Design Project Title: 100,000 Mta of Soda Ash Production Plant

Y CHEMICAL SDN. BHD.
DESIGN PROJECT TITLE

100,000 MTA OF SODA ASH PRODUCTION PLANT
PLANT MANAGER
ASSOC. PROF. DR. MOHAMAD WIJAYANUDDIN ALI
DESIGN TEAM MEMBERS MATRIC NO.

DINESH A/L ARUMUGAM A13KK0026
MOHAMAD HANAFI BIN NOSLAN A13KK0053
NURNAZIHA BINTI MOHD SAAD A13KK0112
RIZMALINDA BINTI JAMALUDIN A13KK0127
SUBMISSION DATE
11TH JUNE 2017
ii
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
We would like to express our deepest gratitude to God as with the blessing this
project has successfully been completed.
First and foremost, we would like to express our sincere gratitude to our plant
design project supervisor, Assoc. Prof. Dr. Wijayanuddin Ali for the continuous
support for our design project, for his patience, motivation, enthusiasm and immense
knowledge.
Besides, a big thank is forwarded to Dr. Azizul Azri Mustaffa, Dr. Nor Alafiza
Yunus, Dr. Zarina Ab. Muis, Prof. Dr. Mohd. Rozainee Taib, Dr. Ramli Mat, Assoc.
Prof. Dr. Noorhalieza Ali, Dr. Muhammad Abbas Ahmad Zaini and Mr. Khairuddin
Ahmad for their endless guidance and comments for continuous improvement. Also,
we would like to thank all UTM friends for their support and valuable inputs regarding
the project. As well, we also wish to express our gratitude to our beloved family
members who are always being there for us through thick and thin.
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EXECUTIVE SUMMARY
Soda ash also known as sodium carbonate is an important raw material and
chemical intermediates which is used primarily in growing industries in Asia-Pacific
such as glass manufacturing, detergents and soap manufacturing, other chemicals such
caustic and others, etc. Therefore, Y Chemical Sdn. Bhd. has proposed an integrated
production plant which focuses on producing 100,000 MTA of soda ash to be
constructed at Gebeng Industrial Estate, Pahang. Soda ash is synthesized by Dual
process, also known as modified Solvay. The reaction involved sodium chloride,
ammonia, water and carbon dioxide as the reactant to produce soda ash and having
ammonium chloride as by-product. The main reactions, carbonation and calcination,
occur at a conversion of 75% and 100% respectively. The ultimate objective of the
design project is to produce a high purity of soda ash as high as 99.99% fulfilling the
industrial standard purity for soda ash.
Besides, equipment optimization, heat exchanger network and wastewater

treatment also have been included in the design project to maximize the energy
recovery and profit as well. Complete P&ID is drawn based on the compilations of
individual equipment’s control systems. As well, process safety studies have been
carried out to analyze the potential hazards and implement safety measures to
overcome them. Furthermore, comprehensive equipment sizing and costing is done to
evaluate the Total Capital Investment (TCI). Based on economic evaluation, TCI for
the plant is about RM 230 million while the rate of return (ROR) after tax and pay-
back period is observed at 40% and 6 years at interest rate of 20% respectively. Thus,
it can be said that the design project has met the target and the plant is feasible and
economical to build and operate over years.
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TABLE OF CONTENTS
CHAPTER TITLE PAGE
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT ii
EXECUTIVE SUMMARY iii
TABLE OF CONTENTS iv
LIST OF TABLES xiv
LIST OF FIGURES xviii
LIST OF SYMBOLS xxi
LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS xxiv
LIST OF APPENDICES xxvi
1 CHEMICAL PRODUCT BACKGROUND 1
1.1 Soda Ash as Chemical Product 1
1.2 Application of The Chemical Product 3
Glass Production 3
Flat Glass 4
Glass Container 4
Industrial Chemical Uses 4
Soap and Detergent Production 5
Environmental Applications 5
Pulping and Bleaching Operation 6
1.3 Physical and Chemical Properties 6

v
1.4 Market Survey 8
Global Demand 9
Local Demand 12
1.5 List of Suppliers and Competitors 16
1.6 Current Market Price 16
1.7 Design Plant Capacity and Justification 17
1.8 Site Analysis 18
Factors in Deciding the Site Location 18
Land (Site Considerations) 18
Land Price 19
Raw Materials 19
Availability of Utilities: Water, Fuel and Power 19
Market Supply 20
Environmental Impact and Effluent Disposal 20
Local Community Considerations 20
Climate 21
Political and Strategic Considerations 21
Availability of Labor 21
Transportation 22
Overall of Several Strategic Locations 22
Teluk Kalong Kemaman, Terengganu 23
Gebeng Phase (IV) Industrial Area, Pahang 23
Tanjung Langsat Industrial Area, Johor 24
Kota Kinabalu Industrial Park, Sabah 25
Tanjung Kidurong, Sarawak 25
Site Screening and Selection 26
Tax Incentives 33
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Land Price 34
Utilities 35
Logistics 35
Labor 36
Raw Materials 37
Market Supply 38
Proposed Site and Plant Layout 38
Administration Area 39
Operation Site 39
1.9 Process Selection 42
Reaction Paths 42
Reaction Path 1: Leblanc Process 42
Reaction Path 2: Solvay Process 43
Reaction Path 3: Dual Process 43
Reaction Path 4: Carbonating Caustic Soda 44
Reaction Path 5: Monohydrate Process (Natural

Trona) 44
Economic Potential Analysis 45
Advantages and Disadvantages of Each Route 49
Justification on Selection 52
2 PROCESS CREATION AND SYNTHESIS 53
2.1 Source of Raw Materials 53
2.2 Specification of Raw Materials 55
2.3 Physical and Chemical Properties of Reactants and Products 56
Sodium Chloride 56
Water 57
Brine 58
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Ammonia 59
Carbon Dioxide 60
Ammonium Chloride 61
Sodium Bicarbonate 62
Soda Ash (Sodium Carbonate) 63
Toxicity Data of All Materials 64
2.4 5 Key Synthesis Steps of Soda Ash 66
Alternative 1 66
Step 1: Eliminate Differences in Molecular Type 66
Step 2: Distribute the Chemicals 69
Step 3: Eliminating Differences in Composition 71
Step 4: Eliminate Differences in Temperature,

Pressure and Phase 74
Step 5: Task Integration 77
Alternative 2 81
Step 1: Eliminate Differences in Molecular Type 81
Step 2: Distribute the Chemicals 81
Step 3: Eliminating Differences in Composition 83
Step 4: Eliminate Differences in Temperature,

Pressure and Phase 85
Step 5: Task Integration 87
Process Screening and Justification 89
Complete Process Flow Diagram (PFD) 92
3 BASE CASE MATERIAL & ENERGY BALANCES

(MANUAL) 93
3.1 Basis and Reference Conditions for Manual Calculations 93
3.2 Material and Energy Balances (Manual) 95

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General Assumptions and Formula 95
Summary of Material Balances (Equipment) 97
Summary of Energy Balances (Equipment) 100
Summary of Material and Energy Balances (Stream) 102
4 PRELIMINARY SIMULATION OF MATERIAL & ENERGY

BALANCE 104
4.1 Aspen Plus Simulation 104
4.2 Complete Process Flow Diagram (Aspen Plus) 106
4.3 Summary of Material and Energy Balances (Simulation) 108
4.4 Comparison Between Manual and Simulation Results 110
Justification on Deviations 112
5 INNOVATION/ LATEST TECHNOLOGY 113
5.1 Original PFD Before Innovation 113
Innovation/ Technology Applied 114
6 HEAT INTEGRATION 116
6.1 Introduction 116
6.2 Data Extraction 117
6.3 Problem Table Algorithm (PTA) 118
6.4 Heat Cascade 119
6.5 HEN-D Using Grid Diagram 120
6.6 Percentage of Utility Savings 123
6.7 Modification on PFD After HEN-D 124
7 PROCESS OPTIMIZATION 127

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7.2 Optimization on Selected Equipment 128
Sample Calculation 135
Justification on Optimization 137
8 WASTE MANAGEMENT 139
8.2 Waste Management Hierarchy 141
8.3 Classification of Waste in Soda Ash Production Plant 142
Process Effluent Wastes 143
Scheduled Wastes 144
8.4 Waste Treatment Approaches 145
Wastewater Treatment 145
Water Quality Standard Information 146
Alternative 1: Aeration Process 148
Alternative 2: Hollow Fiber Membrane Contactor 149
Justification on Selection 150
Treatment Plant Layout 151
Scheduled Waste Treatment 153
Regulations and Management Procedures 154
9 EQUIPMENT SIZING AND COSTING 157
9.2 Major Equipment 158
Mixer 1/ Dissolver 158
Ammonia Absorption Tower 159
Carbonation Reactor 160
Rotary Drum Filter 162
Calciner (Pyrolysis Furnace) 163

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Separation Drum 164
Evaporator 165
9.3 Auxiliary Equipment 166
Heat Exchangers 166
Pumps 177
Compressors 179
10 PROCESS CONTROL AND INSTRUMENTATION 182
10.2 Procedures for Control System Design 184
10.3 Instrumentation in Control System 184
10.4 Individual Control System and Instrumentation 186
Dissolver (D – 1) 186
Ammonia Absorption Tower (V – 1) 188
Carbonation Reactor (R – 1) 190
Rotary Drum Filter (F – 1) 193
Calciner (R – 2) 195
Separation Drum (S – 1) 197
Evaporator (S – 2) 199
Heat Exchangers 202
Heat Exchanger (E – 4) 203
Pumps 209
Pump 1 (P – 1) 209
Pump 2 (P – 2) 211
Compressors 213
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Compressor 1 (K – 1) 213
Compressor 2 (K – 2) 215
11 PROCESS SAFETY STUDIES 217
11.2 General Process Safety Procedures 218
Basic Safety Rules 218
Detection of Possible Hazards 219
Housekeeping 221
Personal Protective Equipment 222
Storage of Chemical 224
Transportation 225
Plant Location 225
Utility 226
Flammability 227
Parameters of Flammability 228
Explosion 229
First Aid 229
General Safety in Soda Ash Plant 230
Personnel Protection 230
Handling of Soda Ash 231
Storage Characteristics 231
11.3 Introduction to HAZOP Studies 232
11.4 HAZOP Studies for Major Equipment 236
Dissolver 236

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Calciner 242
Separation Drum 244
Evaporator 245
11.5 HAZOP Studies for Auxiliary Equipment 247
Heat Exchangers 247
Pumps 249
Compressors 251
Relief Valve 252
11.6 Plant Start-up and Shut Down Procedure 253
General Plant Start-up 253
Pre-commissioning 254
Initial Start-up 255
Performance Runs 256
Plant Start-up Procedures 256
General Plant Shut-Down 258
Plant Shut Down Procedure 258
Plant Emergency Shut-Down 259
Automatic Shut-Down 260
Individual Equipment 260
Dissolver 260
Calciner 264
Separation Drum 266
Evaporator 266
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Heat Exchangers 269
Pumps 272
Compressors 274
12 MECHANICAL DESIGN 275
12.2 Mechanical Design of Separation Drum, S-1 276
12.3 Vessel Design Data Summary 279
12.4 PV Elite Vessel Analysis Program: Input Data 280
PV Elite Complete Design of Every Component 281
13 ECONOMIC ANALYSIS 219
13.2 Grass-roof Capital 219
13.3 Fixed and Total Capital Investment Cost 221
13.4 Material, Product and Utilities Cost 223
13.5 Labour Cost 224
13.6 Manufacturing Cost and Total Production Cost 225
13.7 Cash Flow Analysis 227
13.8 Concluding Remarks 233
REFERENCES 234
APPENDICES 237
xiv
LIST OF TABLES
TABLE NO. TITLE PAGE
1.1 Physical and chemical properties summary of soda ash 7

1.2 Stability and reactivity data of soda ash 7
1.3 List of suppliers and competitors 16
1.4 Site screening rubrics 26
1.5 Comparison between Gebeng, XXX and YYY 29
1.6 Tax categories of incentives provided by government in
Malaysia 34
1.7 Land price in Gebeng, Kuantan, Pahang 34
1.8 Electric Tariff for designed plant 35
1.9 Water Tariff for industrial usage in Pahang 35
1.10 Properties and Prices of Raw Material, Product and
By-products 45
1.11 Advantages and disadvantages of different reaction paths 49
1.12 The matrix illustration of the reaction path selection 51
2.1 Sources available for raw materials in sodium chloride
production 54
2.2 Raw Materials with their respective specifications (assuming
continuous operation) 55
2.3 Thermo-physical properties data of sodium chloride 56
2.4 Thermo-physical properties data of water 57
2.5 Thermo-physical properties data of brine 58
2.6 Thermo-physical properties data of ammonia 59
2.7 Thermo-physical properties data of carbon dioxide 60
2.8 Thermo-physical properties data of ammonium chloride 61
xv
2.9 Thermo-physical properties data of ammonium chloride 62

2.10 Thermo-physical properties data of soda ash 63
2.11 Toxicity Data for each compound involved in reaction 64
2.12 Gross Profit for each reaction pathway of soda ash 66
2.13 Physical properties summary of components in separation
system 71
2.14 Alternatives screening based on selected criteria 89
3.1 Summary of material balances (manual) 97
3.2 Summary of energy balances (manual) 100
3.3 Summary of material and energy balances (stream) 102
4.1 Unit operations used in Aspen simulation 107
4.2 Summary of material and energy balances (simulation) 108
4.3 Comparison of MEB between manual and simulation data 111
6.1 Stream data for heat integration 117
7.1 LP method Excel tool along with percentage of flowrate errors
and heat duty saving 131
7.2 Annualised capital cost of evaporator data summary 132
7.3 Annualised operating cost and total cost (utility cost + capital
cost) 133
8.1 Options of waste management 141
8.2 Waste stream compositions and conditions 143
8.3 Standard parameters for Standard A and Standard B 147
8.4 Comparison between Alternative 1 and Alternative 2 150
8.5 Regulations of scheduled wastes treatment 154
9.1 Equipment data sheet for dissolver 158
9.2 Equipment data sheet for ammonia absorption tower 159
9.3 Equipment data sheet for carbonation reactor 161
9.4 Equipment data sheet for rotary drum filter 162
9.5 Equipment data sheet for calciner 163
9.6 Equipment data sheet for separation drum 164
9.7 Equipment data sheet for evaporator 165
9.8 Equipment data sheet for heat exchanger 1 167
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9.19 Equipment data sheet for pump 1 178
9.20 Equipment data sheet for pump 2 179
9.21 Equipment data sheet for compressor 1 180
9.22 Equipment data sheet for compressor 2 181
10.1 Piping and instrument diagram legends 185
10.2 Control system for dissolver 186
10.3 Control system for ammonia absorption tower 188
10.4 Control system for carbonation reactor 190
10.5 Control system for rotary drum filter 193
10.6 Control system for furnace 195
10.7 Control system for separation drum 197
10.8 Control system for evaporator 199
10.9 Control system for heat exchanger (E – 4) 203
10.12 Control system for pump 1 209
10.13 Control system for pump 2 211
10.14 Control system for compressor 1 213
10.15 Control system for compressor 2 215
11.1 HAZOP study for dissolver 236
11.2 HAZOP study for ammonia absorption tower 238
11.3 HAZOP study for carbonation reactor 239
11.4 HAZOP study for rotary drum filter 241
11.5 HAZOP study for calciner 242
11.6 HAZOP study for separation drum 244
11.7 HAZOP study for evaporator 245
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11.8 HAZOP study for representative of heat exchangers 247

11.9 HAZOP study for representative of pumps 249
11.10 HAZOP study for representative of compressors 251
11.11 HAZOP study for relief valve 252
11.12 Start-up and shut down of general heat exchangers 270
12.1 Separation drum mechanical design data summary 279
12.2 Input data summary for vessel analysis 280
12.3 Input data for vessel elliptical heads 281
12.4 Input data for vessel cylinder 281
12.5 Input data for vessel platforms 282
12.6 Input data for nozzles 283
12.7 Input data for support system (legs) 284
13.1 Grass-Root Capital (GRC) summary 220
13.2 Total Capital Investment (TCI) 222
13.3 Material, Product and Utilities Costing 223
13.4 Labour Costing 225
13.5 Manufacturing expenses summary 226
13.6 General expenses summary 227
13.7 Undiscounted cash flow analysis (exported from Excel) 229
13.8 Discounted factor cash flow analysis for 5% & 20% & 33% 230
xviii
LIST OF FIGURES
FIGURE NO. TITLE PAGE
1.1 Molecular formula of soda ash 1

1.2 Global soda ash market demand by applications (ANSAC, 2017) 9
1.3 Global soda ash market demand by regions (ANSAC, 2017) 10
1.4 Market forecast of soda ash (IHS) 11
1.5 Soda ash prices for year 2015 contracts in US 12
1.6 US exports of soda ash to Malaysia in 2016 (till November) 14
1.7 US exports of soda ash to Malaysia in 2014 and 2015 15
1.8 US exports of soda ash to Malaysia in 2013 and 2014 15
1.9 US exports soda ash prices from 2013 till 2016 17
1.10 Gebeng Industrial Park in Pahang 33
1.11 Malaysia Labor Force Participant Rate (2016-2020) 37
1.12 Plant layout of soda ash production plant 41
2.1 Main reaction operations in light soda ash production 68
2.2 Process flowsheet of soda ash production showing the chemicals
distribution 70
2.3 Process flowsheet including separation units in soda ash
production 73
2.4 Temperature, pressure and phase changes (represented by green
arrow) in soda ash production 76
2.5 Task integration flowsheet on soda ash production 80
2.6 Main reaction operations in light soda ash production 82
2.7 Process flowsheet of soda ash production showing the chemicals
distribution 82
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2.8 Process flowsheet including separation units in soda ash

production 84
2.9 Temperature, pressure and phase changes (represented by green
arrow) in soda ash production 86
2.10 Task integration flowsheet on soda ash production 88
2.11 Complete process flowsheet for soda ash production (drawn
using Microsoft Visio) 92
4.1 Complete process flowsheet of soda ash production simulated
using Aspen Plus 106
5.1 Original process flowsheet before modification (Patel, 2010b) 113
6.1 Problem Table Algorithm (PTA) approach for heat integration of
designed process 118
6.2 Heat cascade to evaluate Tpinch, QH, min and QC, min 119
6.3 Heat exchanger network design (HEN-D) using grid diagram
(1st trial) 120
(2nd trial) 120
(3rd trial) 121
6.6 PFD before modification 124
6.7 PFD after modification 125
7.1 PFD with stream data of evaporator in previous design 128
7.2 Graphical illustration of annualised cost versus decision
variable (highlighting optimum point) 134
8.1 Hierarchy of waste management 141
8.2 Plant Layout of wastewater treatment 152
8.3 Scheduled waste treatment overall handling procedures 156
10.1 Typical close loop control system 185
11.1 Example of guide words (Crowl and Louvar, 2011) 234
11.2 Quick view on HAZOP procedure 235
12.1 Complete design of separation drum (front view) 276
12.2 Sketch mode design of separation drum with dimensions 277
12.3 The vertical vessel without platform or base supports 278
12.4 Base support system for designed vessel with bottom nozzle 278
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12.5 Elliptical type headed vessel, with feed and top nozzles 278
13.1 Undiscounted cash flow diagram (with i = 0%) 231
13.2 Cash flow diagram with varies interest rate 232
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LIST OF SYMBOLS
Symbol Explanation Unit
ρ Density kg/m3
MW Molecular weight g/mol
o
T Temperature C
o
Tb Boiling point temperature C
o
Tm Melting point temperature C
∆Tm Mean temperature difference o
C
o
TLM Log mean temperature C
∆Tmin Temperature minimum difference o
C
P Pressure atm
Pvap Vapor pressure atm
Hofus Heat of fusion J/g
̂ 𝑓o
∆𝐻 Standard heat of formation J/g
̂𝑐 o
∆𝐻 Standard heat of combustion J/g
∆Hv Heat of vaporization kJ/kg
Hosol Heat of solution J/g
Cp Specific heat capacity J/g.K
SG Specific gravity Dimensionless
𝑚̇ Mass flowrate g/hr
F Mass flowrate g/hr
𝑛̇ Mole flowrate mol/hr
x Mass fraction Dimensionless
y Mole fraction Dimensionless
∆H Enthalpy kW
xxii
Qc Cooling duty kW
QH Heating duty kW
o
Tpinch Pinch temperature C
Xp Product mole fraction Dimensionless
XF Feed mole fraction Dimensionless
V Volume m3
Q Heat duty kW
A Area ft.2
AR Radiant surface area ft.2
Ac Convective surface area ft.2
AHX Heat Exchanger area ft.2
U Heat coefficient Btu/hr.ft2.oF
BOD Biological oxygen demand ppm
COD Chemical oxygen demand ppm
SS Suspended solid ppm
FM Material of construction factors Dimensionless
Rpm Revolution per minute Rev/min
D Diameter m
Di Internal diameter m
Do Outer diameter m
E Fractional weld efficiency Dimensionless
Tc Corrosion allowance in.
W Weight Ib
ts Shell thickness in.
S Maximum allowable stress psi
Pd Design pressure psig
θ Retention time sec
z Height ft.
H Henry’s Law constant Dimensionless
∆Pflood Pressure drop at flooding mmH2O/m
Uf Flooding velocity ft./s
N Number of plates Dimensionless
LT Length of tube ft.
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H Pump head ft.

