragraph on an over- from the maps, graphs, and charts they
head transparency or on the board. Then analyzed in the Applying the Skill activity.
read the paragraph as students follow
along.
Of all of the Axis Powers, Germany experi-
enced the greatest number of military deaths
during World War II with a total of 3,250,000.
Japan was next with 1,506,000. China, not a EL ACTIVITY Pair English Learners
major member of the Allied Powers, lost with fluent English speakers to

1,324,000 soldiers as a result of the war. The complete the Applying the Skill activity.
United States lost 405,000 military personnel Have partners analyze and discuss the
during the war but it was the Soviet Union map and chart or graph. Then have
that experienced the greatest loss of life during them work together to write their
World War II, with a total of 13,600,000 paragraphs.
military deaths.
68
Name Date Class
ACTIVITY 9: Reading Maps, Graphs, and Charts

Nonfiction texts often include maps, graphs, and charts. Maps show the loca-
tion of places and events. Graphs show change over time or make comparisons
between sets of data. Tables or charts are often used to report numerical data.
LEARNING THE SKILL
Maps, graphs, and charts can make certain information clearer and more understand-
able. To get the most out of these visuals, you need to learn how to read and interpret
them.
Directions: Follow these steps to read and interpret maps, graphs, and charts.
Maps
1. Read the title to tell the map’s Currency in Circulation
subject and purpose. Total in circulation
Denomination (in millions of $)
All Bills $535,350.0
2. Examine the map scale. It tells $1 7,043.8
how many miles or kilometers
are represented by a given $5 8,003.9
measure on the map. $10 13,582.0
Table
3. Read the map key, or legend.
It explains the meaning of shapes, colors, and other symbols on the map.
4. Look for the compass rose or direction arrow to find north, south, east,
and west on the map.
Graphs and Charts

Texas 1. Read the title to find the subject.

12%
8% California
2. Examine the headings and labels.
4% They explain what the graph or
76% Ohio
chart compares, measures, or
all other reports. Read the key.
states
combined
3. Analyze the data. Make compar-
isons, search for trends, or draw
conclusions.
Energy Consumption, by State
Circle graph
69
Name Date Class
ACTIVITY 9: Reading Maps, Graphs, and Charts (continued)

Directions: Use the map and graph below to answer the questions that follow in the
spaces provided.
N High Temperatures in January and July
Temperature in Degrees Fahrenheit

100
W E
79 80
74
S 70
63
SOUTH 50
AFRICA
28
0
Cape Town, Mexico City, Toronto,
South Africa Mexico Canada
ELEVATIONS
Feet Meters City
10,000 3,000 January
5,000 1,500
2,000 600
1,000 300 0 mi. 250 500
July
0 0
0 km 250 500
The World Almanac & Book of Facts 2001
South Africa: Elevation
1. Look at the map. What is its subject? What type of map is it?
2. Which parts of South Africa have the lowest elevations?
3. For Cape Town, South Africa, which month—January or July— has the

highest temperatures?
4. Which city has the least difference between January and July high tem-
peratures? Which city has the greatest difference?
APPLYING THE SKILL
Directions: Reading Maps, Graphs, and Charts Select one map and one chart or graph
from your social studies textbook. Choose a map and chart or graph that are related in
some way. On a separate sheet of paper write a paragraph about the visuals. Tell how the
map and chart or graph are related. Use information on the chart or graph to draw conclu-
sions about the places on the map. Use the map to help explain the information on the
chart or graph.
70
INTERPRETING PHOTOGRAPHS AND IMAGES
Teaching Strategy 10
OBJECTIVES
• To interpret a photograph and a diagram
• To compare a photograph or illustration with that of a diagram of the same
subject
WHY IS THIS SKILL IMPORTANT? Have students look at the photograph and
the diagram of a volcano on page 73. Ask
Good readers visualize what is happening students to tell how they pictured the vol-
in the text and form mental images as they cano as they listened to the passage. Have
read. Visualization helps readers under- students compare their mental images
stand complex processes and remember with the photograph and diagram shown
key details. Photographs, illustrations, and in the Practicing the Skill activity. Guide
diagrams thus help students to more accu- students to note that the visuals make it
rately visualize a scene, time period, event, easier to understand the description pro-
or process. However, many students skip vided in the text.
over pictures and diagrams as they read. Assign Activity 10 for students to com-
They see them as superfluous to their plete independently. After students finish,
main task—reading words on the page. have them tell what picture and diagram
Encourage students to take the time to they interpreted for the Applying the Skill
study and interpret photographs and activity. Invite students to share their
images. Help them to see that visuals may interpretations and comparisons.
provide information that is not available in
the text and can also help them better
understand and remember what they read.
TEACHING THE SKILL

EL ACTIVITY Gathering information
from photographs and diagrams
Read aloud the following passage of text.
can simplify content-area reading for

When a volcano erupts, molten rock called English Learners. However, some stu-
magma rises through cracks in the earth’s dents may still need help in reading and
crust. Gases form and pressure builds until the interpreting diagram labels. Encourage
volcano erupts. Gases, dust, and pieces of rock students to use the glossary or a diction-
spew from the volcano. Layers of lava and ash ary to check the meaning of unfamiliar
build up around the volcano opening and, in words in the Practicing the Skill and
time, form a cone-shaped mountain. Applying the Skill diagrams.
71
Name Date Class
ACTIVITY 10: Intrepreting Photographs and Images

How often have you heard the expression "A picture is worth a thousand
words?" Photographs, illustrations, and diagrams are three ways that pictures
provide valuable information— often much more information than what you get
from words alone.
LEARNING THE SKILL
The photographs and illustrations you find in

textbooks are not just for decoration. Their pri-
mary purpose is to help you visualize and
understand what is in the text. Diagrams also
help you to visualize concepts. They provide a
glimpse into the way something works, the
stages in a cycle, the steps in a process, or how
something is put together.
Directions: Follow these steps to interpret pho-
The sun warms the ocean.
tographs, illustrations, and diagrams.
Photographs and Illustrations

1. Read the caption to learn the subject, location, and time period shown.
2. Study the people, places, and events shown. Notice the background.
Think about what may be excluded from view.
3. Ask yourself: What feeling or impression does the photographer or artist
want to convey? What is the center of interest? What messages do light,
shadow, and color deliver?
Diagrams

1. Read the title or caption to find
out the subject. Clouds
2. Read the labels to determine
their meanings. Condensation
Precipitation
3. Trace the lines to see what part (snow, sleet, hail, rain)
of the diagram each label Evaporation
explains. from lakes and
streams
Evaporation
4. Look for arrows that show from ocean
movement, stages of a cycle, or Surface collection
the order of steps.
Groundwater to rivers and oceans
The Water Cycle
72
Name Date Class
ACTIVITY 10: Intrepreting Photographs and Images (continued)

Directions: Use the photograph and diagram below to answer the questions that follow
in the spaces provided.
Vent
Ash and smoke
Lava flow
Pipe
Layers of ash
and lava
Magma chamber
Mt. St. Helens erupted in 1980. An Erupting Volcano
1. What is the subject of the photograph and diagram?
2. What is the name for the point where ash and smoke erupt from the
volcano?
3. What is magma called after it flows onto the earth’s surface?

4. What do you learn from the diagram that you do not learn from the
photograph? What do you learn from the photograph that you do not
learn from the diagram?
APPLYING THE SKILL
Directions: Interpreting Photographs and Images Select a photograph and a diagram

about a related subject from your social studies or science textbook. On a separate sheet
of paper write a paragraph to explain your interpretation of both visuals. Compare the
information you receive from each one. Which is more informative? Explain why you
think so.
73
COMPARING AND CONTRASTING
OBJECTIVES
• To compare and contrast information
• To compare and contrast points of view
WHY IS THIS SKILL IMPORTANT? On the board, draw a comparison chart,

similar to the one on page 75. Label the
One of the best ways to understand and columns Feature, Canada, and United States.
remember new information is to make Label the rows Landforms and Climate.
connections between topics or ideas. One Model how to use the chart to compare
way to relate such topics or ideas is by features. Then draw a Venn diagram and
looking for the similarities and differences use it to compare and contrast the sen-
between them. When readers compare and tences you wrote on the board.
contrast, they compare the features or Assign Activity 11 for students to com-
characteristics of one topic or event plete independently. After students finish,
against the features or characteristics of have them read the editorial letters they
the other topic or event. selected and show their Venn diagrams or
comparison charts.
TEACHING THE SKILL
On the board write the following sen-

tences.
Canada shares the landform called the Rocky
Mountains with the United States.
The climate of Canada is much cooler than that
EL ACTIVITY Suggest that English
of the United States.
Learners work with fluent English
Read the first sentence with students. speakers to complete the Applying
Point out that the sentence compares the the Skill activity. Have fluent English
United States with Canada. Ask students speakers read the letters aloud. Then

whether the sentence points to a similarity have partners choose which features
or a difference. (similarity) Have students to compare and contrast. Have EL
find the signal word that points to the sim- students record the similarities and dif-
ilarity. (shares) Read the second sentence ferences on the Venn diagram or com-
and ask students whether it points out a parison chart.
similarity or a difference. (difference)
74
Name Date Class
ACTIVITY 11: Comparing and Contrasting

You make comparisons all the time. For instance, if you are shopping for a new
stereo, you probably compare and contrast different models and brands of stereos.
Just as comparing and contrasting is a good consumer skill, it is also a good skill to
use as you read.
LEARNING THE SKILL
When you compare you look for how things are alike. When you contrast
you look for differences. One good way to understand and remember what
you read is to look for similarities and differences between people or events.
Sometimes an author directly states how things are alike and different. More
often, you will do your own comparing and contrasting as you think about
what you read.
Directions: Follow these steps to compare and contrast information.
1. Decide what subjects, people, events, or opinions to compare and
contrast.
2. Identify key features or characteristics of the subjects.
3. Look for similarities. Authors use words such as both, same, also, share,
and in common to point out similarities.
4. Look for differences. Words such as Articles of U.S.

although, however, on the other hand, Feature Confederation Constitution
instead, and but point to differences. Declaring War Yes Yes
Imposing Taxes No Yes

5. Use a Venn diagram or a comparison
chart to record your findings. Then, Create a
No Yes
examine your chart or diagram and court system

draw conclusions. Comparison chart
Articles of Confederation U.S. Constitution

• could not create taxes for Both • had the ability to impose
states to pay • could declare taxes on states
• could not establish a war upon other • was authorized to create
national judicial system nations national court system
Venn diagram
75
Name Date Class
ACTIVITY 11: Comparing and Contrasting (continued)

Directions: Read the following passage. Compare and contrast American education
of the early 1800s with education today. Then use the Venn diagram below to list the
similarities and differences.
Today all school-age children are entitled to free public education.
States fund the schools and make laws that require school attendance.
Such ideas about education were not always the case. While Americans
of the early 1800s valued education just as they do now, schools varied
from place to place. In some areas the town paid for schools. In others,
private groups raised money for schools or asked parents to contribute.
Sometimes neighbors banded together to hire a minister or a tutor to
teach a small group of students. Children were not required to attend
school. In certain schools African Americans, girls, and those with
physical challenges were not welcome.
Schools Today Schools of the 1800s