PB Brake horsepower BHp
PC Power consumption Hp
V Basic wind speed mile/hr
Cp Purchase cost $
CBM Bare-module cost $
Co Operating cost $
Cv Vessel cost $
CA Agitator cost $
CPL Platform cost $
Cpacking Packing cost $
Cc Contingency cost RM
Cf Fees cost RM
CTBM Total bare module cost RM
CSD Site cost RM
CAB Auxiliary cost RM
COS Offsite cost RM
i Interest rate %
DOF Degree of freedom Dimensionless
xxiv
LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS
CUF - Central Utilities Facilities

DCFRR - Discounted Cash Flow Rate of Return
DHFORM - Enthalpy formation
DGFORM - Ideal gas Gibbs free energy of formation
DOE - Department of Environment
EIA - Environmental Impact Assessment
EP - Economic Potential
EPA - Environment Protection Agency
EQA - Environmental Quality Act
FCI - Fix Capital Investment
GRC - Grass-Root Capital
GP - Gross Profit
HAZOP - Hazard and Operability Analysis
HEN-D - Heat Exchanger Network Design
LP - Linear Programming
MEB - Mass & Energy Balance
MER - Maximum Energy Recovery
MTA - Metric tonnes per Annum
MSDSs - Material Safety Data Sheet
NPV - Net Present Value
OSHA - Occupational Safety and Health Act
PBP - Payback Period
PFD - Process Flow Diagram
P&ID - Piping and Instrumentation Diagram
PPE - Personal Protective Equipment
PTA - Problem Table Algorithm
xxv
TCI - Total Capital Investment

WM - Waste Management
VOCs - Volatile Organic Chemicals
xxvi
LIST OF APPENDICES
APPENDIX TITLE PAGE
A Material Balances 237

B Energy Balances 251
C Equipment Sizing and Costing 274
D Material Safety Data Sheets of Soda Ash 347
CHAPTER 1
CHEMICAL PRODUCT BACKGROUND
1.1 Soda Ash as Chemical Product
Soda ash, also known as sodium carbonate, is one of inorganic chemicals that
are produced in large amounts in the world. It can be made from mineral trona or
sodium carbonate-bearing brines which mainly found in United States and other parts
of Africa, or from the chemical reaction of primarily salt and limestone. Globally, two
types of soda ash are being made which are natural and synthetic. United states focused
in producing soda ash more on natural type since it is the world’s largest natural deposit
of trona. It makes United States natural soda ash is highly competitive in world markets
because majority of the world soda ash is made synthetically which is costlier to be
manufactured. Figure 1.1 shows the molecular structure of sodium carbonate.
Figure 1.1 Molecular formula of soda ash

2
Referring to Day (1998), the history of U.S. soda ash industry begins in the
early seventeen centuries, when the Jamestown settlers wanted a source of alkali to
manufacture their glassware, this effort was continued until the late nineteenth century.
During this time, natural soda ash deposits were developed in the West while the
synthetic soda ash plants were build up in the East. This manufacturing soda ash were
withstanding until the twentieth century. Some of the operations started to shut down
little by little until it is hard to prove that they once existed. U.S. history shown that
the product was in strong demand due to the Industrial Revolution of the nineteenth
century, World Wars I and II, and the Korean Conflict. All of the chemical, glass and
metals industries are relying on the soda ash production.
Downturn of soda ash needs is during the development of LeBlanc process

which was introduced by a French Chemist Nicolas LeBlanc in September 1791. This
process was caused a formation of hydrochloric acid as by-product and least amount
of soda ash being produced. Besides, the soda ash also was called “black ash” due to
the dark colour of the unreacted coal. LeBlanc’s patent and factory were confiscated
during French Revolution. This tragedy was caused a failure to him and he became a
ruined man. At last, LeBlanc was committed suicide in 1806. The soda ash production
continues to develop especially in 1854, when a small lake near the present town of
Fallon, Churchill County, Nevada in the U.S. is being used to extract the natural soda
ash deposit. In history, it was the first of soda ash deposit to be commercialized.
In 1861, after realizing the impacts from Leblanc process, a Belgian industrial
chemist Ernest Solvay was discovered another method of producing soda ash. It uses
salt, limestone, ammonia and coal to manufacture it. One of the secret successes is
they were adding of carbonating towers in the process. The speciality of this process
is the ammonia recovery system making it less harmful to the environment. In fact,
this process has been patent and it becomes most world’s soda ash manufacture in
1890. In addition, the materials used in the Solvay process are inexpensive and
plentiful. Thus, it makes soda ash production market became a flourishing industry
with several plants opening over the world.
3
Idea of manufacturing soda ash continue over time especially in 1980. The new
process was named as Dual process which is also known as modified Solvay process
because the founder made some modifications to the initial Solvay process. It was
established and operated in Japan. The difference that has been made is, it does not
required limestone as a raw material, it makes the Dual process became cheaper in
terms of chemical usage. Besides, Solvay process is recovering the ammonia during
the process, however in the Dual process, it retained the ammonium chloride and
crystallized out by separating it using several amounts of sodium chloride. The
advantage of separating ammonium chloride is because it could be a great quality of
fertilizer and can be commercialized. Thus, Dual process is the most preferable way
of producing synthetic soda ash and in fact, it has become widely used over the world
especially in China.
1.2 Application of The Chemical Product
There are various applications of soda ash especially in growing industries

such as glass manufacturing, detergents and soap manufacturing, other chemicals
such caustic and others, etc.
Glass Production
Sodium carbonate is common used in glass industry as one of the glass

components, and it is used to reduce the melting point of silica. In fact, more than 50%
of total soda ash produced over the world is used for this purpose. It is the greatest part
of the world’s soda ash production. This is due to its advantages on reducing the
melting temperature of the sand used in glass formulations as well as the alkali efficacy
supports the shaping of the glass item. Thus, it limits glass calciner life and saves
energy cost.
4
Flat Glass
The flat glass industry mainly produces glass used in the building sector such
as private and public housing, after-market segment such as windows and door
segments. Besides, it is also highly used in automotive industry especially in tempered
glass manufacture. A significant growth in this industry had experienced during the
last decades, increasing vehicle over the world resulting in increasing use of glass, as
well as in modern buildings and in renovation. Moreover, the invention of the double
or triple glazing windows, which are used to improve the thermal performance, is one
of the key factors of the flat glass industry development.
Glass Container
The Glass Container industry manufactures and supplies a huge variety of

products, such as bottles for beers, wines, juices, food containers, containers for
pharmaceuticals, cosmetics and many more. Packaging glass can be available either in
transparent, clear form or in different colours for instance, dark brown containers for
beer and many shades of green containers for wine. This glass also has a user-friendly
environment due to its ability not to react with the contents and together with its full
recycling capability. Thus, it makes glass a tremendously valued raw material for the
packaging industry.
Industrial Chemical Uses
Soda ash is used in many chemical reactions because it is highly soluble

especially in water and glycerol. It is being used as raw material in the manufacturing
of various chemical fertilizers, production of artificial sodium bentonites, synthetic
detergents, and dyes and colouring agents. Besides, it is also used as a chemical agent
in the petroleum, enamelling, fats, flues and gelatine industries.
5
Furthermore, due to the its solubility and reactivity in water, it is also become
a primary raw material to produce other chemicals such as sodium phosphates, sodium
silicates, photographic chemicals, chrome chemicals and sodium bicarbonate, which
can be used as an additive in the food, beverage, detergent and coatings.
Soda ash also is identical with caustic soda. Thus, it can be applied as a
functional substitute for caustic soda and indirectly offering a good profit. Some of the
applications are pH adjustment, production of sodium chemicals such as sodium
sulphate and sodium phosphates, craft pulping and flue gas desulfurization.
Soap and Detergent Production
Many common household products include varying amounts of soda ash as

part of their formula. Sodium carbonate is replacing the phosphates previously used in
many household detergents. The addition of soda ash is to prevent hard water from
bounding with the hard water. It allows a more dispersion of the cleaning agent during
the cleansing time. Besides, soda ash is also very efficient in removing grease stains
and alcohol from clothing.
Commonly, medium dense or lighter dense of soda ash are being used in
manufacturing detergents. It is due to some of soda ash benefits such as promoting
agglomeration, being a carrier for surfactants and source of alkali for pH adjustment.
Environmental Applications
Soda ash is commonly used in water treatment to raise the pH of acidic water
by injecting it into a water system. Some of the examples are to improve the alkalinity
of lakes affected by acid rain and in reducing acid content of power plant emissions.
Advantages of using soda ash over calcite and magnesia, it does not create hardness
6
problems in treated water and it can treat water with a pH as low as 4. It is also sensitive
to temperature and works optimally at ambient temperature.
Carbonate hardness can be removed by lime-soda ash treatment. When soda

ash is being used together with calcium (II) hydroxide, or slake lime, the minerals
responsible for hardness from nearly insoluble precipitates. Calcium hardness and
magnesium hardness are precipitated as calcium carbonate and magnesium hydroxide
respectively. These two precipitates are then removed by some of processes such as
filtration, coagulation and sedimentation.
Pulping and Bleaching Operation
Soda ash is possible to replace caustic soda on many pulp bleaching

applications such as caustic extraction or hydrogen peroxide bleaching of chemical or
mechanical pulps. Its fiber line can be used by paper mill industry. This is because the
efficacy of soda ash where it works well with the low or moderate level alkaline pH.
In addition, soda ash also being used with oxygen in manufacturing pulp and it is used
as a source of mild alkaline dose to maintain desired pH.
1.3 Physical and Chemical Properties
Soda ash is a white, odourless and granular solid. It is non-combustible and can
be reacted with acids to release carbon dioxide gas and heat. This product may irritate
skin, eyes and respiratory tract. It is also not toxic to the environment, nor to aquatic
organisms. Simultaneous exposure to soda ash need to be avoided. If moisture is
presence, soda ash and lime dust can combine to form caustic soda (NaOH) which may
cause burns. The physical and chemical properties of soda ash from Material Safety
Data Sheet (MSDSs) is summarized as shown in Table 1.1 below. The complete
7
MSDSs from 3 different sources or industries are presented in Appendices. While, the
toxicity data is presented in Table 1.2.
Table 1.1 Physical and chemical properties summary of soda ash

Properties Specifications
Chemical formula Na2CO3
Molecular mass 105.99
Odor Odorless
pH 11.4 (1% solution in water)
Boiling point (oC) Decomposes
Melting point (oC) 851
Specific gravity 2.52
0.86 – 1.12 (Dense grades)
Bulk density (g/cm3)
0.70 – 0.90 (Light grades)
Heat of fusion (J/g) 316
Specific heat capacity at
25oC 1.043
(J g-1 K-1)
Heat of formation (J/g) 10.676
Heat of solution (J/g) -222
Crystal structure Monoclinic
Miscible with water and glycerol,
Solubility
Insoluble in alcohol, acetone & ether
Reactivity None under normal use conditions
Stability Hygroscopic
Flammability No
Table 1.2 Stability and reactivity data of soda ash

Stability and Reactivity
Chemical stability Hygroscopic.
Reactivity None under normal use conditions.
8
1. Exposure to water (moisture) with some metals.

Possibility of
2. Violent exothermic reaction with some metals.
hazardous reactions
3. Reacts with strong oxidizers.
1. Raising dust.
Conditions to avoid 2. Keep away from naked flames or heat.
3. Exposure to moisture over prolonged periods.
Incompatible Aluminium, (strong) acids, zinc and powdered
materials aluminium.
Hazardous
decomposition Carbon oxides (COx) and sodium oxides.
products
1.4 Market Survey
In 2015, the global soda ash market size was USD 15.94 billion. World soda
ash production was estimated to be 53.4 million metric tonnes, slightly more than the
revised total of 52.7 million metric tonnes in 2014. The production size in 2014, 2013
and 2012 was recorded as 52.7 million metric tonnes, 51.3 million metric tonnes and
51.7 million metric tonnes respectively. As for 2016, no specific market outlook yet to
be published. Based on Top Market Report of soda ash released by
MarketsandMarkets, the soda ash market is estimated to witness a Compound Annual
Growth Rate (CAGR) of 6.1% between 2014 and 2019 in terms of value, and is
anticipated to generate a global market value of $22,090 million by 2019.
Soda ash market faces a boost implication from the wider application in
growing industries such as glass especially from container and flat glass sectors,
chemicals, soap & detergent, pulp & paper, metallurgy, water treatment and many
more manufacturing industries. Figure 1.2 depicts that the market demand of soda ash
in glass industry covers around 50%, followed by chemicals, soap and detergents, and
others which fill the rest 50% of market demand. This glass application segment is
expected to generate over 35 million tons by 2024 and is supposed to account for just
9
under 50% of the entire demand. Soda ash demand for soaps & detergents is highest
in India and accounted for over 35% of the regional market.
Figure 1.2 Global soda ash market demand by applications (ANSAC, 2017)
Global Demand
Besides applications, market demand of soda ash can be globally differentiated

based on regions as shown in Figure 1.3. The market is anticipated to increase
significantly in Asia-Pacific, followed by Europe and North America due to the
increasing demand in building and construction, and soaps and detergent industry
which are projected to register a CAGR of around 3.0% between 2014 and 2019 in
terms of volume. China is the world’s largest consumer for soda ash products. The
major markets in developing countries include China, India, South-East Asian and
South American countries; whereas major markets in developed countries include
U.S., and Russia.
10
Figure 1.3 Global soda ash market demand by regions (ANSAC, 2017)
Furthermore, increasing demand for glass and soaps & detergents also make
Asia-Pacific an attractive market for capacity expansion. Asia-Pacific is the fastest
growing soda ash market across the world, followed by North America and Europe.
The opportunities are cited in growing residential requirements in China and India;
and fast growing economies in South East Asia. Chemical industry is also expected to
present opportunities, supported by favourable growth in paper industry and improved
food processing industries, the overall market remains attractive for coming years. In
2017, it was forecasted by IHS that the global demand for soda ash spotted highest in
Middle East, Indian Subcontinent and Northeast countries as shown in Figure 1.4.
11
Figure 1.4 Market forecast of soda ash (IHS)
Some key players in soda ash market are Solvay SA (Belgium), Tata Chemicals
Limited (India), FMC Corporation (U.S.), OCI Chemical Corporation (U.S.), Nirma
Limited (India), Ciech SA (Poland), Soda Sanayii AS (Turkey), GHCL Limited
(India), DCW Limited (India), and Oriental Chemical Industries (Korea).
However, soda ash is expected to witness increasing competition from

substitutes such as caustic soda, sodium silicate, etc. over the next eight years,
considered as one of the limitations. Also, rising prices of trona due to its limited
availability in markets other than North America is considered to affect the price of
natural soda ash. Synthetic product production being highly energy intensive process,
escalating energy cost has drastically altered the product pricing despite its lower
demand.
Low cost of natural soda ash is likely to benefit the producers in the U.S.,
Turkey, and others. Referring to market outlook published by ICIS, soda ash market
in US has enjoyed strong demand for the past two years, followed by short term
negative trend, while for 2016 remains positive. Figure 1.5 illustrates the fluctuation
of soda ash prices over months in 2015 which shows the positive comeback by the end
of the year. Based on USGS 2014 report, it was known that the total exports of soda
ash in 2013 and 2014 were around 6.47 million metric tonnes and 6.67 million metric
12
tonnes with average price per unit of $187/metric tonne and $195/metric tonne
respectively. Per the U.S. Census Bureau, U.S. exports of soda ash for year 2015 were
6.39 million metric tonnes, which represented about 55% of U.S. soda ash production.
Figure 1.5 Soda ash prices for year 2015 contracts in US
However, the quantity of soda ash exported from China declined to 1,978,049
tonnes in 2016 compared with 2,197,158 tonnes in 2015 (IndMin). Average export
prices also dropped to $194.63/tonne compared to year 2015 and 2014, in which the
average prices were $209.32/tonne and $217.39/tonne respectively.
Local Demand
As a part of Asia Pacific countries, Malaysia also contributes to the increasing

demand of soda ash for commercial purposes. Surprisingly, not many manufacturers
but traders are making their way to feed the soda ash market among Asia countries.
Since not much data available on local production of soda ash, the focus is turned onto
the import and export activities of soda ash especially from US. As known, China,
followed by US and India become the main exporters of soda ash to Asia Pacific
countries including Malaysia. Besides being an expensive exporter, the additional
costs such as logistics costs and others regarding supply of soda ash from US are being
13
concerned. Referring to USGS statistics in Figure 1.6, Figure 1.7 and Figure 1.8 below,
the quantity of soda ash being imported from US alone reached almost 106,000 MTA
in year 2016 compared to 80,000 metric tonnes in 2015, 85,000 metric tonnes in 2014
and 91,000 metric tonnes in 2013 respectively. In 2017 and onwards, the demand may
go higher up to 200,000 MTA including imports from China and India.
Figure 1.6 US exports of soda ash to Malaysia in 2016 (till November)
14
15
Figure 1.7 US exports of soda ash to Malaysia in 2014 and 2015
Figure 1.8 US exports of soda ash to Malaysia in 2013 and 2014