Both
APPLYING THE SKILL
Directions: Comparing and Contrasting On the editorial page of a newspaper or mag-

azine find two letters on the same subject. Compare and contrast the letters. Identify
points the letters have in common and points about which the writers disagree. Create a
comparison chart or a Venn diagram to compare and contrast the letters.
76
UNDERSTANDING CAUSE AND EFFECT
OBJECTIVES
• To identify cause-and-effect relationships in historical events
• To identify cause-and-effect relationships in current events
WHY IS THIS SKILL IMPORTANT? Advise students that just because one
event precedes another, a cause-and-effect
Determining why something occurred and relationship does not necessarily exist.
what happened as a result of it can help Assign Activity 12 for students to com-
students clarify relationships between plete independently. After students finish,
events so that they can better analyze and have them check their own papers while
understand them. To understand cause reviewing the answers to the Practicing the
and effect, students identify the initiating Skill exercises. Then have students share
action or circumstance—the cause. Then the diagrams they made to chart the
they determine the consequence or cause-and-effect relationship of a current
result—the effect. event.
TEACHING THE SKILL
Introduce the concepts of cause and effect

by inviting students to share something
good that happened to them in the past
week. Ask the volunteers to then answer
these questions: “What caused this event
to happen?” “What was the effect of the
EL ACTIVITY For the Practicing the
event on your life?” Make a cause-and-
Skill exercises, suggest that English
effect diagram on the board to chart the
Learners eliminate answers they know
students’ responses. Then have all stu-
are wrong, then reread the passage
dents draw a diagram showing the cause
before marking the final answer in each

and effect of an experience in their own
item. Have English Learners and fluent
lives.
English speakers work together on the
Explain to students that many historical Applying the Skill activity, first choosing
events have more than one cause and a news article and then buddy-reading
effect. In fact one of the tasks of historians it. Have both students share responsibil-
is to analyze the complex long-term causes ity for creating the diagram.
and effects of historical events.
77
Name Date Class
ACTIVITY 12: Understanding Cause and Effect

You know that if you oversleep you will be late for school. This is an example of a
cause-and-effect relationship. The cause—sleeping late, creates the effect— being
late for school. A cause is an action or situation that produces an event. An effect
is a result or consequence of an action or situation. Learning to identify cause-and-
effect relationships can help you understand the reasons why events happen or why
people behave as they do.
LEARNING THE SKILL
When you look for why or how an event or chain of events took place, you
are developing the skill of understanding cause and effect.
Directions: Follow these steps to identify cause-and-effect relationships.
1. Identify an action, event, or behavior that answers the question, “What
happened?”
2. Look for the cause or causes. Ask yourself, “Why did this happen?”
Watch for signal words such as because, since, therefore, led to, brought
about, produced, as a result of, and so that. These words may help you iden-
tify whether one event caused the other.
3. Identify the outcome or impact of the event or situation. Look for logical
relationships between events.
4. Recognize that a cause can have multiple effects and that some effects
have more than one cause. Note that a chain of events may occur. That is
when one effect becomes the cause of subsequent effects.
5. Draw a diagram to show the cause-and-effect relationship.

One Cause—Multiple Effects
Cause: Soviet Union launches Sputnik space satellite
Effect: United States launches its Effect: American schools place increased
own satellite a few months later emphasis on science and math education
78
Name Date Class
ACTIVITY 12: Understanding Cause and Effect (continued)

Directions: Read the following passage to identify cause-and-effect relationships. Then

answer the questions that follow by circling the letter of the correct answer.
The United States and the Soviet Union became increasingly hostile
toward each other near the end of World War II. This hostility, which
lasted from about 1946 to 1990, was known as the Cold War.
Tensions grew because the two nations had different goals. The
Soviets wanted to keep Germany weak while maintaining Soviet
control of Eastern European countries, establishing a buffer zone
against any future German invasions. American leaders believed that
economic growth was the key to global peace and therefore encour-
aged widespread economic recovery in Europe, especially in
Germany. Americans also disliked Soviet control of Eastern Europe,
which they viewed as a threat to the ideals of democracy.
1. Which of the following was NOT a cause of U.S.–Soviet tension?
A. differing national C. disagreement over Germany’s
goals recovery
B. growth in American D. the future of Eastern
unemployment Europe
2. What effect did postwar hostility bring about?
A. increased trade between the C. decades of tension called the
nations Cold War
B. military warfare between D. the devastation of Europe
the superpowers
3. What was one of the Soviet Union’s goals?
A. to protect itself from future C. to become allied with a new,
German invasion stronger Germany

B. to withdraw from Europe D. to encourage German economic
recovery
4. Identify the signal word or phrase in the following sentence that points
to the cause-and-effect relationship.
Another issue that led to the Cold War was radically different political philosophies.
A. another B. issue C. led to D. support
APPLYING THE SKILL
Directions: Understanding Cause and Effect Read a news account (in a newspaper or
magazine) about a recent event in your community. Determine at least one cause and one
effect of that event. On a separate sheet of paper, draw a diagram to show the cause-and-
effect relationship.
79
SUMMARIZING INFORMATION
OBJECTIVES
• To summarize a paragraph
• To write a summary of a social studies passage
WHY IS THIS SKILL IMPORTANT? Assign Activity 13 for students to com-