16
1.5 List of Suppliers and Competitors
Globally, there are abundance of suppliers including manufacturers and

exporters especially in China. As the target market has been fixed to reduce down the
exports of soda ash from US, therefore there are several major US suppliers whom
may become the competitors in soda ash production. The list of suppliers/competitors
are tabulated as shown in Table 1.3.
Table 1.3 List of suppliers and competitors

No. Suppliers/Competitors Plant Capacity
1. Tata Chemicals Limited (US) ≈2 million MTA
2. Tronox Alkali Wyoming Corporation ≈3.6 million MTA
3. Ciner Resources Corporation ≈3.25 million MTA
4. Soda Solvay (US) ≈7 million MTA
1.6 Current Market Price
As for exports from US, the price of soda ash increased over years and faced a
slight fall in year end of 2016 as shown in statistics above which is simplified in Figure
1.9 below. The average price of soda ash was recorded as $191, $200, $208 and $195
from 2013 till 2016 respectively. This significantly shows that the price of soda ash
may face a fall and an increase by the end of the year. According to data obtained from
MOLBASE, the price of soda ash being commercialised is $240/tonne.
17
US Soda Ash Price Flow From 2013 Till

2016
210
205 208
200
200
USD/MT
195
195
190
191
185
180
2013 2014 2015 2016
YEAR
Figure 1.9 US exports soda ash prices from 2013 till 2016
1.7 Design Plant Capacity and Justification
This project is aimed to cater the demand of local applications of soda ash by
reducing the imports of US soda ash which is believed to cost more compared to other
exporters. As known earlier, the local demand may rise up to 200,000 MTA in 2017,
therefore at least 50% of the quantities has been decided to be fed via designed plant.
The proposed capacity of the soda ash plant is 100,000 MTA, align with statistics
shown above. It is undeniable that there are several other major soda ash exporters
such as China and India, which may supply double the amount of US exporters.
However, several practical constraints found by accepting supply from US such as
product cost, transportation costs and local currency conversion value. Compared to
China and India, the soda ash produced by US is much expensive due to currency
conversion from US dollar to Ringgit Malaysia which is 1 USD ≈ RM 4.50. Besides,
transporting soda ash in large quantities from US is higher compared to nearby
countries such as Thailand and China (F and D, 1967). Thus, a cheaper soda ash
product and services will be produced and supplied to meet local needs by designing
this 100,000 MTA capacity of production plant.
18
1.8 Site Analysis
Factors in Deciding the Site Location
There are some factors that should be considered in selecting the suitable site.
This is very important because the characteristics of a site location will have a market
effect on the success or otherwise of a commercial venture (J., 2013). The choice of
the final site should be based on a complete survey of the advantages and
disadvantages of available industrial estates. However, only a brief review of the
principle factors is illustrated below.
The principle factors that possible need to be considered are:

1. Land (site considerations),
2. Land price,
3. Raw material,
4. Availability of utilities: water, fuel, power,
5. Market supply,
6. Environmental impact and effluent disposal,
7. Local community considerations,
8. Climate
9. Political and strategic considerations,
10. Availability of labor, and
11. Transport.
Land (Site Considerations)
Availability of the land is important and should be sufficient for future

expansion if any. Generally, the land should ideally be flat, well drained and have
suitable load-bearing characteristics. A full site evaluation is preferred to be made to
determine the need for piling or other special foundations.
19
Land Price
In order to reduce the total investment and construction cost, the preferred land
is the land with the most economical or reasonable prices. It is very vital to choose the
lowest land price when starting a new plant to gain the highest economic value for
chemical plant. Nevertheless, it should also provide storage and handling
infrastructures. Sufficient suitable land must be available for the proposed plant for
future expansion. The land characteristics (geological factors) at the proposed plant
site should be examined carefully by referring to respective authorities to get approval
and quotations.
Raw Materials
The source of raw materials is needed to be taken into account during the
selection process of the plant site. The closer the site to the raw materials suppliers,
the cost of transportation will be cheaper. On the other hand, the risk of losing the raw
material during transportation also can be reduced. In case it involves imports from
other countries, the site must be very near to a good seaport or any relevant spot.
Availability of Utilities: Water, Fuel and Power
Chemical processes invariably require large quantities of water for general

processes use, therefore the plant must be located near a source of water with suitable
standards. The water may be drawn from a river, from wells, or purchased from a local
authority. The cooling water required can be taken from a river, lake or even from the
sea. Thus, the site location with water reservoirs is preferable instead. In addition,
stable electrical power supply will be needed for the plant to run smoothly. The plant
that require large quantities of power to operate need to be located close to a cheap
20
source of power. Similarly, a competitively priced fuel must be available on site for
steam and power generation as well as in a continuous supply.
Market Supply
For materials that are produced in bulk quantities; such as soda ash where the
cost of the product per tonne and the cost of transportation play a significant fraction
of the sales price, so the plant should be located close to the primary market. This
consideration may be less important for low volume production, high-priced products.
In an international market, there may be an advantage to be gained by locating the
plant within an area with preferential tariff agreements. In fact, the site plant that is
close to the raw material suppliers and for the market buyers able to gain higher profit
margin.
Environmental Impact and Effluent Disposal
All industrial processes produce waste products, and full consideration must
be given for the disposal. The disposal of toxic and harmful effluents will be covered
by local regulations, and the appropriate authorities must be consulted during the initial
site survey to determine the standards that must be met. An environmental impact
assessment (EIA) should be made for each new project or major modification or
addition or an existing process based on local regulations.
Local Community Considerations
The proposed plant must be fit in with and be acceptable to the local
community. Full consideration must be given to the safe location of the plant so that it
does not impose a significant additional risk to the community. Align with Siting and
21
Zoning of Industrial and Residential Area (DOE, 2012), the heavy industrial area
should be located at least 500 m away from the residential area to ensure the safe
production and healthy environment.
Climate
Adverse climatic conditions at a site will increase costs. Suitable climate can
make the plant operation run smoothly. Thus, the location that has climate obstacle
such as flood, earthquake and heavy downpour of rainfall needs to be avoided.
However, in Malaysia, it is neither big disasters nor extreme climate changes to be
worried of.
Political and Strategic Considerations
The political stability also very important in selecting the right site location as
it is going to affect the operation of the plant. Tax concessions and other inducements
are often given by governments to attract new investment to preferred locations.
Availability of Labor
As initial stage of construction and even operation of a plant, labors are

significantly needed. Skilled construction workers will usually be brought in from
outside the site area, and it is noted that the foreign labors require less salary than local
labors. Besides downline workers, skilled personnel or number of graduates are also
needed for plant operation and maintenance. Inexpensive manpower from the
surrounding area will contribute in reducing the cost of operation.
22
Transportation
The transport of materials and products to and from the plant will be an
important consideration in site selection. If practicable, a site should be selected that
is close to at least two major forms of transport such as road, rail or a sea port. Road
transport is being increasingly used, and is suitable for long- distance transport of bulk
chemicals. Air transport is convenient and efficient for the movement personnel and
essential equipment and supplies, and the proximity of the site to a major airport should
be considered.
Overall of Several Strategic Locations
After reviewing some factors that have significant effect on site location, a
study is done on several locations, which are suitable to construct a soda ash plant.
Basically, the manufacture of soda ash is categorized as a chemical based industry and
therefore must be sited in a special zone provided by the government.
The proposed main locations which, take into consideration to manufacture

100,000 MT / year of soda ash are short listed as below:
 Teluk Kalong, Kemaman, Terengganu.
 Gebeng Industrial Area , Kuantan, Pahang.
 Tanjung Langsat Industrial Area, Johor.
 Kota Kinabalu Industrial Park (KKIP), Sabah.
 Tanjung Kidurong Heavy Industrial Area, Sarawak.
These areas are considered because of its accessibility of natural gas,

geographical, transportation, labor and customers factors. The site also been chosen
because its nearer to the raw material supplier than West Malaysia.
23
Teluk Kalong Kemaman, Terengganu
Teluk Kalong Industrial Estate is about 9.6 km from Kemaman. This area is
proposed for petrochemical and heavy industry. The developer of Teluk Kalong is
Perbadanan Memajukan Iktisad Negeri Terengganu (PMINT). The price of the land is
in the range of RM 7,800,000 and the area still available is about 5 acres.
This area is supplied with water from Terengganu Waterworks Department

capacity and Kenyir Dam. For electricity, the suppliers are the Paka Power Plant
(900MW), IPP YTL Power Generation Sdn. Bhd. (600MW) and Tasik Kenyir
Hydroelectric Power (400MW).
This industrial area provide convenience in order to get the raw material, which
is ammonia due to the present of Petronas Chemical Group Sdn Bhd at Kertih. This
site also fulfils the requirement in term of transportation as for the seaport facility,
Teluk Kalong has the advantageous of having Kemaman Port, which is nearby (10km
away). Whereas, it also link by Kuala Terengganu - Kuala Lumpur New Highway and
Federal Road Kuala Terengganu – Kerteh - Teluk Kalong - Gebeng-Kuantan - Kuala
Lumpur.
Gebeng Phase (IV) Industrial Area, Pahang
The availability of vast industrial land for the chemical and petrochemical
industry at Gebeng Industrial Park has made it world class petrochemical
manufacturing zone. The selling price of land in Gebeng IV for industries is RM 15
per square feet and the available land is about 250 acres.
New infrastructure, facilities and supporting industries in this area will further
enhance Gebeng’s petrochemical industry development. These include the
construction of roads, to increase accessibility to and from this area. A railway link is
24
scheduled to connect Kuantan Port – Gebeng - Kemaman Port - Kerteh - Tok Arun.
Main road to Kuantan also provide ease of transportation of raw materials and
products. Kuantan Port can allow export and import activities run smoothly.
Sungai Semambu and Pengurusan Air Pahang Berhad become the source for
water supply at Gebeng Industrial Estate. Tenaga Nasional Berhad (TNB) provides
about 800 MW of electricity. Manpower can be obtained from local educational
institutions such as Polytechnic Kuantan and Kolej Yayasan Pahang.
Tanjung Langsat Industrial Area, Johor
Tanjung Langsat is located 42 km from Johor Bahru. The industrial park is

suitable for light, medium and heavy size industry. The total available industrial lands
are 13.345 acres with the selling price of RM 50 per square feet.
In term of electricity, there is Sultan Iskandar Power Station in Pasir Gudang

while the water supply can be obtained from Sungai Layang reservoirs from Syarikat
Air Johor (SAJ). In term of transportation, an easy-to-accessed network of well-
planned highways and railways serves Tanjung Langsat. Besides, Tanjung Langsat is
near to Senai International Airport and 55 km from Changi Airport and just 6 km from
Johor Port at Pasir Gudang. Excellent road network can be access where 1.2 km
causeway to Singapore. Second Link to Singapore at Tuas and Tanjung Kepang and
the North – South Highway runs all the way from Bukit Kayu Hitam in the north to
Johor Bahru in south.
Besides, manpower can be obtained easily from local educational institutions

such as Universiti Teknologi Malaysia and UiTM Pasir Gudang.
25
Kota Kinabalu Industrial Park, Sabah
KKIP is located 25 km north of the central business district of Kota Kinabalu,

35km north of the Kota Kinabalu International Airport and only 5 km away from the
deep-sea container port of Sapangar Bay. The Labuan Federal Territory, which has
been designated as Free Port and International Offshore Financial Center (IOFC) is
accessible by only half an hour flight from Kota Kinabalu. This easy access to financial
facilities from the IOFC makes KKIP ideal as a strategic location for investments.
Sabah Economic Development Corporation (SEDCO) initially conceived the

KKIP project in early 1990, and K.K.I.P Sdn. Bhd was incorporated as a subsidiary
company of owned by SEDCO. The available land is about 2.56 acres with selling
price about RM 4,300,000.
In terms of accessibility, the city of Kota Kinabalu also ideal for international
businesses with the availability of direct international flights from and to major cities
in the region such as Kuala Lumpur, Bangkok, Manila, Singapore, Hong Kong, and
Taipei. Besides, Sapangar Port, which is located only 5 km away from KKIP is a deep-
sea port poised to become the main hub for international trade shipping.
Tanjung Kidurong, Sarawak
Sarawak is separated from Peninsular Malaysia to the west by about 600 km

of South China Sea and directly adjoins the State of Sabah to the north-east where the
sultanate of Brunei forms a double enclave. Inland, the State borders with Kalimantan,
Indonesia.
Tanjung Kidurong, Bintulu, is an industrial area with well-developed facilities

to cater for the establishment of petrochemical projects. This industrial land is situated
at Tanjung Kidurong, some 20 km from Bintulu town and 10 km from the new
26
Kidurong township. The industrial which is known as Kidurong Heavy Industrial Area
is linked to the Kidurong township and Bintulu town.
Basic infrastructure facilities like tar-sealed access road, road-side drain,

sewerage main, water main, electricity main and telecommunication services are
provided. In terms of air transportation, the existing Bintulu airport is located within
the town center, which is also the center of business activities. It connects Sabah to
Singapore, Kuala Lumpur, Hong Kong, Manila, Bangkok and Jakarta.
While for the road facilities, Kemena Bridge opens the first trunk road system
in the state which linked to Brunei, Sibu and Kuching. The highway from Bintulu town
to the Kidurong Industrial Area is a dual-carriageway, along which street lightings are
provided. Bintulu Port currently ranks second in the country after Malaysia's premier
port, Port Klang.
Sarawak Electricity Supply Corporation (SESCO) and Bakun Power Plant also
can supply electricity to this plant. The Bintulu Water Supply Treatment Plant and
Syarikat Air Sarawak also will be the water supply for this industry.
Site Screening and Selection
Table 1.4 Site screening rubrics

Factors 8 – 10 Marks 4 –7 Marks 0 – 3 Marks
Location < 25 km from 25 – 50 km from > 50 km from
nearest town nearest town nearest town
Type of Heavy industrial and Heavy industrial and Light industrial and
Industrial and petrochemical intermediate intermediate
Its Location
Land Land area >200 Land area 100– 200 Land area <100
Available acres acres acres
27
Land Price Price of land less Price of land RM Price of land >RM
than RM 50 per 50-100 per square 150per square feet
square feet feet
Supply of  Own country  Take it from  Take it from
Raw Material  Have pipeline of beside country beside country
gas and the distance and the
is about < 60 distance is >
km 60 km
 Use a pipeline  Import use a
system pipeline
Transportation  Systematic  Systematic  Good federal
Federal road & federal road & road &
highway highway highway
 Airport facilities  No railway  No railway
 Near to port system system
 Railway system  Near to port  Near to port
 Airport facilities  Airport
facilities
Utilities  Low tariff and  Complete water  Less water
complete water supply supply and
supply  Electrical power high of cost
 Electrical power plant  Electrical
plant and low of  Supply of gas or system is not
cost steam system complete and
 Supply of gas or high of cost
steam system  No gases
supply system
Local  Incentives from Incentives from the No incentives from
Government the Local Local Organization the Local
Incentives Organization of of Country Organization of
Country Development Country
Development Development
28
 Incentives from
special company
Workers  A lot of  Medium  Difficult to
Supply worker’s supply workers supply find workers
 Low investment  Low supply
investments  High
investment
Table 1.5 Comparison between Gebeng, XXX and YYY
Area Teluk Kalong, Gebeng Phase IV, Tanjung Langsat, Kota Kinabalu Tanjung Kidurong
Proposed Terengganu Pahang Johor Industrial Park Industrial Area,
(KKIP) Sarawak
Location  9.6 km from  40 km from  42 km from  25 km from  20 km from Bintulu
Kemaman Kuantan Johor Bahru. K.Kinabalu  10 km from Kidurong
 5 km from  5 km from  5 km from Johor  5 km to Sapangar township
Kemaman port Kuantan Port Port. Port. 9
 30 km to KK
gj
10 5 5 International Airport
gj gj  16 km south to h
gj
Tuaran E
h h h
1
E E 8
E
1
1 1 gj
1
1
Types of  Heavy Industries1  Chemical & 1  Heavy Industry
1  Medium & Heavyh  Heavy Industries
Nearby  Petrochemical &1 Petrochemical  Marine Related
1
Industries E
0
Industry 1
Chemicals Industry d
1
0 0  Chemical & 0 d
d d 1
10 d8 Petro-chemical
d9
d d 19
gj d
gj 10
gj 2
gj
d 0
hd hd gj
Land Price RM 7,800,000 RM 15.00 per square RM 50.00 per square RM 4,300,000 h
d RM 9,500,000 1
h
E 2
feet 2
E feet h2
4 10 5d
E d4
E
11 1 E14
gj 1
gj gj 1gj
Area Still 5 acres 250 acres 13.345 acres gj 2.56 acres 1
d 2 acres 1
11d d
h
d
h110 11 1
h1 1 1
Available h 2 1h
1
gj
1 1
1gj 11
gj gj gj
E E E1 v
1E
E
29
0h1 1
1
1
10h h1 h
10
h
1 d 01
dv v
E1
v
1dE E0 E
1d E
1 1 d1
d1
1 1d1 1d 1
1d 1
1 1 d1
d1
0 0d1 1d 1
0d 1
0 v d0
21 21 1d 1 1
Raw Petronas Chemical Nearby Petronas Pride Chem KLH Chemicals Sdn Petronas Chemical
Materials Group Bhd @ Kertih Chemical Group Bhd Industries Sdn Bhd Bhd Kota Kinabalu Group Bhd @ Bintulu
Supplier (Ammonia) @ Kertih (Ammonia) Pasir Gudang Johor (sodium chloride) (Ammonia)
KLH Chemicals Sdn (ammonia) Sabah Ammonia Urea KLH Chemicals Sdn
Bhd Pahang (sodium KLH Chemicals Sdn (SAMUR) Bhd Bintulu (sodium
chloride) Bhd Pasir Gudang chloride)
(sodium chloride) 10
8 10 10
gj
gj gj 10 gj
gj h
Developer PMINT – Perbadanan
h PKNP – Perbadanan
h Johor Corporation SEDCO – Sabah h
Lembaga Pembangunan
h E
Memajukan IktisadE Kemajuan NegeriE (JCORP) Economic Development Bintulu E
Negeri Terengganu Pahang TPM TechnoparkE Corporation 1
1 1 1
Sdn Bhd 1 K.K.I.P Sdn Bhd 1
110 1 10
1
10 1 10
1 10
1gj 1gj gj 1
gj
0 gj
Electricity  Paka Power Plant
0h  Tenaga Nasional
0h  1
Sultan Iskandar
h  Sabah Electricity  Sarawak Electricity
0
dh h
 IPP YTL Powerd Berhad dE Power StationE0 Sdn Bhd Supply Corporation
d
E
Generation Sdn. run by Tenaga d  KKIP Power PlantE
d  E
Bakun Power Plant
d
d1 d1 1
Bhd. Nasional Berhad Sdn Bhd. d1 1
d d
 Tasik Kenyir d1 d1 (TNB) 1
21 1
Hydroelectric 21 21  YTL Power 1d 2
10 1 1
Station 1 10 Generation Sdn2
0 10 10
1
0 gj 0
Bhd 1 d0
gj gjd
dd dd d
h 1d d
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d d
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1 1
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1 1
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1 1d 1 1
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v vd v
v v
d
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Water Supply  Terengganu  Loji Air Semambu  Syarikat Air  Diversified Water  Bintulu Water
Waterworks  Pengurusan Air Johor Resources Sdn. Supply Treatment
Department capacity Pahang Berhad  Loji Air Sungai Bhd. Plant
 Kenyir Dam (PAIP) Layang 10  Syarikat Air
10
10 gj Sarawak Sdn Bhd
10
gj
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Road  Kuala Terengganu
h –  East Coast E
 JB East Coasth  KK – Sulaman Road
E  Pan Borneo
h
Facilities Kuantan – KL –E Expressway Highway to E  Road to airport 1 Highway
1
New Highway 1 connecting to Singapore, Senai-
1 1 E
5
 Federal Road Gebeng By-Pass 1 Desaru Highway,
1 1
51
1 gj
K.Terengganu- and Kuantan By- 1 Pasir Gudang gj
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Kuantan-KL d Railway Linking  Pasir Gudang-Tg.
d d 0
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d 9d 2
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gj gj2 1
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h1  Senai 11
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 Kuantan Airportv1 10  Changi 1v
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Port Facilities  Kemaman Port  Kuantan Port  Johor Port Sdn.  Sepangar Bay Port.  Bintulu Port
 Kerteh minor Port Transport under Bhd.
 Kuantan Port Kuantan Port
Consortium. 9 9 9
10
10 gj gj
gj
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Local  Pioneer Status h  Pioneer Status  Pioneer Statush  Pioneer Status  Pioneer Status
h
Government  Investment Tax E  Investment Tax  Investment TaxE  Investment Tax E  Investment Tax E
Incentive Allowance (ITA) Allowance (ITA)E Allowance (ITA) Allowance (ITA)1 Allowance (ITA)1
1
1 1 1 19
19 9 91 9
1 1 1
gj 1 gj
1gj gj gj
1 0 0
Workers  Local and foreign
0h  Local and foreign
h  Local and h0
foreign  Local and foreign
h  Local and foreign
h
0
Supply employees employees E employees Ed employees E
d employees d
E
dE
 Universiti Malaysia  Polytechnic d  Universiti  UiTM Kota d  Universiti Malaysia
d
1
d1 1 1d 1
Terengganu Kuantan d Teknologi Kinabalu d Sarawak d
1
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32
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33
Based on the ranking, Gebeng Industrial Park, Pahang is the most suitable site
to construct a soda ash manufacturing plant. Basically, the land price at Gebeng is the
cheapest among others and the available land also higher. The estimated land size to
build soda ash plant is about 10 acres and Gebeng the only one which meet this
requirement. The most important factor on this site selection is to meet the demand of
soda ash for glass manufacturing, chemicals, soaps and detergents production and
water treatment in that area. Other factors that highlight on this site selection are
detailed in following subsections. Figure 1.10 depicts the targeted site location in
Pahang, Peninsular Malaysia.
Figure 1.10 Gebeng Industrial Park in Pahang
Tax Incentives
The major tax incentives for companies investing in the manufacturing sector are the
Pioneer Status and the Investment Tax Allowance as displayed in Table 1.6.
34
Table 1.6 Tax categories of incentives provided by government in Malaysia

Tax Category Description
Pioneer Status  70% of statutory income for 5 years
 Statutory Income = gross income –
(revenue expenditure + capital allowances)
 Unabsorbed capital allowances and
accumulated losses incurred during the
pioneer period can be carried forward and
deducted from the post pioneer income of
the company
Investment Tax Allowance  Alternative to Pioneer Status
(ITA)  Allowance of 60% on its qualifying capital
expenditure (factory, plant, machinery or
other equipment used) within a period of 5
years
 The allowance is offset against 70% of its
statutory income for each year of
assessment
 Any unutilised allowances can be carried
forward until fully absorbed.
Note: Adopted from Malaysian Investment Development Authority (MIDA)
Land Price
Table 1.7 Land price in Gebeng, Kuantan, Pahang

 Minimum land size is 3 acres
Available Land  Maximum land size is 250 acres
Selling Price RM 15.00 per sq.ft.
(Adopted from http://www.iproperty.com.my/)
35
For a plant capacity of 274 metric tonne per day, a land size that is needed to build the
plant is about 10 acres with total price of RM 6,534,000.
Utilities
Electric Tariff (High Voltage Peak/ Off-peak Industrial Tariff) by Tenaga Nasional
Berhad (TNB):
Table 1.8 Electric Tariff for designed plant

Category Price (RM/kW)
Each kW of maximum demand per month during peak
35.50
period
All kW during peak period 33.70
All kW during off-peak 20.20
Note: Minimum monthly charge is RM600.00.
(Adopted from https://www.tnb.com.my/)
Water Tariff (Pahang State) by Pengurusan Air Pahang Berhad (PAIP):
Table 1.9 Water Tariff for industrial usage in Pahang
Usage (RM/ cubic metre)
0 – 227 m3 0.92
Over 227 m3 0.84

Note: Minimum monthly charge is RM 30.00.
(Adopted from http://www.paip.com.my/)
Logistics
From the transportation aspect, Gebeng is near to the Sultan Ahmad Shah
Airport is situated just 12 km from Kuantan, Pahang. Malaysia Airlines, the national
carrier and other domestic airlines, operates flights daily between Kuantan and Kuala
36
Lumpur. Two roads link the Gebeng and Port Industrial Estates to Kuantan. Gebeng
IV is only 30 km from Kuantan. Gebeng is located at 25 km from Kuantan town in
Pahang and 5 km from Kuantan Port. The coastal road is the original highway between
Kuantan and Kuala Terengganu and it is rarely more than 1 km from the shoreline.
The road is constructed to rural highway standards but is constrained by unlimited
direct access which has resulted in the majority of the distance between Kuantan and
Kg. Balok become congested with local traffic, pedestrians and livestock associated
with residential and local center strip development. Besides that, there is New Gebeng
By-Pass that will directly link with East Coast Expressway to connect Kuala Lumpur
as well as Kuantan town and Kuantan Port. This will provide a cost effective means
of transportation and greater accessibility in the transfer of consignments and raw
material to and from Gebeng Industrial Estate to the domestic and international
markets and also to the rest of Malaysia.
Labor
The plant should be placed in an area where sufficient labor supply is

available. Worker is an important asset to the company, which can affect the plant
operation. Thus, the source of the employment to the local residents should be
considered when choosing the plant location. A plant that is near to a technical
institute such as university or polytechnic is an added advantage in searching for
future employees. There is a ready pool of skilled and unskilled labor within the state.
In, addition, there is an increasing supply of professionals, technologists and middle
and lower management. Most those in the labor force can converse well in English
and Bahasa Melayu. Availability and inexpensive manpower from the surrounding
area will contribute in reducing the cost of operation.
Labor Force Participation Rate in Malaysia is expected to be 67.80 percent by

the end of this quarter, per Trading Economics global macro models and analysis
expectations. Looking forward, it is estimated that Labor Force Participation Rate in
Malaysia to stand at 67.80 percent in 12 months’ time as shown in Figure 1.11. In the
37
long-term, the Malaysia Labor Force Participation Rate is projected to trend around
67.90 percent in 2020, per econometric models.
Figure 1.11 Malaysia Labor Force Participant Rate (2016-2020)
Based on the figure above, it can be noted that the number of persons who are
employed and unemployed but looking for is keep on rising through these past years.
Some of these people might have the skills to operate the plant and others who can be
train. Thus, cheap labour is easily available. Malaysia is the world's 67th largest
country by area, and a country of this size has a population to match. Kuantan's
population is approximately 366229 based on statistics in year 2017 which is believed
to increase more in the future. This will give higher chances for the graduates and
adults who are seeking for the job.
Raw Materials
Most of the raw materials such as sodium chloride can be supplied by local
industries in Kuantan itself. Besides, it is planned to build the plant nearby the
ammonia production plant so that can access the raw material ammonia conveniently
and almost can get carbon dioxide. With this, transportation cost will decrease. The
transfer of the raw materials will be either using container truck or shipment from the
38
port to the plant by using sub-contractor. Besides, CUF at Gebeng was set up in year
1999 as part of development of Gebeng Integrated Petrochemical Complex. It
provides centralised utilities such as steam, power, demineralised water, nitrogen gas
and others to the nearby Petrochemical plants.
Market Supply
Soda ash or also known as sodium carbonate is a common inorganic industrial

chemical. It is widely use in the manufacture of glass, chemical such as sodium
silicates and sodium phosphate, the pulp and paper industries, the manufactures of
detergents and for the treatment of water. The target is to supply for all the
manufacturers in Malaysia but due to the cost of transport, the scope of target become
smaller and may focus in the area. For example, in Grandee Biotechnologies Sdn.
Bhd. soda ash is needed to manufacture soaps and detergents. Other than that, the soda
ash also needed for glass manufacturing in Golden Pharos Sdn Bhd. Besides that,
sodium carbonate also can be used in Universiti Malaysia Pahang (UMP) for
laboratory use. In conclusion, soda ash is useful for this industrial area and can bring
a commercial success.
Proposed Site and Plant Layout
The economic construction and efficient operation of a process unit depend on

how well the plant and equipment specified on the process flow sheet are laid out. A
typical site layout for a plant should include all the major process units and structures,
such as the main plant and auxiliary buildings. The location for each process unit must
be well arranged in orders to give maximum efficiency and minimum cost for plant
management and operations. The principal factors to be considered are:
(a) Economic considerations, construction and operating costs
(b) The process requirements
(c) Convenience of operation
39
(d) Convenience of maintenance

(e) Safety
(f) Future expansion
Figure 1.12 shows a rough sketch of designed plant layout. A few safety and
accessibility aspects have been reviewed and stressed in the planning at this plant’s
layout. There are two major areas in the plant, one is administration area and another
is operation site.
Administration Area
Administration office, canteen, changing room and the first aid room are
included in the administration area. These areas must always away from the operation
site where high accident area is especially the production plant. The first aid room is
located beside the operation area and near the main gate because this placement
enables injured workers have a first aid services and can be send to hospital easily.
Operation Site
The vehicle weighing point is important as it can detect the amount of product
load in and out from the plant. Other than that, the assembly point must locate at the
wide space. Raw material storage tanks are position near the fire station. The
placement of all the equipment in operation site is closed to fire station permits proper
counter actions to prevent any bad consequences to be taken in a short time in case of
any accident or emergencies.
Maintenance workshop has been places near to the operation site and the boiler
system. It is placed there so that any spoilt equipment at both sites can be done quickly
40
and properly. Control room, quality control laboratory and R&D lab is positioned
before the operation site, also nearby raw materials and warehouse. With this,
observations and process controls of all operations can be done smoothly and safely
Since the plant need boiler system, they are built near to the operation site to
supply steam. The load product also near to the warehouse and main gate to make sure
the product is easy to load and deliver to the supplier.
41
Parking Lot
Guard
Vehicle
House
Weighing
Point
Assembly Point
Administration
Building &
Load
Warehouse
Office Product
Materials
Storage
R & D Lab QC Lab
2
1
Maintenance
Work-shop
Fire
3 4 Operation Site Station
Control
Room
Boiler Boiler
Feed System
Storage
Future
Expansion Future
Expansion
Note: 1 - Canteen, 2 - Changing Room, 3 - Surau, 4 - First Aid Room.
Figure 1.12 Plant layout of soda ash production plant

42
1.9 Process Selection
Reaction Paths
There are total of 5 reaction routes of synthesis to produce soda ash

commercially which are Leblanc process, Solvay process, Dual process (modified
Solvay), caustic soda carbonation process and monohydrate process (natural trona).
Reaction Path 1: Leblanc Process
2 NaCl + H2SO4 → Na2SO4 + 2 HCl

Na2SO4 + CaCO3 + 2 C → Na2CO3 + 2 CO2 + CaS
Overall: 2NaCl + H2SO4 + CaCO3 + 2 C → Na2CO3 + 2 CO2 + CaS + 2HCl
This was a process invented to make alkali sodium carbonate on a large scale.
The process itself was very polluting. It released huge volumes of an acid gas
(hydrogen chloride) into the air that wrecked the surrounding land. Sodium chloride
was mixed with sulfuric acid before being heated with charcoal and limestone. First,
sea salt (sodium chloride) was boiled in sulfuric acid to yield sodium sulfate
and hydrogen chloride gas. Next, the sodium sulfate was blended with crushed
limestone (calcium carbonate) and coal, and the mixture was burnt, producing sodium
carbonate along with carbon dioxide and calcium sulfide. The sodium carbonate was
extracted from the ashes with water, and then collected by allowing the water to
evaporate.
43
Reaction Path 2: Solvay Process
NaCl + CO2 + NH3 + H2O → NaHCO3 + NH4Cl

2 NHCO3 → Na2CO3 + H2O + CO2
CaCO3 → CaO + CO2
2NH4Cl + CaO → 2NH3 + H2O + CaCl2
Overall: 2NaCl + CaCO3 → Na2CO3 + CaCl2
In 1861, Ernest Solvay developed the ammonia-soda process and hence the name
“Solvay” process. It uses salt, limestone and coke or natural gas as raw materials and
ammonia as a cyclic reagent. It is based on the fact that ammonia reacts with carbon
dioxide and water to form ammonium bicarbonate. In these reactions, the preformed
ammonium bicarbonate reacts with salt to form sodium bicarbonate. This sodium
bicarbonate is then calcined to low density soda ash. Almost all the ammonia formed
by this reaction is recovered and recycled. So, the raw materials for Solvay process are
salt, limestone, and carbon. Ammonia may be considered as a catalyst.
Reaction Path 3: Dual Process
NaCl + NH3 + CO2 + H2O NaHCO3 + NH4Cl

2NaHCO3 Na2CO3 + CO2 + H2O
Overall: 2NaCl + 2NH3 + CO2 + H2O Na2CO3 + 2NH4Cl
This is a modified Solvay process. It came in commercial use in 1980. Two

important products, soda ash and ammonium chloride are produced. This process
provides a substantial save in the amount of salt used. It also does not require
limestone, an important raw material used in the classical Solvay process. The
principal operation change offered by the dual process is mainly the treatment of the
ammonium chloride formed. In the dual process, ammonium chloride is retained and
44
crystallized out and separated by the addition of sodium chloride. In this process, the
sodium bicarbonate is calcined, soda ash is then formed.
Reaction Path 4: Carbonating Caustic Soda
Overall: 2NaOH + CO2 → Na2CO3.H2O
This process involves carbonating of sodium hydroxide to produce sodium

carbonate monohydrate which is calcined to produce sodium carbonate (dense soda
ash). The economics of this process depend on the availability of surplus quantities of
sodium hydroxide produced as a byproduct of chlorine manufacture from brine. It is
interesting to note that the soda ash market is dependent on the demand for chlorine
because during the production of chlorine, caustic soda is also produced which
competes in most applications with soda ash.
Reaction Path 5: Monohydrate Process (Natural Trona)
Overall: 2Na2CO3•NaHCO3•2H2O → 3Na2CO3 + 5H2O + CO2
In North America, soda ash is obtained from the mineral trona, which contain
~90% of a mixed carbonate-hydrogen carbonate of sodium: Na(HCO3).(CO3).2H2O.
In the so-called monohydrate process of extraction, trona is mined like coal, crushed
and then calcined in rotary a kiln which converts the sesquicarbonate to the carbonate.
Resulting sodium carbonate is dissolved in water, the insoluble impurities filtered off
and the solution evaporated to dryness, thereby yielding the monohydrate
Na2CO3.H2O. Heating this product gives anhydrous sodium carbonate, Na2CO3.
45
Economic Potential Analysis
Table 1.10 Properties and Prices of Raw Material, Product and By-products
Molecular
Chemical Chemical Cost
Weight Sources
Compounds Formula (RM/Kg)
(Kg/Kmol)
Sodium
58.440 NaCl 0.52 Molbase
Chloride
Sulphuric
98.079 H2SO4 0.22 ICIS
Acid
Calcium Adinath
100.087 CaCO3 1.33
Carbonate Petrochem
Carbon 12.011 C 2.73 Molbase
Hydrochloric
36.461 HCl 0.22 ICIS
Acid
Calcium
72.143 CaS 3.45 ICIS
Sulphide
Carbon
44.010 CO2 0.74 Molbase
Dioxide
Sodium
105.989 Na2CO3 1.08 Molbase
Carbonate
Calcium
110.980 CaCl2 0.95 Molbase
Chloride
Ammonia 17.031 NH3 0.84 Molbase
Water 18.01528 H2O 8.4⨯10-4 PAIP
Ammonium
53.491 NH4Cl 2.14 Molbase
Chloride
Na2CO3•NaHCO3•
Trona 226.0300 0.70 ICIS
2H2O
Sodium
39.997 NaOH 2.60 Molbase
Hydroxide
Leblanc Process: 2NaCl + H2SO4 + CaCO3 + 2C → Na2CO3 + 2CO2 + CaS + 2HCl
Component 2NaCl H2SO4 CaCO3 2C Na2CO3 2CO2 CaS 2HCl

Kmol 2 1 1 2 1 2 1 2
Molecular
Weight 58.44 98.079 100.0869 12.0107 105.9888 44.01 72.143 36.46094
(Kg/Kmol)
Kg 116.88 98.079 100.0869 24.0214 105.9888 88.02 72.143 72.92188
Kg/Kg
1.1028 0.9254 0.9443 0.2266 1.0000 0.8305 0.6807 0.6880
Na2CO3
RM/Kg 0.52 0.22 1.33 2.73 1.08 0.74 3.45 0.22
Gross Profit = [(1.0000 x 1.08) + (0.8305 x 0.74) + (0.6807 x 3.45) + (0.6880 x 0.22)] - [(1.1028 x 0.52) + (0.9254 x 0.22) + (0.9443 x 1.33) +
(0.2266 x 0.23)]
= RM 4.1943 – RM 2.6516
= RM 1.54 / Kg
46
47
Solvay Process: 2NaCl + CaCO3 → Na2CO3 + CaCl2
Component 2NaCl CaCO3 Na2CO3 CaCl2