plete independently. After students finish
Few people can remember everything they the Practicing the Skill activity, have them
read. One important skill in both school- share their summaries. You might want to
work and everyday life is to learn to filter select two or three sections in the social
vast quantities of information, identifying studies text and have different groups read
what is most important and then summa- and write summaries for each section.
rizing key concepts and ideas. Then have students compare their sum-
maries. Remind students that because they
Summarizing is also the basis of many are using their own words, the summaries
longer writing activities, including book will differ. However, the summaries
reports and reviews, research reports, lab should each contain the main points and
reports, and news stories. Following the details.
guidelines for writing a summary will
help students create these other writing
forms, as well as a brief summary para-
graph.
TEACHING THE SKILL
Ask a volunteer to share what he or she

has done in the last 24 hours. Encourage EL ACTIVITY Have English Learners
the student to provide as much detail as work with partners, taking turns
possible while you list the student’s activi- reading aloud the Practicing the Skill

ties on the board. Then invite students to passage. Encourage students to discuss
summarize the volunteer’s description. the passage and underline the main
Model the thinking necessary to summa- ideas and significant details before they
rize the events by asking questions such as begin writing. Then have students work
"Which event is most important for us to in pairs to write the summary. Use a
remember or understand?" "What conclu- similar procedure for the Applying the
sions can we draw from the description of Skill activity. You may wish to have
the events?" Record the summary on the English Learners record the main idea
board. Have the volunteer review the and supporting details on a graphic
summary to see if he or she thinks it accu- organizer before they write each
rately summarizes the day’s events and summary.
activities.
80
Name Date Class
ACTIVITY 13: Summarizing Information

Post-Reading Strategy
Much of the information you learn in school comes through reading. How can
you understand and remember so much? One way to check your understanding and
sort through all that information is to write a summary. A summary states the
main ideas, key facts, and important vocabulary. Writing a good summary can help
you organize information so that it is easier to remember. A summary is a perfect
study tool to use as you review for a quiz or test.
LEARNING THE SKILL
A key characteristic of a summary is that it is brief. A summary includes

only the most important details from a reading passage—it does not retell
every point. You should write a summary in paragraph format.
Directions: Follow these steps to summarize information.
1. Read the passage to get the overall meaning. Ask yourself, "What is this
selection about?" Take notes on longer passages.
2. Review the passage to find the main ideas. Find the topic sentences.
Often, a topic sentence states the main idea of a paragraph or section.
3. Use your own words to write the main ideas and key concepts. Write in
complete sentences. Arrange your ideas in logical order.
4. Use key vocabulary and terms. Provide definitions that help you better
understand the words and concepts.
5. Add dates, names, and the most important details.

6. Write a concluding sentence that ties all your points together.
7. Revise your summary. Check that it includes all the important facts. See
that it makes sense. Edit your writing, if necessary, to remove excess
detail and to improve the order of information.
8. Use your summary to help you review and study the text.
A summary is like a mini report that provides the main ideas and most
important details of a reading selection.
81
Name Date Class
ACTIVITY 13: Summarizing Information (continued)

Directions: Read the following passage. Then write a brief summary of the information
in the space provided. Use complete sentences.
During the Renaissance, Italian city-states often competed against
each other to hire the best painters and sculptors. Once hired, the
artists were expected to make paintings and sculptures for royal
palaces and gardens. Leonardo da Vinci, Michelangelo Buonarroti,
and Raphael Santi are among the most famous Renaissance artists.
Da Vinci painted Mona Lisa, a portrait of an Italian noblewoman,
and The Last Supper, a fresco that adorns the walls of an Italian
monastery. Da Vinci also spent time sketching his inventions, includ-
ing parachutes, flying machines, and mechanical diggers.
Michelangelo created the sculpture David. At the request of the pope,
he painted the ceiling of Rome’s Sistine Chapel. While lying on his
back on scaffolding 70 feet above the floor, Michelangelo painted
scenes from the Bible. Raphael’s most famous work, The School of
Athens, is in the Vatican.
APPLYING THE SKILL
Directions: Summarizing Information Read a section from a social studies textbook.

Take notes as you read. Then use your notes to write a summary of the section. Write
your summary on a separate sheet of paper. After you have written a draft of your
summary, compare it to that of another student who summarized the same reading
selection. Revise your summary to add or delete details, put information in logical order,
and clarify fuzzy language.
82
SEQUENCING AND CATEGORIZING INFORMATION
OBJECTIVES
• To sequence and categorize information by completing a time line and
answering questions
• To categorize survey responses and describe a sequence of steps
WHY IS THIS SKILL IMPORTANT? Review with students signal words that
indicate order and those words that point
By sequencing and categorizing informa- out similarities that can be used for classi-
tion, students structure information into a fication and categorization. Challenge stu-
form that is easier to understand and dents to add to these word lists.
remember. Understanding the sequence of Assign Activity 14 for students to com-
events is particularly important in history. plete independently. After students finish
Categorizing is also important for histori- the Applying the Skill activity, have them
ans as they seek to understand the rela- share their bar graphs and sequence charts
tionships between individuals, groups, with classmates.
and ideas. Categorizing information also
helps students recognize patterns.
TEACHING THE SKILL
Ask a volunteer to describe what he or she

did the day before. On the board, list each EL ACTIVITY Have English
behavior or event in the order in which it Learners rehearse their survey
occurred. Then have the class look for questions with one another before they
ways to categorize the student’s experi- survey other classmates. Encourage stu-
ences. For instance, students could catego- dents to write survey questions, then
rize events as school, family, chores, and so practice asking the questions, listening
forth, grouping all the school-related activ- to answers, and recording sample sur-
ities together, the family events together, vey results.
and so on.
83
Name Date Class
ACTIVITY 14: Sequencing and Categorizing Information