Kmol 2 1 1 1
Molecular
58.44 100.0869 105.9888 110.98
Weight
Kg 116.88 100.0869 105.9888 110.98
Kg/Kg
1.1028 0.9443 1.0000 1.0471
Na2CO3
RM/Kg 0.52 1.33 1.08 0.95
Gross Profit = [(1.0471 x 0.95) + (1.0000 x 1.08)] - [(0.9443 x 0.66) + (1.1028 x 0.49)]
= RM 2.0747 – RM 1.8294
= RM 0.25 / Kg
Dual Process: 2NaCl + 2NH3 + CO2 + H2O → Na2CO3 + 2NH4Cl
Component 2NaCl 2NH3 CO2 H2O Na2CO3 2NH4Cl

Kmol 2 2 1 1 1 2
Molecular
58.44 17.031 44.01 18.01528 105.9888 53.491
Weight
Kg 116.88 34.062 44.01 18.01528 105.9888 106.982
Kg/Kg
1.1028 0.3214 0.4152 0.1700 1.0000 1.0094
Na2CO3
RM/Kg 0.52 0.84 0.74 8.4⨯10-4 1.08 2.14
Gross Profit = [(1.0000 x 1.08) + (1.0094 x 2.14)] – [(1.1028 x 0.74) + (0.3214 x 0.84)
+ (0.4152 x 0.52) + (0.1700 x 8.4⨯10-4)]
= RM 3.2401 – RM 1.1508
= RM 2.09 / Kg
48
Carbonating Caustic Soda: 2NaOH + CO2 → Na2CO3.H2O
Component 2NaOH CO2 Na2CO3.H2O

Kmol 2 1 1
Molecular
39.997 44.010 124.000
Weight
Kg 79.994 44.010 124.000
Kg/Kg
0.6451 0.3549 1.0000
Na2CO3.H2O
RM/Kg 2.60 0.74 1.08
Gross Profit = [1.0000 x 1.08] - [(0.6451 x 2.60) + (0.3549 x 0.74)]

= RM 1.9399 – RM 1.08
= RM 0.86 / Kg
Natural Trona: 2Na2CO3•NaHCO3•2H2O→ 3Na2CO3 + 5H2O + CO2
Component 2Na2CO3•NaHCO3•2H2O 3Na2CO3 5H2O CO2

Kmol 2 3 5 1
Molecular
226.0300 105.9888 18.01528 44.01
Weight
Kg 452.0600 317.9664 90.0764 44.01
Kg/Kg
1.4217 1.0000 0.2833 0.1384
Na2CO3
RM/Kg 0.70 1.08 8.4⨯10-4 0.74
Gross Profit = [(0.1384 x 0.74) + (0.2833 x 8.4⨯10-4) + (1.0000 x 1.08)] - [1.4217 x

0.70]
= RM 1.1827 – RM 0.9952
= RM 0.19 / Kg
Advantages and Disadvantages of Each Route
Table 1.11 Advantages and disadvantages of different reaction paths

Technology Advantages Disadvantages
Leblanc  Like the Solvay process, the feedstocks required  The release of hydrogen chloride gas which becomes
Process for the Leblanc process are all readily available hydrochloric acid in the atmosphere.
and inexpensive  The release of hydrogen sulphide, the toxic gas that
produces the "rotten egg" odour. This would cause local
vegetation, crops and communities to be exposed to this
toxic gas.
 Labor intensive process
 Requires a much high energy than the Solvay process
 Great percentage of wastes produced
Solvay  Low energy consumption  Calcium chloride produced is relatively useless and needs to
Process
 Less corrosion problem be disposed somewhere.
 Use of low grade brine  Thermal pollution is common, the exothermic energy heats
water that is released into larger bodies of water affecting
organisms that need a lower temperature to survive.
49
 Higher investment in ammonia recovery units than
crystallization unit of NH4Cl
Dual Process  Replaces calcium chloride as a by-product with  More expensive that the Solvay process
the more useful ammonium chloride  Requires existing machinery to be replaced or significantly
 Both economical and environmentally friendly modified
than both the Leblanc and the original Solvay
processes
 Energy consumption lower than Solvay process
Carbonating  No by-product  Only can produce dense soda ash.
Caustic Soda
Monohydrate  More cost-effective than synthetic soda ash  Requires the use of large amounts of coal, fuel oil, natural
Process production gas or mixtures thereof for calcination step
(Natural  Lack of trona
Trona)
50
The reaction paths are rated from 1 to 5 with 5 as the best rating and being presented in Table 1.12 below.
Table 1.12 The matrix illustration of the reaction path selection

Criteria\Reactions Reaction 1 Reaction 2 Reaction 3 Reaction 4 Reaction 5
Gross Profit 1.54 0.25 2.09 0.86 0.19
(RM/Kg) 4 2 5 3 1
By-products Profitability Calcium sulphide, carbon Calcium chloride Ammonium - Water and carbon
dioxide and hydrochloric chloride dioxide
acid
1 2 5 4 3
Environmental Effects  Hydrochloric  Disposal of  Affects - -
acid formation in calcium water
atmosphere chloride living
 Presence of toxic  Affects water things by
hydrogen living things by high
sulphide gas. high energy energy
release release
1 2 3 5 4
Total Average Score 2.00 2.00 4.33 4.00 2.67
51
52
Justification on Selection
The selection on reaction path is very crucial since there are many criteria need
to be taken into account apart from gross profit of reaction path alone. From 5 reaction
routes suggested in the section above, reaction path 3 which is Dual Process is selected
based on Table 1.11 and Table 1.12 which include several aspects such as GP value,
product yield, inherent safety, equipment and other costs. Firstly, GP of reaction 3 is
the highest among the 5 process routes which is very optimistic towards profit. In term
of safety, this selected reaction path shows a safe process. For instance, in reaction
path 1, the process releases hydrogen chloride gas which becomes hydrochloric acid
in the atmosphere and calcium sulfide was spread on nearby fields, releasing hydrogen
sulfide, the toxic gas that produces the "rotten egg" odour. As for reaction path 2, the
safety needs to be monitored additionally since calcium chloride is produced as a by-
product. Besides, Dual process replaces calcium chloride as a by-product with the
more useful ammonium chloride, which can be recycled to be reused in the process,
refined and used as a fertilizer. This eliminated the need for waste beds and other
disposal methods to take place, as the by-products can be used in other productions.
Furthermore, Dual process is more economic and environmental friendly process
which require less energy consumption compared to rest of process routes.
CHAPTER 2
PROCESS CREATION AND SYNTHESIS
2.1 Source of Raw Materials
Referring to previous section, the process that will be used is Dual process. All
the required raw materials are able to be supplied by local industries nearby the Gebeng
Industrial Park Phase IV, Gebeng, Kuantan Pahang. The raw materials are ammonia,
sodium chloride, carbon dioxide and water. Water can be supplied through pipeline by
Pengurusan Air Pahang Berhad (PAIP), Pahang water supplier. Other raw materials
with their respective available sources are tabulated in Table 2.1as shown below.
54
Table 2.1 Sources available for raw materials in sodium chloride production
Raw
Supplier Location Transport
materials medium
No 36, Jalan IM 14/8, Kawasan
Sodium KLH Chemicals
Industri Indera Mahkota, 25200 Container
Chloride Sdn. Bhd. Truck
Kuantan, Pahang
No 36, Jalan IM 14/8, Kawasan
Sodium KLH Chemicals
Industri Indera Mahkota, 25200 Container
Hydroxide Sdn. Bhd. Truck
Kuantan, Pahang
Petronas
Kompleks Pentadbiran
Chemicals
Petrokimia Petronas, 23400,
Ammonia
Kerteh, Kemaman, Terengganu
Ammonia Sdn. Bhd. Container
Truck
Lot 4, Kaw. Perindustrian
Teknogas (M)
Tanjung Kling, Tanjung Bruas
Sdn. Bhd.
Jetty, 76400 Melaka
Lot 43, Semambu Industrial
Estate, Mukim of Kuala
The Linde Group
Kuantan, 25350 Kuantan,
Pahang
Callserv 24, Jalan IM14/1, Industri Piping System
Carbon or
Sdn. Bhd. Ringan Prima Kota, Bandar High Pressure
Dioxide
Indera Mahkota, 25200 Cylinder
Container
Kuantan, Pahang
Southern No 2, Jalan Gebeng 2/10,
Industrial Gas Kawasan Perindustrian Gebeng
Sdn Bhd 26080, Kuantan, Pahang
55
2.2 Specification of Raw Materials
In Dual process, there are 4 main raw materials involved as listed in the previous part.
Those raw materials are listed according to their specifications as tabulated in Table
2.2 as shown below.
Table 2.2 Raw Materials with their respective specifications (assuming continuous
operation)
Specifications
Raw
Physical state Purity Amount required Physical state
material
at room temp. (%) (mt/d) during supply
Sodium
Solid 99.99 402.96 Solid
Chloride
Liquidified
Ammonia Gas 99.99 88.08
Gas
Carbon Liquidified
Gas 99.50 113.76
Dioxide Gas
Water Liquid 85.00 93.12 Liquid
56
2.3 Physical and Chemical Properties of Reactants and Products
There are 8 major components to be considered in designing the soda ash production
plant. The summary of physical properties of every component obtained from MSDSs
are listed from Table 2.3 to Table 2.10, whereas Table 2.11 represents the toxicity data
of listed components for safety considerations in handling the components.
Sodium Chloride
Table 2.3 Thermo-physical properties data of sodium chloride

Molecular formula NaCl
Molecular weight (g/mol) 58.44
Appearance Solid crystalline powder
Odor Slight
Taste Saline
Color White
pH 5.0 - 8.0 (5% aq.sol. 20 (oC)
Boiling point (oC) 1465
Density (g/cm3) 2.165
Vapor pressure 1 mm Hg @ 865 oC
1.In water, 360 g/L at 25 oC.
Solubility 2.Ethanol, 6.5 g/L at 25 oC.
3.Slightly soluble in glycerol at 100 g/L
Specific heat capacity
50
(J/mol∙K)
Heat of formation (kJ/mol) -411.00
Heat of vaporization (kJ/mol) 170.7
57
Water
Table 2.4 Thermo-physical properties data of water

Molecular formula H2O
Appearance Liquid
Odor Odorless
Taste Tasteless
Color Colorless
pH 7 (Neutral)
Density (g/ml) 0.99823
Specific gravity 1 (Water = 1)
Vapor pressure 2.3 kPa at 20 oC
Critical temperature (oC) 374.1
Critical pressure (atm) 218.3
Solubility 100% in water
75.4
(J/mol∙K)
Heat of fusion (kJ/mol) 6.0
-285.84 (l)
Heat of formation (kJ/mol)
-241.83 (v)
58
Brine
Table 2.5 Thermo-physical properties data of brine

Molecular formula NaCl + H2O
Molecular weight (g/mol) 110.99 as anhydrous CaCl2
Physical state Liquid
Appearance Clear to hazy
Odor Salty
Color Slightly turbid liquid
Composition Water = 74-78 by weight %
NaCl = 22-26 by weight %
Density (g/cm3) Approximately 1.164
Viscosity (cP) Approximately 1.676
pH 6.5 – 8.5
Melting point (oC) -21
Vapor pressure 14 psig (mm Hg at 20oC)
Relative density 1.2 (15oC)
Specific gravity (H2O = 1) 1. 23% NaCl 1.175 at 27 oC
2. 24% NaCl 1.184
3. 25% NaCl 1.192
Solubility Miscible in water
31.6g/100mL at 0 oC
Flash point Not flammable
Heat capacity,Cp (J/kg.oC) 1.85
59
Ammonia
Table 2.6 Thermo-physical properties data of ammonia

Molecular formula NH3
Appearance Colorless gas
Odor Pungent
Taste Alkaline
Boiling point (oC) -33.4
Melting point (oC) -77.7
Gas density 0.045 lb/ft3 at 21.1 oC, 1 atm
Vapor density 0.59 (Air = 1)
Vapor pressure 8.75 atm at 21 oC
Auto-ignition temperature 651 oC
Solubility In water, 531 g/L (20 oC)
80.80 (liquid)
(J/mol∙K) 35.06 (gas)
60
Carbon Dioxide
Table 2.7 Thermo-physical properties data of carbon dioxide

Molecular formula CO2
Appearance Compressed liquefied gas
Odour threshold Odourless
Color Colourless
Boiling point (oC) -78.5
Melting point (oC) -56.6
Relative density (Gas) 1.519 (air = 1)
Relative density (Liquid) 0.82 (water = 1)
Vapor pressure 56.5 atm at 20oC
Solubility 2 g/L, Completely soluble in water
37.1864
(J/mol∙K)
61
Ammonium Chloride
Table 2.8 Thermo-physical properties data of ammonium chloride

Molecular formula NH4Cl
Odor Odorless (Slight)
Taste Cooling, Saline.
Color White
pH 5.0, (10% soln at 25 oC)
Specific gravity 1.53 (Water = 1)
Vapor pressure 1 mm Hg at 160.4 oC
1. In water, 29.7 g/100 ml at 0oC and 75.8
g/100 ml at 100oC.
Solubility
2. Ethanol, 0.6 g/ 100 ml at 19oC.
3. Soluble in ammonia and methanol
84.1 (solid)
(J/mol∙K)

62
Sodium Bicarbonate
Table 2.9 Thermo-physical properties data of ammonium chloride

Molecular formula NaHCO3
Odor Odorless
Taste Saline, Alkaline
Color White
pH 8.3 (1% w/w solution)
pKa 6.33
Melting point (oC) 50 oC (Decomposes)
Specific gravity 2.20 (Water = 1)
Density (g/cm3) 2.20
1.Soluble in water, 9.9% w/w at 25 oC
Solubility
2.Slightly soluble in alcohol
87.61
(J/mol∙K)
Heat of formation (kJ/mol) -945.6 (c)
63
Soda Ash (Sodium Carbonate)
Table 2.10 Thermo-physical properties data of soda ash

Molecular formula Na2CO3
Appearance Crystalline powder
Physical state Solid
Color White
Odor Odorless
pH 11.4 (1% solution in water)
0.86-1.12 g/cm3 (Dense grades)
Bulk density
0.70-0.90 g/cm3 (Light grades)
Specific gravity 2.52
Solubility In water, 212.5 g/l at 20 oC
Specific heat capacity (J/mol∙K) 112.3
Decomposition Temperature
400
(oC)
Specific heat capacity at 25oC 112.3
(J g-1 K-1)
Heat of fusion (J/g) 316
Heat of formation (J/g) 10.676
Heat of solution (J/g) -222
64
Toxicity Data of All Materials
The toxicity data are summarized from several Material Safety Data Sheets
(MSDSs) in Table 2.11. It is used to indicate the toxicity level for each material
produced or used throughout the reaction. Besides, it is also being used as a reference
in deciding which compound is the most harmful or hazardous and need to be separated
first.
Table 2.11 Toxicity Data for each compound involved in reaction

Compound Toxicity Data
1. Eye contact: Irritant based on components.
2. Inhalation: May cause irritation of respiratory tract.
Sodium
3. Skin contact: May cause mild skin irritation, resulting in redness
Chloride
and itching.
4. Ingestion: May cause irritation to mucous membrane.
1. Eye contact: Non-irritating to the eyes.
2. Inhalation: No hazard expected in normal industrial use.
Water
3. Skin contact: Non-irritating to the skin.
4. Ingestion: No hazard expected in normal industrial use.
1.Eye contact: May irritate or burn eyes.
2.Inhalation: Mists may irritate nose, throat and lungs.
Brine 3.Skin contact: May cause skin irritation.
4.Ingestion: Low in toxicity, may cause nausea, vomiting and
irritation to gastrointestinal tract.
1. Eye contact: Can cause moderate to severe eye irritation
2. Inhalation: It is severely irritating to nose, throat and lungs.
Some symptoms such as burning sensations, coughing and
headache may include. Overexposure can cause central nervous
Ammonia
system effects.
3. Skin contact: Vapor contact may cause irritation and burns.
4. Ingestion: Ingestion of liquid can cause burns similar to
frostbite.
65
1. Eye contact: Vapour may cause a stinging sensation. Liquid

may cause frostbite.
2. Inhalation: Moderate concentrations may cause headache,
Carbon drowsiness, vomiting and unconsciousness. Lack of oxygen can
Dioxide kill.
3. Skin contact: No harm expected from vapour. Liquid may cause
frostbite.
4. Ingestion: Liquid may cause frostbite.
1. Eye contact: Causes eye irritation.
2. Inhalation: If heated, fume or dust may cause respiratory tract
Ammonium irritation such as an asthma- like allergy.
Chloride 3. Skin contact: May cause skin irritation.
4. Ingestion: May cause irritation of the digestive tract. May cause
systemic toxicity with acidosis.
1. Eye contact: May cause mild eye irritation.
2. Inhalation: May cause respiratory tract irritation.
Sodium
3. Skin contact: May cause mild skin irritation.
Bicarbonate
4. Ingestion: If overexposure, It may cause thirst, gastroenteritis,
abdominal pain and inflammation of the digestive tract.
1. Eye contact: May cause eye irritation.
2. Inhalation: Respiratory irritation may happen when breathing in
dust.
Soda Ash 3. Skin contact: May cause skin irritation, particularly in the
presence of moisture.
4. Ingestion: Swallowing may cause gastrointestinal tract and
mouth irritation.
66
2.4 5 Key Synthesis Steps of Soda Ash
An informal approach introduced by Rudd et al. (1973), has been adopted in this
design project. There are total of five synthesis steps included in designing soda ash
production plant using two different alternatives. Process heuristics are considered, by
referring to a book, titled as Product and Process Design Principles by Seider et al.
(2010) while designing the process flowsheet to ensure safe and effective production.
Alternative 1
Step 1: Eliminate Differences in Molecular Type
For the manufacturing of soda ash, the reaction used is well known and widely
used, however, the most challenging part for the chemical engineer is to select the best
alternative technology that produce soda ash. Reaction path 3 is being used for this
alternative too due to its positive factors. The process flowsheet for this first step is
displayed in Figure 2.1. Table 2.12 shows the overall reaction and gross profit of each
reaction path.
Table 2.12 Gross Profit for each reaction pathway of soda ash
Economic
Route Overall Reaction Potential
(RM/kg)
1 2NaCl+H2SO4+CaCO3+2C → Na2CO3+2CO2+CaS+2HCl 1.54
2 2NaCl+CaCO3 → Na2CO3+CaCl2 0.25
3 2NaCl+2NH3+ CO2+H2O → Na2CO3+2NH4Cl 2.09
4 2NaOH+CO2 → Na2CO3.H2O 0.86
5 2Na2CO3•NaHCO3•2H2O → 3Na2CO3+5H2O+CO2 0.19
67
Figure 2.1 shows the very first step toward creating the process flowsheet of
soda ash production using Dual Process. Each main reaction operation involved is
positioned with arrows representing its feed and product chemicals. Hereby, there are
2 main operations here to produce soda ash as main product. The first reaction is
carbonation of ammoniated brine from the ammonia absorption tower which was in an
exothermic condition. Secondly, the production of light soda ash through thermal
decomposition of sodium bicarbonate. The thermal decomposition is carried out in a
calciner operating at 200℃ (Patel, 2010a). The total production capacity of soda ash
was set at 100,000 mt/yr, assuming operation annually without considering shutdown
period. By performing simple material balances based on Figure 2.1, the results show
that each flowrate is 943.50 mtmol/yr or 0.1077 mtmol/hr which is used as a basis for
further manual calculations.
Sodium chloride and water are fed at 1:3, 16.79 mt/hr and 50.37 mt/hr
respectively before mixing with 3.67 mt/hr ammonia in ammonia absorption vessel.
The reaction of 9.48 mt/hr carbon dioxide with ammoniated brine results in production
of 18.1 mt/hr sodium bicarbonate (NaHCO3) and 11.52 mt/hr ammonium chloride
(NH4Cl). The calcination of sodium bicarbonate eventually produces 11.42 mt/hr soda
ash.
Figure 2.1 Main reaction operations in light soda ash production
68
69
Step 2: Distribute the Chemicals
In order to achieve the distribution of chemicals in Figure 2.2, the purified brine
consisting sodium chloride in water solution are mixed with ammonia in 1:1 ratio via
absorption process. Here, the ammonia is assumed to be absorbed ideally (100%) by
the brine solution which is an exothermic reaction releasing heat up to 70℃. Besides
that, carbonation reaction plays the vital role in production of both ammonium chloride
and soda carbonate. Per Heuristic 2, the use of an excess reactant, sodium chloride
solution to consume completely a valuable reactant, ammonia and in this case in
carbonation tower with assistance of carbon dioxide. The operation reaction is
designed in temperature range of (45 – 55)℃ at 1 atm which ends with 75% of
conversion of sodium chloride fed (Khan, 2011). Since water is fed at huge amount,
the additional or remaining water is needed to be recycled after separation from NaCl
and NH4Cl via evaporation, and the recycled stream is approximately equivalent to [(1
– 0.75)/0.75] ⨯ 50.37 or 46.49 mt/hr of water. While, the remaining stream of NaCl is
[(1 – 0.75)/0.75] ⨯ 16.79 or 4.20 mt/hr of NaCl which is delivered out together with
NH4Cl as fertilizer. As well, the mixture can be sent to market for application medical
treatment purposes as illustrated by (National Center for Biotechnology Information,
2017).
Besides carbonation reaction, valuable side product from thermal