When you describe how to play a game, you probably explain it in the sequence,
or order, in which steps are done. You may also categorize, or classify, game strate-
gies to use in particular instances. By telling the sequence of steps and by categoriz-
ing the game moves, you help your listener better understand the game. When you
read, you can identify the sequence of events and categorize information to help you
make sense of the material you are reading.
LEARNING THE SKILL
To sequence information you put events and actions into the order in which
they took place. When you categorize information, you sort people, objects,
events, behaviors, or ideas into groups. Each group shares a common set of
characteristics.
Directions: Follow these steps to sequence and categorize information.
To sequence information:
1. Read the text. Look for dates that tell when things happen. Put the
events in order from earliest to most recent.
2. Note signal words that show order, such as first, next, second, then, last,
finally, and at last.
3. You can show the sequence on a diagram, such as on a flowchart or a

time line. Add arrows, numbers, or dates to show the order of events.
To categorize information:
1. Read the text. Identify characteristics shared by more than one group,

event, or individual.
2. Look for signal words, such as all, some, these, other, and another that point
out relationships among similar items.
3. Place similar items into a single category. Give the category a name.
4. Split large categories into smaller ones.
To sequence, you put events in the order in which they took place. To
categorize, you sort items into groups.
84
Name Date Class
ACTIVITY 14: Sequencing and Categorizing Information (continued)

Directions: Read the following passage. Then complete the time line and the questions
that follow.
In late June 1914, the heir to the Austro-Hungarian throne, the

Archduke Franz Ferdinand, was assassinated by a Bosnian revolution-
ary named Gavrilo Princip. The Austro-Hungarian government blamed
Serbia for the attack and declared war on Serbia on July 28, 1914.
Because Russia competed with Austria-Hungary for influence in south-
eastern Europe, the Russian army began mobilizing in defense of Serbia
on July 30. On August 1, Austria-Hungary’s Triple Alliance partner,
Germany, declared war on Russia. On August 3, Germany also declared
war on Russia’s alliance partner France and began an invasion of west-
ern Europe by marching through Belgium. This invasion of Belgium
caused Great Britain to declare war on Germany on August 4, 1914.
The First World War was underway.
July 30, 1914
Franz Ferdinand Austria-Hungary

assassinated declares war
against Serbia
1. Which nations mentioned above would you categorize under Triple

Alliance?
A. Germany B. Austria-Hungary C. Great Britain D. Serbia

A. and France B. and Germany C. and Belgium D. and Russia
2. Which of the following statements best explains the start of World War I?
A. Gavrilo Princip single-handidly C. a complex alliance system
began the conflict magnified a regional conflict
into a continental one
B. German aggression started D. Austria-Hungary desired
World War I. control of all of Europe
APPLYING THE SKILL

Directions: Sequencing and Categorizing Information Conduct a survey of your class-
mates. Start by identifying a topic, such as pets. Collect information based on your topic,
such as the type and number of pets your classmates own. On a separate sheet of paper,
draw a bar graph based on the categories of information you gathered. Then draw a flow-
chart or make a numbered list to show the steps you followed to conduct your survey and
make the graph.
85
MAKING A STUDY GUIDE
OBJECTIVES
• To complete a study guide based on a reading passage
• To write study questions on a textbook lesson
WHY IS THIS SKILL IMPORTANT? Model the process of creating a word map
by drawing on the board the map shown
Learning to efficiently and effectively below. Point out the features of the map,
study is a critical goal for students. Many including the definition listed at the top,
students find it difficult to organize key the characteristics or traits listed on the
concepts and information into a format right, and the examples listed at the bot-
that they can then study. Learning to make tom of the map. Explain that a word map
flash cards, concept lists, word maps, can be an effective way to review complex
study questions, and diagrams can pro- information that might be tested in an
vide the tools students need to help them essay question.
study effectively for tests. Assign Activity 15 for students to com-
plete independently. You might want to
have all students write study questions
about the same textbook lesson. After stu-
dents finish, have them take turns asking
TEACHING THE SKILL and answering one another’s study ques-
tions. Encourage students to look up the
Ask students to share techniques they use answers to any questions that they cannot
to prepare for tests. Encourage students to answer from memory.
demonstrate their most effective strategies.
List students’ ideas on the board. Then
introduce the idea of creating a study
guide as a way to review key concepts, EL ACTIVITY For the Applying the
names, dates, and ideas in preparation for Skill activity, pair English Learners
a test. Explain that the format a study with fluent English speakers to buddy-
guide takes will vary based upon the types read the lesson and write study
of information students need to learn. questions.

Word Map
Definition: Each branch of government can use Characteristics:
checks, or controls, over the others.
Executive branch checks
on Congress and Courts
Legislative branch checks

Term: CHECKS AND BALANCES on President and on Courts
Judicial branch checks on

Examples: Congress refuses to President and on Congress
President vetoes
acts of Congress confirm presidential
appointment
86
Name Date Class
ACTIVITY 15: Making a Study Guide

Developing strong reading skills can help you to understand and remember what
you read. Even so, no matter how well you read, you need to study in order to do
well on tests. One of the best ways to study efficiently is to make a study guide. A
study guide includes all the dates, events, names, concepts, terms, and other infor-
mation you need to know in order to succeed on a test.
LEARNING THE SKILL
A study guide may include one or more parts, depending upon the informa-
tion you need to learn.
Directions: Follow these steps to make a study guide.
1. Make flash cards to help you learn important terms, names, and dates.
Write the word, date, or name on one side of the flash card. Write the
definition or explanation on the other side.
2. Organize information on a running concept list. Divide a sheet of paper

into two columns. Write terms, names, concepts, or dates in the left col-
umn. Write definitions, explanations, and descriptions in the right-hand
column.
3. Draw a word map to organize information about a specific term, place,

person, event, or time period. List the person, place, event, or term in the
center box. At the top of the page, write a short description or definition.
To the right, list characteristics of the person, place, event, or item. At the
bottom of the word map, list examples.
4. Write practice test questions and sample answers. Write your questions
in the same format as the test. For example, if the test will have multiple
choice questions, write multiple choice questions. If the test will have fill-
in-the-blank exercises, write your questions in that form.
5. Draw a diagram to graphically point out connections between related

ideas. Show similarities and differences in a Venn diagram. List related
ideas in a web or concept map. Analyze causes and effects in a cause-
and-effect chart.
A study guide contains the key concepts, names, dates, and ideas you
need to know for a test.
87
Name Date Class
ACTIVITY 15: Making a Study Guide (continued)

Directions: Read the following passage. Then use the information from the reading
to complete the concept list below. In the right column, write an explanation of each
word or date that appears in the left column.
The development of the modern computer began at the end of World
War II. The world’s first electronic digital computer, called ENIAC
(Electronic Numerical Integrator and Computer), went into operation in
February 1946. ENIAC weighed over 30 tons and took up as much floor
space as a medium-sized house. In 1957 Gordon Moore, Robert Noyce,
and other young scientists and engineers developed the first integrated
circuit—a complete electronic circuit on a single chip of the element sil-
icon—which made circuits vastly easier to manufacture. Other electron-
ics companies sprang up south of San Francisco, an area soon nick-
named Silicon Valley.
1. ENIAC 1.
2. integrated circuit 2.
3. Gordon Moore 3.

4. Silicon Valley 4.
APPLYING THE SKILL
Directions: Making a Study Guide Choose a lesson in a social studies or science text-
book. Read the lesson carefully. On a separate sheet of paper, write five questions about
the most important information. Write the answers too.
88
TEST-TAKING STRATEGIES
OBJECTIVES
• To use test-taking strategies to answer objective and essay questions
• To use and describe test-taking strategies to answer review questions
WHY IS THIS SKILL IMPORTANT? Then, choose a set of questions from an

old test or from a chapter review. Read
Tests are a reality of the school experience. each question aloud. Have students take
One way to help students perform well on turns using their own words to ask the
tests and to reduce testing anxiety is to question in another way. Have students
help students learn and practice effective point out key words and tell how the
test-taking strategies. Some students may words affect what the question asks.
intuitively apply such strategies. Those Assign Activity 16 for students to com-
who do not can learn effective strategies plete independently. You may want to
and should be encouraged to use them in have all students base the Applying the
authentic testing situations. Skill activity on the same set of review
questions.
TEACHING THE SKILL
On the board write the following test

questions.
EL ACTIVITY Review with English
• Which of the following did not contribute to
Learners the key words mentioned
the success of the Greek Empire?
in the student lesson. Encourage stu-
• This mineral is found only in __________.
dents to write each word and its defini-
• Describe what the immigrants saw when
tion on one side of an index card and a
they first landed in America.
sentence using the word on the opposite
One by one read the questions aloud. side of the card. Then allow these stu-
Model the process of interpreting each dents to work together to read and dis-
question by restating what information is cuss the Practicing the Skill passage and
asked for. Point out key words, such as its questions.
not, only, and describe.
89
Name Date Class
ACTIVITY 16: Test-Taking Strategies

Good preparation is the key to doing well on tests. Part of that preparation lies
in learning to read and interpret test questions. There are two basic types of test
questions—objective questions and essay questions. Objective questions can include
true/false, multiple choice, and fill-in-the blank or matching questions. Essay
questions require you to write one or more paragraphs in response to a question.
LEARNING THE SKILL
Some test-taking strategies apply to all tests. Others are specific to the type
of test given.
Directions: Follow these test-taking strategies.
1. Carefully read the directions.
2. Skim the test. Look at the types and difficulty of questions and the test
length. Decide how much time to spend on each test section or question.
If time is limited, answer easy questions first, then come back to the
harder ones.
3. Check your answers, as time permits.
For Objective Tests:

1. Read the entire question before answering. Read each answer choice.
2. Pay attention to key words such as not, only, always, never, and except.
3. Eliminate answers that are obviously wrong. Reconsider the remaining
ones. Choose the best answer, not the okay answer.
4. If the test contains a reading passage and you get stuck on a question,
skim the passage to hunt for a specific answer.

5. Watch your place. Make sure you fill in the correct blank or write the
answer beside the correct item number.
For Essay Tests:

1. Read the question several times. Look for key words that tell you how to
respond, such as describe, discuss, classify, compare, explain, summarize, and
evaluate.
2. Either mentally or on paper, quickly outline the main points you will
cover.
3. Write your essay, beginning with a strong introduction. Support your
points with specific facts and details. Wrap up with a strong closing.
4. Reread your answer to check for spelling and grammar. Revise as time
permits.
90
Name Date Class
ACTIVITY 16: Test-Taking Strategies (continued)

Directions: Read the following passage. Then use test-taking strategies to answer the
questions that follow by circling the letter of the correct answer or writing the answer
in the space provided.
In the early 1800s, religious leaders organized to revive Americans’
commitment to religion. The resulting movement came to be called the
Second Great Awakening. Various Protestant denominations—most often
the Methodists, Baptists, and Presbyterians—held camp meetings where
thousands of followers sang, prayed, and participated in emotional out-
pourings of faith. As membership in many Protestant churches swelled,
other religious groups also flourished, including Unitarians,
Universalists, and the Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints—
commonly known as Mormons.
1. Which of the following faiths is not mentioned as benefiting from the

Second Great Awakening?
A. Methodists B. Anglicans C. Baptists D. Unitarians
2. All of the following statements are true for the Second Great Awakening,
except
A. many Americans returned C. Mormons saw no benefit from
to a religious faith. the national movement
B. camp meetings attracted D. membership in many Protestant
thousands of worshipers churches grew
3. What activities occurred at the Second Great Awakening camp meetings?
4. What does the following essay question ask you to do?