decomposition process such as carbon dioxide gases also need to be recycled to
minimize wastages and fresh feed usage. H2O vapor produced is approximately
equivalent to fed amount of water, 17,001.87 mt/yr of 1.94 mt/hr assuming 100%
decomposition of intermediate product, NaHCO3. While, CO2 gas produced which is
also around 41,523.44 mt/yr or 4.74 mt/hr, separated from CO2-H2O mixture is then
supplied back into carbon dioxide feed to cover 50% of the total usage before entering
carbonation tower. As for water, it is supplied to wastewater treatment plant for other
usage. By doing so, carbon dioxide fresh feed can be reduced with this recycle stream,
with expectation of 100% decomposition and despite other minor failures.
Figure 2.2 Process flowsheet of soda ash production showing the chemicals distribution
70
71
Step 3: Eliminating Differences in Composition
There are total of four separation systems have been introduced for the soda
ash production plant to get the higher purity of it. The separation systems are
implemented based on their physical states, volatility and even solubility. Table 2.13
below shows the summary of some physical properties of the materials involved in the
production.
Table 2.13 Physical properties summary of components in separation system

Physical
Boiling Point Melting Point Water
Component State at
(℃) (℃) Solubility Level
25℃
CO2 Gas -78.5 -56.6 at 2 atm Least soluble
Readily soluble
NH3 Gas -33.43 -77.80 at low
temperature
H2O Liquid 99.98 - -
Start decomposes
NaHCO3 Solid 851 Least soluble
at 50℃
NH4Cl Solid 520 338 Readily soluble
NaCl Solid 1465 808 Readily soluble
From the table, it can be clearly seen that the absorption of ammonia into brine
can be done even though in exothermic condition. This is because the solubility of
ammonia at 70℃ is observed at 170 kg/kg water. Besides, stream consisting carbon
dioxide and water leaving from thermal decomposition can be easily separated via
their boiling point difference or simply physical state difference at room conditions.
Separation drum is placed to separate both components leaving CO2 to top recycling
gas stream and H2O to bottom recycling liquid stream right after a condenser or cooler.
As for stream leaving carbonation tower consisting of solid NaHCO3, and

aqueous NaCl and NH4Cl, separation is done in an orderly manner starting with solid
NaHCO3 separation via rotary filtration operating at 45℃ and 1 atm, leaving solids in
72
top stream while aqueous components in bottom liquid stream (Singhal, 2009). The
solids of NaHCO3 is calcined further to produce light soda ash as the main product.
Since both ammonium chloride and sodium chloride solids are readily soluble
in water, the separation can be done firstly via evaporation of water from solids surface.
The assumption is made such that the water is fully evaporated as water vapor at top
stream, leaving solids in bottom. The vapor is then collected, condensed and
transported to the dissolver which acts as a mixer as well, whereas the solids are sent
for packaging as mixed fertilizers.
Figure 2.3 Process flowsheet including separation units in soda ash production
73
74
Step 4: Eliminate Differences in Temperature, Pressure and Phase
Figure 2.4 shows the possible flowsheet includes the temperature, pressure and
phase differences. The operations involved are as follows:
1. After brine preparation, NH3 will be introduced in an ammonia absorption

column will end up with exothermic condition releasing ammoniated stream
in 70℃. The stream is needed to be cooled to standard temperature of 45℃ in
order to keep NH3 from escaping into air due to instability (ESAPA, 2004).
2. The cooled stream is pumped to 4 atm to ensure the pressure is equal to the
carbonation reactor’s pressure.
3. At the same time, fresh CO2 is compressed at 4 atm before entering the
reactor.
4. The product stream leaving carbonation tower is at 4 atm, in order to filtrate
out NaHCO3 solids out, the pressure is needed to be set around 1 atm to allow
required suction pressure.
5. The aqueous stream leaving the bottom of filtration process is further needed
to convert its temperature to saturation temperature and followed by above
boiling point to ensure complete evaporation of water molecules at 100℃
leaving solids of NH4Cl and NaCl in the stream.
6. NH4Cl and NaCl mixture is cooled to room condition before selling as
fertilizer.
7. The top stream of calciner consisting of CO2 and H2O is further cooled at
25℃ to ensure H2O converts into liquid state. After this phase change, the
stream is fed to flash column to separate CO2 into top stream and H2O in
bottom stream respectively.
8. The recycling streams of CO2 is compressed into feed at 4 atm to ensure
continuous fast supply of materials.
9. The mixed streams of CO2 need cooling from 128℃ (due to compressor) to
45℃ to ensure ideal reaction in carbonation reactor.
10. While, the soda ash formed from thermal reactor is cooled at 25℃ as well
and discharged as light soda ash product.
75
11. Stream leaving evaporator consisting plenty of water vapor needs cooling at
25℃ as well to change its phase into liquid state.
12. The liquid stream of water is pumped back to the dissolver at 4 atm.
Figure 2.4 Temperature, pressure and phase changes (represented by green arrow) in soda ash production
76
77
Step 5: Task Integration
The complete process flowsheet of sulphuric acid production is illustrated in Figure

2.5 below.
1. Stirred Tank/Dissolver/Mixer 1. The dissolve of sodium chloride (NaCl) in

water (H2O) takes place here with aid of stirrer to enhance the rate of dissolving,
operating at 25℃ and 1 atm. The brine produced is ensured to be at saturated
state which is more than 20% by weight. And, the recycle stream of water
evaporated from NH4Cl and NaCl liquid solution is mixed at dissolver as well.
2. Ammonia Absorption Tower. The absorption of ammonia into the purified
brine occurs here by introducing ammonia gas from bottom inlet at average
speed. The contact of brine sprayed from top inlet with ammonia will end up
with exothermic reaction, forming ammoniated brine. 100% absorption is
assumed so that no remaining ammonia is released as it is a valuable component
in production. The exit temperature able to reach 70℃.
3. Cooler 1. The ammoniated brine stream is needed to be cooled to standard
temperature of 45℃ to keep the ammonia from escaping from solution.
Therefore, cooling water (cw) is used as cooling utility to cool down the solution
from 70℃ to 45℃.
4. Pump 1. The cooled stream is pumped at 4 atm to ensure the complete reaction
at 4 atm in carbonation reactor. No temperature difference is observed.
5. Compressor 1. CO2 fed at 1 atm is needed to be compressed at 4 atm to ensure
the optimum flow into the reactor.
6. Cooler 2. The compressed CO2 will result in an increase of temperature, up to
128℃ similar as the recycled stream of compressed CO2. Therefore, cooling by
chilled water (cw) to ensure the temperature reduced to 45℃ before entering the
reactor.
7. Carbonation Tower. The core unit of soda ash production process which
operates at 45℃ and 4 atm. The pressure increase is due to the injection of
carbon dioxide from bottom via 4 atm from liquidified CO2 tank. The pressure is
adjusted such that the release is done at 4 atm into the bottom inlet of the tower.
The absorption of CO2 in sprayed ammoniated brine from top inlet occurs and
produces sodium bicarbonate (NaHCO3) solids and ammonium chloride
78
(NH4Cl) solids with conversion of 75% of NaCl fed. It must be noted that NH4Cl
formed at solid state, but remained in the solution at aqueous state due to high
solubility in water. The remaining NaCl in aqueous state also being transported
via exit stream from bottom outlet point of the tower.
8. Rotary Filter. The filtration of NaHCO3 solids from slurries is done here with
aid of suction at 1 atm. The rotary drum has plenty of small pores where the
solids cannot pass through it and eventually stick on the wall lining of the rotary
drum, forming thick layer. This layer is removed through rotation of the filter at
cutting point, which will be collected in the collector below it. The rotation
speed can be controlled such that the sufficient amount of solids formed.
Whereas, the filtrate consisting aqueous NH4Cl and NaCl is discharged from
bottom exit of rotary filter as liquid solution.
9. Calciner. The calciner operates at temperature of 200℃ to ensure the desired
100% conversion is achieved. At the same time, carbon dioxide and water vapor
also observed to be escape into top outlet of the tower. The temperature is set
more than minimum decomposing temperature which is 50℃, simply because to
ensure complete conversion of NaHCO3 into soda ash (Na2CO3) which was fed
from nearly top of the tower. Hot soda ash (anhydrous) will be transported in the
bottom stream for further process.
10. Cooler 3/Condenser 1 and Cooler 4. The condenser is designed to cool the top
outlet stream of CO2 and H2O vapor to 25℃ to condense the H2O vapor into
liquid state to separate out from CO2 stream. Whereas, Cooler 4 is designed to
cool the hot Na2CO3 solids in bottom stream of calciner to similar temperature as
well before transporting to packaging. cw is used as the cold utility for both
coolers to bring down the high temperature.
11. Separation Drum. This unit is purposely installed for the complete separation
of liquid H2O and gaseous CO2 at 25℃. The water stream leaving the bottom of
the column is then directed to wastewater treatment system while the gaseous
CO2 is discharged to the mixer before entering the carbonation tower.
12. Compressor 2. The recycled stream of gaseous CO2 is pumped at 4 atm to
Mixer 2 (M2) to reduce the fresh feed of CO2 into carbonation tower. The
temperature of CO2 is observed a significant increase in the stream due to
pressure increase.
79
13. Heater 1. The bottom stream of filter consisting dissolved solids of NH4Cl and
NaCl is heated to reach the saturation point of water at around 99.6℃ to ensure
the water at saturated liquid state for easier separation from solid molecules.
14. Evaporator. The dehydration process takes place at 100℃ with aid of lps
circulating throughout the evaporator to evaporate out the large amount of water
vapor. The evaporation rate is assumed at 100% and leaving exact amount of
solids to be delivered as fertilizer.
15. Cooler 5 and Cooler 6/Condenser 2. The cooling of NH4Cl-NaCl mixture and
H2O vapor to 25℃ is done with aid of cw. The solids are sent for packaging
while the condensed water will be pumped to dissolver.
16. Pump 2. Liquid water is pumped at 4 atm back into dissolver to reduce fresh
feed amount of water as well as complete mixing with NaCl feed. No
temperature difference is observed.
Figure 2.5 Task integration flowsheet on soda ash production
80
81
Alternative 2
Step 1: Eliminate Differences in Molecular Type
Similarly, as Alternative 1, the process route 3 is developed and the design is

done different specifically on separation system. The main process flow is done similar
to the previous alternative as displayed in Figure 2.6.
Step 2: Distribute the Chemicals
As for Alternative 2, the differences at this step is done at the carbonation

reactor and calciner. The 75% conversion of sodium chloride may lead to 18.10 mt/hr
sodium bicarbonate and 11.52 mt/hr ammonium chloride respectively. Here, the
remaining unreacted water and sodium chloride from the reaction are to be recycled to
achieve higher conversion. The remaining sodium chloride and water recycled back
into the feed stream are 4.20 mt/hr and 46.49 mt/hr respectively. The separation
methods to separate the outputs before recycling will be discussed in Step 3. Besides,
the calcination step is about to have 100% conversion which leaves essential amount
of carbon dioxide and water vapor as a by-product, which will not be recycled, instead
to be released into the environment after gas treatment. Figure 2.7 shows the
distribution of chemicals in Alternative 2.
Figure 2.6 Main reaction operations in light soda ash production
82
Figure 2.7 Process flowsheet of soda ash production showing the chemicals distribution
83
Step 3: Eliminating Differences in Composition
Based on Figure 2.8, there are three separation systems have been introduced
for the soda ash production plant to get the higher purity of it. The separation systems
are implemented based on their physical states, volatility and even solubility. The
summary of some physical properties of the materials involved in the production
referred to Table 2.13 above.
Product stream leaving carbonation tower consist of sodium chloride and

ammonium chloride solution and solid sodium bicarbonate. Rotary filtration is used to
separate solid sodium bicarbonate from the aqueous solution. The filtration operates
at 45℃ and 1 atm. Solid components leave the filter at the top stream while aqueous
components leave at the bottom stream. The solids of NaHCO3 is calcined further to
produce light soda ash.
As for Alternative 2, the major difference in separation system compared to

previous one is aqueous components consisting of sodium chloride and ammonium
chloride that left the filtration will enter the cooling crystallizer. Cooling crystallizer
is used to crystallize out ammonium chloride from the aqueous sodium chloride. The
crystallizer operates at 0OC and 1 atm. Aqueous sodium chloride is recycled back into
the feed stream.
Calcination process in this plant is a process of converting sodium bicarbonate

into soda ash which produces carbon dioxide and water as byproducts. From Table
2.13, it can be clearly seen that stream consisting carbon dioxide and water leaving
from thermal decomposition can be easily separated via their boiling point difference
but as for this alternative, no separation is included to compare the pros and cons of
having separation while gas treatment on the other hand.
Figure 2.8 Process flowsheet including separation units in soda ash production
84
85
Step 4: Eliminate Differences in Temperature, Pressure and Phase
Figure 2.4 show the possible flowsheet includes the temperature, pressure and
phase differences. The temperature, pressure and phase differences are almost similar
with Alternative 1. The changes are notified as shown in Figure below. The other
differences in temperature, pressure and phase can be referred to Alternative 1.
1. The aqueous stream leaving the bottom of filtration process is further needed
to decrease the temperature to 0OC. This process is to crystallize out the
ammonium chloride, NH4Cl from the water and aqueous sodium chloride. This
process is operating at 1 atm.
2. The phase change of NH4Cl occurs in crystallization process through low
temperature cooling by using refrigerant. Ammonium chloride leaves the
cooling crystallizer in solid form as a byproduct in this soda ash production.
3. The temperature of aqueous stream which contains sodium chloride and water
is needed to increase from 0 OC to 25 OC in order to allow the unreacted sodium
chloride and water is recycling back into the feed stream.
Figure 2.9 Temperature, pressure and phase changes (represented by green arrow) in soda ash production
86
87
Step 5: Task Integration
The complete process flowsheet of soda ash, Na2CO3 production is illustrated

in Figure 2.10 below. In second alternative, cooling crystallization process is used
instead of evaporation process in first alternative in order to separate the sodium
chloride, water and ammonium chloride solution. Besides that, the first alternative
used calciner to convert sodium bicarbonate into soda ash while in this second
alternative fluidized bed reactor is used instead. The remaining unit operation details
are as explained in Alternative 1.
1. Cooling Crystallizer. The mixture of sodium chloride and ammonium

chloride solution are needed to be cooled at 0OC to crystallize ammonium
chloride into solid form. Cooling crystallizer is operating at 0OC and 1atm
because the freezing point of ammonium chloride is above 0OC while the
freezing point of sodium chloride is below 0OC which is -21 OC. Therefore,
chilled water (cw) is used as cooling utility to cool down the solution from
25OC to 0OC.
2. Fluidized Bed Reactor. Sodium bicarbonate separated from the ammoniated

brine through filtration process is calcined by fluidized bed reactor (FBR).
O
Sodium bicarbonate in solid form is heated to 200 C, so that sodium
bicarbonate converts into soda ash. Fluid is forced through the distributor up
through the sodium bicarbonate. At lower velocities, the solids remain in place
as the fluid passes through the solid sodium bicarbonate. As the velocity
increased, the reactor will reach a stage where the force of the fluid on the
solids is enough to balance the weight of the solid material. This stage is known
as incipient fluidization and occurs at this minimum fluidization velocity. Once
this minimum velocity is surpassed, the contents of the reactor bed begin to
expand and swirl around much like an agitated tank or boiling pot of water. At
this stage, all sodium bicarbonate is converted to soda ash.
Figure 2.10 Task integration flowsheet on soda ash production
88
89
Process Screening and Justification
The reaction paths are rated from 1 to 2 with 2 as the best rating and being presented
in Table 1.xx below.
Table 2.14 Alternatives screening based on selected criteria