Tell how life during the Industrial Revolution differed from that of the colonial days.
A. describe the daily life of C. contrast life during the two
the colonists periods
B. analyze the Industrial D. trace the changes in the
Revolution everyday lives of Americans
APPLYING THE SKILL
Directions: Test-Taking Strategies Choose a chapter or lesson review in a social studies

or other textbook. Read each question. Then, write which test-taking strategy or strategies
you could use to help you answer the question. Explain how the strategies you pick make
sense. Finally, write the answer to the review questions.
91
ANSWER KEY
Activity 1 Activity 3
Practicing the Skill Practicing the Skill
1. Native Americans of the eastern woodlands
K W L H
2. Algonquian, Iroquoian What do you know What do you want to What did you learn How can you learn
3. under the subheading The Peoples of the about this topic? find out? while reading? more?
Northeast Students’ answers

will vary. Typical
Students’ answers
will vary. Typical
Possible answers
include: pyramids
Students’ responses
will vary. Students
answers may include questions may were on west bank of may say they could
4. northeastern United States information related include: How were Nile; pyramids were use reference sources
to pharaohs, the Nile the pyramids built? tombs for pharaohs; to learn more about
River, and pyramid Why did the pyramids were made pyramid construction
Applying the Skill construction meth- Egyptians build the from limestone and and use encyclope-
ods. pyramids? How long granite; thousands of dias to learn more
1. Students should identify the topic of the did it take to build
them?
people worked on the
pyramids; workers
about Egypt and the
history of the
lesson. dragged rocks up pharaohs.
mud ramps.
2. Students should identify two vocabulary
words from the lesson.
3. Students should list three ideas, events, or
topics from the lesson.
Applying the Skill
Students should draw and complete a
Activity 2
K-W-L-H chart for a lesson in a textbook.
Practicing the Skill On the chart students should list prior knowl-
1. Students’ answers may reflect what they edge, identify questions they hope to answer
know about the Civil War, the rights of by reading, summarize what they read, and
African Americans, the U.S. Constitution, identify new questions and ways to learn
or specific amendments to the Constitution. more about the topic.
2. Students may say they would expect to
find information about the specific rights Activity 4
granted by the Thirteenth, Fourteenth, and
Practicing the Skill
Fifteenth Amendments, the dates when the
amendments passed, or how the passage of 1. in 1891; to ease the burden of the Supreme
the amendments affected life in the United Court
States. 2. those on appeal from lower district courts
3. Students should list two questions they or from federal regulatory agencies
have about the Thirteenth, Fourteenth, or 3. the right to a fair trial and the right to equal
Fifteenth Amendments or related issues. protection under the law
4. Students’ plans may mention reading slow- 4. Students’ answers will vary. Typical
ly, rereading to learn details, or using study answers may include rereading and reading
strategies such as outlining or taking notes. more slowly.
Applying the Skill Applying the Skill
Students’ answers should include three topics Students’ answers should contain a compari-
they predict they will find in the lesson, three son-and-contrast paragraph that describes
questions and two words or concepts related their comprehension of two kinds of reading
to the topic, and a plan they could follow to materials and the strategies they used to
meet their reading goals. understand each passage.
93
1. a 1. federalism, federal division of powers
2. d 2. II. F. Shared powers
3. b 3. I. B. 2. State “laboratories”; possible answer:
4. c a. successes; b. failures
4. Possible answers include: add more details,
Applying the Skill
reread text to check the accuracy of the
Students’ answers will vary but should list information
five words and the informal and dictionary
definitions for those words. Applying the Skill
Students’ outlines should follow the formal
outline style and list topics and subtopics in
Activity 6
a textbook lesson or chapter.
Topic: Women in California gold rush Activity 9
Main Idea: Women filled a variety of economic Practicing the Skill
roles during the gold rush.
1. South Africa; elevation map
2. the coastal areas
s,
y ,
dr es
ls e
:
te ss
ls
un ic
es
3. January
ai
ho sine
la erv
ily
et
ag
s
am
D
as d s
rw
m
as bu
g
ai
rf
tin
ch ide
fo
ch d
cl
4. Mexico City, Mexico; Toronto, Canada

fo
su ne
or
su ov
ed
d
ke
ow
pp
re
pr
in
or
Su
ca
Applying the Skill

Students’ paragraphs should describe how the
Applying the Skill map and chart or graph are related. Students
Students should write the main idea of a news should draw conclusions about the places on
article. the map and the data on the chart or graph.
Students’ notes will vary but may say that the 1. erupting volcanoes
British Parliament passed the Stamp Act, the 2. vent
law charged a tax on common products, the
3. lava
tax passed without colonists’ consent, and
colonists protested the Stamp Act. 4. Answers will vary. Students may say that
the diagram shows what goes on inside the