Criteria Alternative 1 Alternative 2
Separation method Evaporation Cooling crystallization
for ammonium -Cheap since only heating -Expensive refrigerant is
chloride and element is needed to increase needed as the temperature
sodium chloride the temperature from 25OC to change quite large.
100OC. -Produce high purity of
-Produce low purity of ammonium chloride.
ammonium chloride.
2 1
Calcination process Calciner Fluidized Bed Reactor
-Feasible to operate. -Not feasible to operate.
-Cheaper purchase cost -Expensive purchase cost.
2 1
Recycle stream Carbon dioxide and water Sodium chloride and water
-Carbon dioxide leaves the -Brine solution is recycled
calciner is recycled to support fully to reduce the fresh
50% of the fresh feed. feed.
-Higher purity in stream. -Lack of purity in the
-Sodium chloride can sell stream.
together with ammonium -Wastage of unrecycled
chloride as mixed-fertilizer. carbon dioxide.
2 1
Environmental More environmental friendly Need gas treatment
considerations -Unreacted raw materials are -Unreacted carbon dioxide
recycled back to the feed needs treatment such as
stream.
90
scrubbing before its release

to environment.
-Additional cost invested.
2 1
Score 2.0 1.0
From the above comparison table, it can be concluded that the first alternative
is preferable compared to the second alternative. The reason why the first alternative
is better because this alternative is more environmental friendly compared to second
alternative. In first alternative, carbon dioxide from the calciner is recycled back to the
carbonation tower while in second alternative, the carbon dioxide from the calcination
process is released to the surrounding after proper gas treatment to reduce the
concentration of carbon dioxide. Untreated carbon dioxide in the air may contribute to
the "Greenhouse Effect" and gives rise to global warming. This results in additional
operating cost in Alternative 2.
Besides, the first alternative used calciner to convert sodium bicarbonate to

sodium carbonate which is feasible to decompose sodium bicarbonate at higher
temperature. Second alternative used fluidized bed reactor to decompose sodium
bicarbonate into sodium carbonate. This reactor is not feasible to use in the process
since it used steam or hot gas to decompose sodium bicarbonate which is released
together with the effluent vapor stream. As well, the purchase cost of fluidized bed
reactor is higher due to its multiphase function than the common calciner used in
industry.
Furthermore, first alternative used evaporator to remove water from the

mixture of sodium chloride, ammonium chloride and water. Therefore, the purity of
ammonium chloride is low since sodium chloride does not separate from the
ammonium chloride. But, this process is cheaper than in second alternative, and in
fact, the ammonium chloride can be sold as fertilizer in mixture with sodium chloride.
In second alternative, cooling crystallizer is used to crystallize out ammonium chloride
from the mixture. Unreacted sodium chloride and water can be recycled back into the
feed stream. This process will be produce high purity of ammonium chloride but very
91
expensive since it required refrigerant to cooling down the temperature from 25OC to
0OC. Thus, the first alternative is selected.
Complete Process Flow Diagram (PFD)
Figure 2.11 Complete process flowsheet for soda ash production (drawn using Microsoft Visio)
92
CHAPTER 3
BASE CASE MATERIAL & ENERGY BALANCES (MANUAL)
3.1 Basis and Reference Conditions for Manual Calculations
NaCl (s) + NH3 (g) + CO2 (g) + H2O (l) NaHCO3 (s) + NH4Cl (s)
2NaHCO3 (s) Na2CO3 (s) + CO2 (g) + H2O (v)
Overall: 2NaCl (s) + 2NH3 (g) + CO2 (g) + H2O (l) Na2CO3 (s) + 2NH4Cl (s)
Basis: 100,000 MTA soda ash (Na2CO3)

Assuming 365 days’ operation, redefined basis: 11.42 mt/hr soda ash (Na2CO3)
No. of mole of Na2CO3 (s) = 11.42 mt/hr ÷ 105.99 mt/mtmol

= 0.1077 mtmol/hr Na2CO3 (s)
Based on the stoichiometry,

1 mol of Na2CO3 ≈ 2 mol of NaCl fed
≈ 2 mol of H2O fed (while balancing the equations)
≈ 2 mol of NH3 fed
≈ 2 mol of CO2 fed (while balancing the equations)
≈ 2 mol of NaHCO3 produced
≈ 2 mol of NH4Cl produced
≈ 1 mol of CO2 produced
≈ 1 mol of H2O produced
94
0.1077 mtmol/hr Na2CO3 (s) ≈ 0.2154 mtmol/hr NaCl (s)

≈ 0.2154 mtmol/hr H2O (l)
≈ 0.2154 mtmol/hr NH3 (g)
≈ 0.2154 mtmol/hr CO2 (g)
≈ 0.2154 mtmol/hr NaHCO3 (s)
≈ 0.2154 mtmol/hr NH4Cl (s)
≈ 0.1077 mtmol/hr H2O (v)
≈ 0.1077 mtmol/hr CO2 (g)
Carbonation Reaction
Mass Flowrate of NaCl fed = 0.2154 mtmol/hr ⨯ 58.44 mt/mtmol

= 12.59 mt/hr
Considering 75% conversion in carbonation reactor,
Mass Flowrate of NaCl fed = 12.59 mt/hr ÷ 0.75

= 16.79 mt/hr
Since fresh H2O: NaCl is fed at 3:1,
Mass Flowrate of H2O fed = 16.79 mt/hr ⨯ 3

= 50.37 mt/hr
Mass Flowrate of NH3 fed = 0.2154 mtmol/hr ⨯ 17.03 mt/mtmol

= 3.67 mt/hr
Mass Flowrate of CO2 fed = 0.2154 mtmol/hr ⨯ 44.01 mt/mtmol

= 9.48 mt/hr
95
Mass Flowrate of NaHCO3 produced = 0.2154 mtmol/hr ⨯ 84.007 mt/mtmol

= 18.10 mt/hr
Mass Flowrate of NH4Cl produced = 0.2154 mtmol/hr ⨯ 53.49 mt/mtmol

= 11.52 mt/hr
Calcination Reaction
Mass Flowrate of CO2 produced = 0.1077 mtmol/hr ⨯ 44.01 mt/mtmol

= 4.74 mt/hr
Mass Flowrate of H2O produced = 0.1077 mtmol/hr ⨯ 18.02 mt/mtmol

= 1.94 mt/hr
Reference Conditions
Atomic: Na(s), C(s), Cl2(g), H2(g), O2(g), N2(g) at 25 ℃ and 1 atm; or

Molecular: NaCl(s), H2O(l), NH3(g), CO2(g), NaHCO3(s), NH4Cl(s), Na2CO3(s) at 25 ℃
and 1 atm
3.2 Material and Energy Balances (Manual)
General Assumptions and Formula
General assumptions:
1. Standard temperature is 25℃ and standard pressure is 1 atm.
2. Kinetic energy and potential energy are neglected.
3. No heat loss due to friction, conduction and convection during flow in pipeline.
96
4. Heat of mixing and heat of dissolution are neglected for dissolver and mixer.
5. Energy due to pressure changes in rotary filter is neglected.
Formula involved:
1. Material balances:
Input = Output
2. Energy balances on non-reactive processes (pump, compressor, heat

exchangers):
H = Heat energy absorbed or released

𝐻 = 𝑚̇𝐶𝑝∆𝑇
̂𝑣
𝐻 = 𝑚̇𝐻
̂𝑓
𝐻 = 𝑚̇𝐻
𝐻 = 𝑉∆𝑃
𝐶𝑝𝑚𝑖𝑥 = ∑ 𝐶𝑝𝑖 ∙ 𝑥𝑖 ,
where 𝐶𝑝 = 𝑎 + 𝑏𝑇 + 𝑐𝑇 2 + 𝑑𝑇 3
3. Energy balances on reactive processes (carbonation and calcination):
̂𝑣
𝐻 = 𝑚̇𝐻
̂𝑓
𝐻 = 𝑚̇𝐻
̇
̂𝑜𝑢𝑡 − ∑ 𝑚̇𝑖𝑛 𝐻
∆𝐻 = ∑ 𝑚̇𝑜𝑢𝑡 𝐻 ̂𝑖𝑛
𝑇 𝑇
̂𝑖 = 𝐻𝑓𝑖 + ∫
𝐻 𝐶𝑝𝑙 𝑑𝑇 + 𝐻𝑣𝑖 + ∫ 𝐶𝑝𝑣 𝑑𝑇
𝑇𝑟𝑒𝑓 𝑇𝑟𝑒𝑓
where 𝐶𝑝 = 𝑎 + 𝑏𝑇 + 𝑐𝑇 2 + 𝑑𝑇 3
* The parameters are obtained from Table B.2 from Appendix B in (Felder and
Rousseau, 2005), and thermodynamics properties data in Section 2.3 above.
Summary of Material Balances (Equipment)
The summary of material balances involving all unit operations is listed in Table 3.1.
Table 3.1 Summary of material balances (manual)
Inlet Flowrate Outlet Flowrate

Streams Unit Operation Component Component Conversion
(mt/hr) (mt/hr)
Inlet: 1, 2, 27 Dissolver (Mixer 1) NaCl (s) 12.59 NaCl (aq) 50.37

Outlet: 3 (25℃, 1atm) H2O (l) 3.88 H2O (l) 16.79
Recycled H2O (l) 46.49
Inlet: 3, 4 Absorption Tower NaCl (aq) 16.79 NaCl (aq) 16.79
Outlet: 5 (exothermic 70℃, 1atm) H2O (l) 50.37 H2O (l) 50.37 100% of NH3
NH3 (g) 3.67 NH3 (aq) 3.67
Inlet: 4 Cooler 1 NaCl (aq) 16.79 NaCl (aq) 16.79
Outlet: 5 Tout: 45℃ H2O (l) 50.37 H2O (l) 50.37
NH3 (aq) 3.67 NH3 (aq) 3.67
Inlet: 5 Pump 1 NaCl (aq) 16.79 NaCl (aq) 16.79
Outlet: 6 Pout: 4 atm H2O (l) 50.37 H2O (l) 50.37
NH3 (aq) 3.67 NH3 (aq) 3.67
Inlet: 8 Compressor 1 CO2 (g) 4.74 CO2 (g) 4.74
97
Outlet: 9 Pout: 4 atm, Tout: 128℃
Inlet: 9 Mixer 2 CO2 (g) 4.74 CO2 (g) 9.48
Outlet: 10 (128℃, 4atm) Recycled CO2 (g) 4.74
Inlet: 10 Cooler 2 CO2 (g) 9.48 CO2 (g) 9.48
Outlet: 11 Tout: 45℃
Inlet: 7, 11 Carbonation Reactor NaCl (aq) 16.79 NaHCO3 (s) 18.10
Outlet: 12 (45℃, 4atm) H2O (l) 50.37 NH4Cl (aq) 11.52
75% of NaCl
NH3 (aq) 3.67 NaCl (aq) 4.20
CO2 (g) 9.48 H2O (l) 46.49
Inlet: 12 Rotary Filter NaHCO3 (s) 18.10 NaHCO3 (s) 18.10
Outlet: 13, 14 (45℃, 1atm) NH4Cl (aq) 11.52 NH4Cl (aq) 11.52
NaCl (aq) 4.20 NaCl (aq) 4.20
H2O (l) 46.49 H2O (l) 46.49
Inlet: 14 Calciner NaHCO3 (s) 18.10 CO2 (g) 4.74
100% of
Outlet: 15, 17 (200℃, 1atm) H2O (v) 1.94
NaHCO3
Na2CO3 (s) 11.42
Inlet: 15 Cooler 3 Na2CO3 (s) 11.42 Na2CO3 (s) 11.42
Inlet: 17 Cooler 4 CO2 (g) 4.74 CO2 (g) 4.74
Outlet: 18 Tout: 25℃ H2O (v) 1.94 H2O (l) 1.94
Inlet: 18 Separation Drum CO2 (g) 4.74 CO2 (g) 4.74
Outlet: 19, 20 (25℃, 1atm) H2O (l) 1.94 H2O (l) 1.94
Inlet: 20 Compressor 2 Recycled CO2 (g) 4.74 Recycled CO2 (g) 4.74
98
Inlet: 13 Heater 1 NH4Cl (aq) 11.52 NH4Cl (aq) 11.52
Outlet: 22 Tout: 99.6℃ NaCl (aq) 4.20 NaCl (aq) 4.20
H2O (l) 46.49 H2O (l) 46.49
Inlet: 22 Evaporator NH4Cl (aq) 11.52 NH4Cl (s) 11.52
Outlet: 23, 25 (100℃, 1atm) NaCl (aq) 4.20 NaCl (s) 4.20
H2O (l) 46.49 H2O (v) 46.49
Inlet: 23 Cooler 5 NH4Cl (s) 11.52 NH4Cl (s) 11.52
Outlet: 24 Tout: 25℃ NaCl (s) 4.20 NaCl (s) 4.20
Inlet: 25 Cooler 6 H2O (v) 46.49 H2O (l) 46.49
Inlet: 26 Pump 2 Recycled H2O (l) 46.49 Recycled H2O (l) 46.49
Outlet: 27 Pout: 4 atm
99
100
Summary of Energy Balances (Equipment)
Table 3.2 Summary of energy balances (manual)
Streams Unit Operation Enthalpy, ∆H (kW)
Inlet: 1, 2, 27 Dissolver (Mixer 1)

0.00
Outlet: 3 (25℃, 1atm)
Inlet: 3, 4 Absorption Tower
-2,864.89
Outlet: 5 (exothermic 70℃, 1atm)
Inlet: 4 Cooler 1
-1,592.14
Inlet: 5 Pump 1
5.28⨯10-5
Inlet: 8 Compressor 1
121.76
Inlet: 9 Mixer 2
0.00
Outlet: 10 (128℃, 4atm)
Inlet: 10 Cooler 2
-198.50
Inlet: 7, 11 Carbonation Reactor
-10,217.07
Outlet: 12 (45℃, 4atm)
Inlet: 12 Rotary Filter
0.00
Outlet: 13, 14 (45℃, 1atm)
Inlet: 14 Calciner
-5,929.35
Outlet: 15, 17 (200℃, 1atm)
Inlet: 15 Cooler 3
-3,020,19
Inlet: 17 Cooler 4
-588.11
Inlet: 18 Separation Drum
0.00
Outlet: 19, 20 (25℃, 1atm)
Inlet: 20 Compressor 2
121.76
Inlet: 13 Heater 1
3,261.54
Outlet: 22 Tout: 99.6℃
Inlet: 22 Evaporator 60,705.60
101
Outlet: 23, 25 (100℃, 1atm)

Inlet: 23 Cooler 5
-432.42
Inlet: 25 Cooler 6
-64,730.68
Inlet: 26 Pump 2
3.89⨯10-5
Summary of Material and Energy Balances (Stream)
The material and energy balances for each stream are computed by inserting all required process parameters with aid of build-in formula in
Microsoft Excel. The complete results are presented in Table 3.3 below.
Table 3.3 Summary of material and energy balances (stream)

Stream 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14
Phase Liquid Solid Liquid Gas Mixed Mixed Mixed Gas Gas Gas Gas Mixed Liquid Solid
Temperature (℃) 25.0 25.0 25.0 25.0 70.0 45.0 45.0 25.0 128.0 128.0 45.0 45.0 45.0 45.0
Pressure (atm) 1 1 1 1 1 1 4 1 4 4 4 4 1 1
Mass Flow (g/hr)
NaCl 0.00 16790000.00 16790000.00 0.00 16790000.00 16790000.00 16790000.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 4200000.00 4200000.00 0.00
H2O 3880000.00 0.00 50370000.00 0.00 50370000.00 50370000.00 50370000.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 46490000.00 46490000.00 0.00
NH3 0.00 0.00 0.00 3670000.00 3670000.00 3670000.00 3670000.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00
CO2 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 4740000.00 4740000.00 9480000.00 9480000.00 0.00 0.00 0.00
NH4Cl 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 11520000.00 11520000.00 0.00
NaHCO3 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 18100000.00 0.00 18100000.00
Na2CO3 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00
Total Mass Flow (g/hr) 3880000.00 16790000.00 67160000.00 3670000.00 70830000.00 70830000.00 70830000.00 4740000.00 4740000.00 9480000.00 9480000.00 80310000.00 62210000.00 18100000.00
Mole Flow (mol/hr)
NaCl 0.00 287303.22 287303.22 0.00 287303.22 287303.22 287303.22 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 71868.58 71868.58 0.00
H2O 215316.32 0.00 2795227.52 0.00 2795227.52 2795227.52 2795227.52 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 2579911.21 2579911.21 0.00
NH3 0.00 0.00 0.00 215502.06 215502.06 215502.06 215502.06 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00
CO2 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 107702.79 107702.79 215405.59 215405.59 0.00 0.00 0.00
NH4Cl 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 215367.36 215367.36 0.00
NaHCO3 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 215458.24 0.00 215458.24
Na2CO3 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00
Total Mole Flow (mol/hr) 215316.32 287303.22 3082530.74 215502.06 3298032.80 3298032.80 3298032.80 107702.79 107702.79 215405.59 215405.59 3082605.39 2867147.15 215458.24
102
∆H (kW) -17096.12 -32800.45 -254741.52 -2765.01 -254641.47 -256233.60 -256233.60 -11772.51 -11650.65 -23301.30 -23500.00 -289951.29 -233476.42 -56488.83
Stream 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27
Phase Solid Solid Vapor+Gas Mixed Liquid Gas Gas Mixed Solid Solid Vapor Liquid Liquid
Temperature (℃) 200.0 25.0 200.0 25.0 25.0 25.0 128.0 99.6 100.0 25.0 100.0 25.0 25.0
Pressure (atm) 1 1 1 1 1 1 4 1 1 1 1 1 4
Mass Flow (g/hr)
NaCl 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 4200000.00 4200000.00 4200000.00 0.00 0.00 0.00
H2O 0.00 0.00 1940000.00 1940000.00 1940000.00 0.00 0.00 46490000.00 0.00 0.00 46490000.00 46490000.00 46490000.00
NH3 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00
CO2 0.00 0.00 4740000.00 4740000.00 0.00 4740000.00 4740000.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00
NH4Cl 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 11520000.00 11520000.00 11520000.00 0.00 0.00 0.00
NaHCO3 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00
Na2CO3 11420000.00 11420000.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00
Total Mass Flow (g/hr) 11420000.00 11420000.00 6680000.00 6680000.00 1940000.00 4740000.00 4740000.00 62210000.00 15720000.00 15720000.00 46490000.00 46490000.00 46490000.00
Mole Flow (mol/hr)
NaCl 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 71868.58 71868.58 71868.58 0.00 0.00 0.00
H2O 0.00 0.00 107658.16 107658.16 107658.16 0.00 0.00 2579911.21 0.00 0.00 2579911.21 2579911.21 2579911.21
NH3 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00
CO2 0.00 0.00 107702.79 107702.79 0.00 107702.79 107702.79 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00
NH4Cl 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 215367.36 215367.36 215367.36 0.00 0.00 0.00
NaHCO3 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00
Na2CO3 107746.01 107746.01 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00
Total Mole Flow (mol/hr) 107746.01 107746.01 215360.95 215360.95 107658.16 107702.79 107702.79 2867147.15 287235.94 287235.94 2579911.21 2579911.21 2579911.21
∆H (kW) -33259.02 -33847.21 -17300.56 -20320.57 -8548.06 -11772.51 -11650.65 -230197.38 -29381.09 -29813.52 -140117.13 -204844.95 -204844.95
103
CHAPTER 4
PRELIMINARY SIMULATION OF MATERIAL & ENERGY BALANCE
4.1 Aspen Plus Simulation
For the current project, the simulator programme used is called Aspen PLUS.
The simulation was carried out for this project to compare the results of manual
calculations and the simulated values to provide assurance that the assumptions and
calculations made were correct and as close as possible to actual plant operations. The
“NRTL” model was used to calculate the phase equilibrium. The components were
added and since the product is in solid form, the main product which is NaHCO3 and
Na2CO3 were set up as solid instead of conventional. Other components such as NaCl,
H2O, NH3, CO2, and NH4Cl were set up as conventional. Several missing parameters
like “DHFORM” which is enthalpy of formation and “DGFORM” which is ideal gas
Gibbs free energy of formation for certain components were added to run the
simulation. The missing parameters were obtained by online or referring to the books.
In simulation environment, the simulation was carried out for individual unit
operation before running a complete process to ensure the output is correct and
minimize the errors. In soda ash production process, 1 rotary filter, 2 reactors, 2
compressors, 2 pumps, 3 separators, 3 mixers and 7 heat exchangers were used to
simulate the complete process. The unit blocks and streams were labelled and the result
data was rearranged accordingly for better analysis. Although it is handy but it may be
time consuming, especially in the separation models since this project involve solid
materials separation.
105
A computer based process simulator such as Aspen Plus is a useful tool for
designers and plant operators in many ways. The ability to imagine and simulate the
operations of one’s own plant is a very crucial part. This simulation that generated by
computer could provide information important for the users to substitute data that are
not readily available from the control instrumentation and literature. Simulations of
the plant could also be used to cross check the actual performance comparing to the
simulated work load and efficiency. Thus, errors and mistakes such as faulty
instruments and instrument could be readily identified and rectified.
4.2 Complete Process Flow Diagram (Aspen Plus)
106
Figure 4.1 Complete process flowsheet of soda ash production simulated using Aspen Plus
107
Table 4.1 Unit operations used in Aspen simulation