Students’ webs will vary. Typical answers are volcano and the photograph shows what an
shown. erupting volcano actually looks like.
Applying the Skill
Tax violates
Parliament makes tax
citizens’ rights Students’ answers should explain what the
photograph and diagram show, and compare
Stamp the information supplied by each visual. They
should tell which visual is more informative
Sons of Liberty Merchants boycott and explain why.
burn stamps British goods
Applying the Skill

Students’ notes will vary but should contain
the main points of a current events story and
should be organized in a way that makes
sense.
94
Time line answers: June 1914; July 28, 1914;
Russian army begins mobilizing to defend
Schools Today Schools of the 1800s
Serbia; August 1, 1914—Germany declares
war on Russia; August 3, 1914—Germany
• free public education
Both
• variations in schools declares war on France and invades Belgium;
• states pay for schools • parents or other groups
• mandatory attendance often paid
August 4, 1914—Great Britain declares war on
• importance of
• open to all education
• not mandatory Germany.
• some children excluded
1. B
2. C
Applying the Skill
Students’ bar graphs should group informa-
Applying the Skill tion into categories. Students’ lists of flow-
charts should show the sequence of steps they
Students should create a Venn diagram or
followed to conduct their surveys and make
comparison chart to compare and contrast the
their graphs.
views expressed in two letters to the editor.
You may wish to have students turn in the
letters with their assignments. Activity 15
Activity 12 1. the first electronic digital computer, letters
Practicing the Skill stand for Electronic Numerical Integrator
and Computer
1. B
2. a complete electronic circuit manufactured
2. C
on a single chip of silicon
3. A
3. One of the scientists who developed the
4. C first integrated circuits in 1957, making
Applying the Skill electronic circuits easier to manufacture.
Students should create a diagram that shows 4. A geographical area south of San Francisco
the cause-and-effect relationship of a current so nicknamed because many electronics
event. You may wish to have students attach a companies located there following the cre-
copy of the news account to their diagram. ation of the integrated circuit.
Applying the Skill
Activity 13 Students’ questions will vary. Students should
write five questions and the answers.
Sample summary: During the Renaissance

Italians valued and supported artists and their Activity 16
works. Three of the world’s most famous Practicing the Skill
artists worked during this period: Leonardo
1. B
da Vinci, Michelangelo Buonarroti, and
Raphael Santi. 2. C
3. singing, praying, emotional expression of
Applying the Skill
faith
Students’ summaries should be written in an
4. C
well-organized paragraph and should include
the main ideas and most important details Applying the Skill
from a section in a social studies text. Students’ answers will vary. Students should
tell what test-taking strategies they would use
and why. They should also write answers to
the review questions.
95

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To the Student . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . vii

Effective Classroom Procedures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6

Teaching Word Analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7

Activities to Reinforce Word Analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8

Effective Vocabulary Instruction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14

Teaching Active Reading Strategies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20

Copyright © by The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.

Teaching Reading and Thinking Skills . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24

Reproducible Graphic Organizers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31

Improving Reading Comprehension

Copyright © by The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.

What Are Reading Strategies?

Reading Strategy Inventory

the questions. Write your answers on a separate sheet of paper.

1. How do you choose what to read?

Reciprocal Teaching Process

Recognizing Text Structures

N a r ra t i v e Wr i t i n g Narrative writing is writing that tells a story. The writing

Copyright © by The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.

E x p o s i t o r y Wr i t i n g Expository writing is nonfiction writing that explains,

Exploring Expository Texts

Text Structure Signal Words

• Headings and subheadings reveal the hierarchy of ideas in a segment of text.

Skills and Strategies for Reading Expository Texts

Copyright © by The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.

• Activating Prior Knowledge and Building Background

• Setting a Purpose for Reading

Suggested Strategies for During Reading

• Identifying Main Ideas

Suggested Stra t e g i e s f o r After Reading

Copyright © by The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.

1. Initial Consonants 7. Phonograms

2. Final Consonants 8. Vowel Digraphs

3. Short Vowels 9. Vowel Diphthongs

4. Long Vowels 10. R-Controlled Vowels

5. Consonant Blends 11. Silent Letters

6. Consonant Digraphs 12. Syllabication and Morphemic Units

Copyright © by The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.

Initial Consonant Blends

blends with r blends with l blends with s 3-letter blends

/br/ spelled br /bl/ spelled bl /sk/ spelled sc /skr/ spelled scr

/kr/ spelled cr /kl/ spelled cl /sk/ spelled sk /skw/ spelled squ

/dr/ spelled dr /fl/ spelled fl /sm/ spelled sm /spl/ spelled spl

/fr/ spelled fr /gl/ spelled gl /sn/ spelled sn /spr/ spelled spr

/gr/ spelled gr /pl/ spelled pl /sp/ spelled sp /str/ spelled str

/pr/ spelled pr /sl/ spelled sl /st/ spelled st

/tr/ spelled tr /sw/ spelled sw

Final Consonant Blends

/ft/ spelled ft craft /nd/ spelled nd depend

/ld/ spelled ld child /nk/ spelled nk tank

/lf/ spelled lf shelf /nt/ spelled nt sent

/lk/ spelled lk silk /sk/ spelled sk risk

/lp/ spelled lp gulp /sp/ spelled sp clasp

/lt/ spelled lt wilt /st/ spelled st east

Consonant Digraphs Two consonants that together make one sound

/sh/ spelled sh shoelace, shore, shed, shade, refresh, flashlight, dashboard

/hw/ spelled wh wheeze, whimper, wheel, whisker, white, whisper, whenever

/f/ spelled ph phone, photo, physician, alphabet, orphan, typhoon, graph

Silent Consonants Two consonants in which one consonant is not sounded, or

/n/ spelled gn gnat, gnaw, gnome, gnash, gnarled