Label Block details
D-1 Dissolver tank
M-2 Mixer
E-1 Heat Exchanger 1
P-1 Pump 1
R-1 Carbonation reactor
K-1 Compressor 1
M-1 Mixer
F-1 Filter
R-2 Calciner
S-2 Evaporator
S-1 Separation Drum
K-2 Compressor 2
S-3 Separator
P-2 Pump 2
4.3 Summary of Material and Energy Balances (Simulation)
Table 4.2 Summary of material and energy balances (simulation)

Stream Name 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14
Vapor Fraction 0.00 0.00 1.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 1.00 1.00 1.00 0.99 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.67
Liquid Fraction 1.00 1.00 0.00 1.00 1.00 1.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.01 0.93 1.00 0.00 0.00
Solid Fraction 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.07 0.00 1.00 0.33
0
Temperature ( C) 25.00 25.07 25.00 54.79 45.00 45.00 45.00 127.59 127.34 45.00 45.00 45.00 45.00 200.00
Pressure (bar) 1.01 1.01 1.01 1.01 1.01 4.05 4.05 4.05 4.05 4.05 4.05 1.01 1.01 1.01
Mole Flow (kmol/hr)
NH3 0.00 0.00 215.34 215.34 215.34 215.34 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00
NaCl 287.29 287.29 0.00 287.29 287.29 287.29 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 71.95 71.95 0.00 0.00
H2O 211.97 2795.96 0.00 2795.96 2795.96 2795.97 0.00 0.00 3.37 3.37 2583.99 2583.99 0.00 107.67
CO2 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 109.35 109.35 215.41 106.05 0.07 0.07 0.00 107.67
NaHCO3 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 215.34 0.00 215.34 0.00
NH4Cl 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 215.34 215.34 0.00 0.00
Na2CO3 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 107.67
Total Flow (kmol/hr) 499.26 3083.25 215.34 3298.59 3298.59 3298.60 109.35 109.35 218.78 109.42 3086.69 2871.35 215.34 323.01
Mass Flow (kg/hr)
NH3 0.00 0.00 3667.37 3667.37 3667.37 3667.37 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00
NaCl 16790.00 16790.00 0.00 16790.00 16790.00 16790.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 4204.97 4204.97 0.00 0.00
H2O 3818.70 50370.02 0.00 50370.02 50370.02 50370.10 0.00 0.00 60.74 60.74 46551.32 46551.32 0.00 1939.69
CO2 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 4812.62 4812.62 9480.00 4667.38 2.91 2.91 0.00 4738.50
NaHCO3 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 18090.09 0.18 18089.91 0.00
NH4Cl 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 11518.57 11518.57 0.00 0.00
Na2CO3 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 11411.72
Total Flow (kg/hr) 20608.70 67160.02 3667.37 70827.39 70827.39 70827.47 4812.62 4812.62 9540.74 4728.12 80367.85 62277.94 18089.91 18089.91
Enthalpy (Kw) -44927.55 -250060.00 -2745.47 -252810.00 -253760.00 -252800.00 -11953.23 -11830.45 -23526.48 -23726.41 -288220.00 -231560.00 -56656.20 -51735.58
108
Stream Name 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27
Vapor Fraction 0.00 0.00 1.00 0.51 0.00 1.00 1.00 0.80 0.00 0.00 1.00 0.00 0.00
Liquid Fraction 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.49 1.00 0.00 0.00 0.20 1.00 1.00 0.00 1.00 1.00
Solid Fraction 1.00 1.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00
0
Temperature ( C) 200.00 25.00 200.00 25.00 25.00 25.00 127.59 99.60 100.00 25.00 100.00 25.00 25.07
Pressure (bar) 1.01 1.01 1.01 1.01 1.01 1.01 4.05 1.01 1.01 1.01 1.01 1.01 4.05
Mole Flow (kmol/hr)
NH3 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00
NaCl 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 71.95 71.95 71.95 0.00 0.00 0.00
H2O 0.00 0.00 107.67 107.67 104.30 3.37 3.37 2583.99 0.00 0.00 2583.99 2583.99 2583.99
CO2 0.00 0.00 107.67 107.67 1.62 106.05 106.05 0.07 0.07 0.07 0.00 0.00 0.00
NaHCO3 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00
NH4Cl 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 215.34 215.34 215.34 0.00 0.00 0.00
Na2 CO3 107.67 107.67 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00
Total Flow (kmol/hr) 107.67 107.67 215.34 215.34 105.91 109.42 109.42 2871.35 287.36 287.36 2583.99 2583.99 2583.99
Mass Flow (kg/hr)
NH3 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00
NaCl 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 4204.97 4204.97 4204.97 0.00 0.00 0.00
H2O 0.00 0.00 1939.69 1939.69 1878.95 60.74 60.74 46551.32 0.00 0.00 46551.32 46551.32 46551.32
CO2 0.00 0.00 4738.50 4738.50 71.12 4667.38 4667.38 2.91 2.91 2.91 0.00 0.00 0.00
NaHCO3 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.18 0.18 0.18 0.00 0.00 0.00
NH4Cl 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 11518.57 11518.57 11518.57 0.00 0.00 0.00
Na2 CO3 11411.72 11411.72 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00
Total Flow (kg/hr) 11411.72 11411.72 6678.19 6678.19 1950.07 4728.12 4728.12 62277.94 15726.62 15726.62 46551.32 46551.32 46551.32
Enthalpy (kW) -33127.29 -33771.58 -18608.27 -20278.05 -8459.08 -11818.98 -11696.04 -201540.00 -26962.14 -27639.55 -171260.00 -205140.00 -205140.00
109
110
4.4 Comparison Between Manual and Simulation Results
The comparison is done between manually calculated and simulated mass and
energy balances on stream basis. The comparison is done to justify the manual
calculation where its deviation should not be more than 15%. The complete
comparison data is tabulated in Table 4.3.
1. The percentage of error calculation for material balance is:
𝑀𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑓𝑙𝑜𝑤 𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑒𝐴𝑠𝑝𝑒𝑛 − 𝑀𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑓𝑙𝑜𝑤 𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑀𝑎𝑛𝑢𝑎𝑙

𝐸𝑟𝑟𝑜𝑟 (%) = | | ×100%
𝑀𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑓𝑙𝑜𝑤 𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑒𝐴𝑠𝑝𝑒𝑛
2. The percentage of error calculation for energy balance is:
𝐸𝑛𝑡ℎ𝑎𝑙𝑝𝑦𝐴𝑠𝑝𝑒𝑛 − 𝐸𝑛𝑡ℎ𝑎𝑙𝑝𝑦𝑀𝑎𝑛𝑢𝑎𝑙
𝐸𝑟𝑟𝑜𝑟 (%) = | | ×100%
𝐸𝑛𝑡ℎ𝑎𝑙𝑝𝑦𝐴𝑠𝑝𝑒𝑛
111
Table 4.3 Comparison of MEB between manual and simulation data

Mass Flowrate (kg/hr) Enthalpy (kW)
Stream
Manual Aspen %Error Manual Aspen %Error
1 3880.00 3818.70 1.61 -17096.12 -17096.12 0.00
2 16790.00 16790.00 0.00 -32800.45 -32800.45 0.00
3 67160.00 67160.02 0.00 -254741.52 -250060.00 1.87
4 3670.00 3677.37 0.20 -2765.01 -2745.47 0.71
5 70830.00 70827.39 0.00 -254641.47 -252810.00 0.72
6 70830.00 70827.39 0.00 -256233.60 -253760.00 0.97
7 70830.00 70827.39 0.00 -256233.60 -252800.00 1.36
8 4740.00 4812.62 1.51 -11772.51 -11953.23 1.51
9 4740.00 4812.62 1.51 -11650.65 -11830.45 1.52
10 9480.00 9540.74 0.64 -23301.30 -23526.48 0.96
11 9480.00 9540.74 0.64 -23500.00 -23726.41 0.95
12 80310.00 80367.85 0.07 -289951.29 -288220.00 0.60
13 62210.00 62277.94 0.11 -233476.42 -231560.00 0.83
14 18100.00 18089.91 0.06 -56488.83 -56656.20 0.30
15 11420.00 11411.72 0.07 -33259.02 -33127.29 0.40
16 11420.00 11411.72 0.07 -33847.21 -33771.58 0.22
17 6680.00 6678.19 0.03 -17300.56 -18608.27 7.03
18 6680.00 6678.19 0.03 -21536.39 -20278.05 6.21
19 1940.00 1950.07 0.52 -8548.06 -8459.08 1.05
20 4740.00 4728.12 0.25 -11772.51 -11818.98 0.39
21 4740.00 4728.12 0.25 -11650.65 -11696.04 0.39
22 62210.00 62277.94 0.11 -230197.38 -201540.00 14.22
23 15720.00 15726.62 0.04 -29381.09 -26962.14 8.97
24 15720.00 15726.62 0.04 -29813.52 -27639.55 7.87
25 46490.00 46551.32 0.13 -140117.13 -171260.00 18.18
26 46490.00 46551.32 0.13 -204844.95 -205140.00 0.14
27 46490.00 46551.32 0.13 -204844.95 -205140.00 0.14
112
Justification on Deviations
After a detailed analysis on the manual and simulation results, it is found that
the material balances showed a great convergence compared to energy balances. As
displayed in Table 4.3, most streams highlighted least deviation between manual
calculation and simulation for less than 1% except for Stream 8 and Stream 9 which
exceeded 1%. This may due to the recycling error of carbon dioxide in simulation
where minor amount of the selected component might have lost in earlier separation
from water vapor before mixing with fresh feed, thus increasing the feed amount from
4740 to 4812.62 kg/hr.
As for energy balances, almost 21 streams showed deviation less than 2%,
leaving 5 streams with deviation of less than 15%, and followed by 1 stream which
exceeded the limit fixed, Stream 25. Stream 25 carries the vaporized water evaporated
from mixture of NaCl, NH4Cl and water at evaporator which operates at 100℃ and
1atm. Even though the separation in both manual and Aspen showed 100%, but due to
the recycling error of water, the actual amount to be recycled should be 46490 kg/hr
instead of 46551.32 kg/hr. This may cause the calculation in Aspen simulation went
wrong to a higher exothermic value since the difference is considered huge. However,
overall material and energy balances showed a good agreement between manual and
simulation which confirms the correct assumptions and calculation made in process
design.
CHAPTER 5
INNOVATION/ LATEST TECHNOLOGY
5.1 Original PFD Before Innovation
Figure 5.1 Original process flowsheet before modification (Patel, 2010b)
As shown in figure above, the liquor leaving centrifuge after carbonation tower,
contains ammonium chloride, unreacted NaCl and traces of sodium carbonate which
is ammoniated in ammonia absorber. Then, the ammoniated liquor is sent to a bed of
washed salt in salt dissolver. A refrigeration unit is utilised to cool the liquor at 0℃,
resulting into crystallize out ammonium chloride. The slurry containing ammonium
chloride crystals is thickened and NH4Cl is centrifuged and dried before selling.
114
On the other hand, the liquor obtained after the separation of NH4Cl is further
charged to a series of carbonation towers in which CO2 is passed from bottom in the
counter current flow of liquor. The resulting sodium bicarbonate is thickened in
thickener and centrifuged leaving the unreacted liquor stream to be recycled to
ammonia absorbing tank. The sodium bicarbonate is then calcined into sodium
carbonate as the main product.
Innovation/ Technology Applied
There are several modifications have been carried out to ensure the purity of the
product produced, and cheaper and easier process flow. The innovation done in terms
of unit operations are as follows:
1. Bubble-jacketed carbonation reactor replaces carbonation tower.

2. Calciner for calcination is preferred over fluidized bed reactor.
3. Rotary filter replaces centrifuge for sodium bicarbonate separation.
4. Evaporator is used instead of refrigeration plus crystallizer
The bubble column is particularly useful in reactions where the gas-liquid

reaction is slow in relation to the absorption rate (Deckwer, 1980). The introduction of
gas takes place at the bottom of the column induces a turbulent stream to enable an
optimum gas exchange. The mixing is done by the gas sparging instead of mechanical
stirring since it requires less energy. As well, bubble column reactor is cheaper and
involves easier handling (Kantarci et al., 2005). Secondly, calciner replaces fluidized
bed reactor due to cheaper purchase cost and less separation cost of produced products.
Next, latest rotary filter is designed over centrifuge due to its separation ability.
Rotary filter introduces vacuum suction to the mixture containing valuable sodium
bicarbonate, forcing it to be form layers on filter due to tiny pores surrounding the
filter, leaving very low solid content filtrate to bottom. While, centrifuge may lead to
solids accumulation, complexity and even foaming in liquid stream (Letki, 1998).
115
Lastly, crystallizer is replaced with simple evaporator since the process is already
modified where its inlet stream contains sodium chloride besides ammonium chloride
in dissolved manner. Crystallization process involves cooling by refrigeration which
is relatively expensive and the purity of products produced in continuous process is
low (Charles G. Moyers, 1987).
Apart from unit operations, there are several major modifications have been
introduced to the production process. Firstly, the recycling streams in innovated PFD,
Stream 20 and Stream 25 consists of carbon dioxide and water respectively, are not
listed in original PFD. In original PFD, the ammoniated brine which is separated from
sodium bicarbonate is recycled straight to the ammonia absorber and followed by
removal of ammonium chloride by crystallization. In latest PFD, the carbonation
reaction is set at optimum condition to consume fully the valuable carbon dioxide and
ammonia to reduce them to least level in the exit stream. As well, it is ensured that the
ammonium chloride is separated out together with sodium chloride before recycling
water back to the dissolver. By doing so, higher purity of products can be achieved
besides cheaper and easier process is implemented.
CHAPTER 6
HEAT INTEGRATION
6.1 Introduction
Heat integration seeks to utilize the energy in the high temperature streams that
need to be cooled and/ or condensed to heat and/ or vaporize the cold streams (Seider
et al., 2010). To accomplish this, hot process streams are cooled with cold process
streams. When the sum of heating requirements does not equal to the sum of cooling
requirements, it is always necessary to provide heating or cooling through the use of
utilities such as steam and cooling water. The main objective is set to achieve
maximum energy recovery (MER) as well as to minimize utility targets to achieve cost
savings. In conjunction to this, pinch analysis which has been introduced by Linnhoff
(1993) is used as a tool to accomplish the heat integration involving heat exchangers
in the production process.
Pinch analysis is the systematic approach for optimal design and retrofit for
process systems for maximum energy recovery (MER) to meet the demand and
minimize the fresh resources such heat utilities. One of the benefits of applying pinch
technology is it can recover the energy lost from process systems such excess heat
dissipated from a hot stream. Besides, by application of pinch analysis, less
consumption of fresh utilities which eventually reduces the operating costs of the
process. Heat pinch can be done through 2 different methods which are composite
curves method and problem table algorithm (PTA) method to find the minimum energy
targets and pinch temperature. In this project, PTA method is used to represent the heat
117
transmission, followed by heat cascading and grid diagram to represent matching

between hot and cold streams. Finally, the developed heat exchanger network design
(HEN-D) is used to modify the streams flow on PFD. In between, percentage of utility
savings after heat integration is calculated to justify the integrated design.
6.2 Data Extraction
Based on designed PFD, the very first step in heat integration is to extract the
data of selected streams involving heat exchangers. The streams data is tabulated in
Table 6.1. The assumption is made such that ∆Tmin = 10℃.
Table 6.1 Stream data for heat integration

Tsupply Ttarget Cpmix FCp ∆H Required
Stream F (g/s)
(℃) (℃) (kJ/g.℃) (kW/℃) (kW) Utility
H1 70.0 45.0 19675.00 0.00324 63.69 1,592.25
H2 128.0 45.0 2633.33 0.00091 2.40 198.20
H3 200.0 25.0 1855.56 0.00188 3.50 612.50 QC =
H4 200.0 25.0 3172.22 0.00106 3.36 588.00 7,475.95
H5 100.0 25.0 4366.67 0.00132 5.77 432.75
H6 100.0 25.0 12913.89 0.00418 54.03 4,052.25
QH =
C1 45.0 99.6 17280.56 0.00346 59.80 3,265.08
3,265.08
6.3 Problem Table Algorithm (PTA)
Figure 6.1 Problem table algorithm (PTA) approach for heat integration of designed process
118
119
6.4 Heat Cascade
QH, min Pinch
QC, min
Figure 6.2 Heat cascade to evaluate Tpinch, QH, min and QC, min
From the figure, it can be observed that there is no negative value in cumulative
values flowing down the heat cascade, thus it is concluded that minimum hot utility
required, QH, min is 0 kW. Whereas, the final cumulative value is denoted as minimum
cold utility required, QC, min which is equal to 4,211.87 kW. There values obtained are
logical since there are excess hot streams releasing energy to supply to one and only
cold stream, and the remaining hot streams need further cooling in respective amount
as shown in Figure 6.2. Furthermore, the pinch point is also labelled in figure above
which indicates that pinch temperature, Tpinch = 195℃, leaving hot stream pinch
temperature, Tpinch, hot = 200℃ and cold stream pinch Tpinch, cold = 190℃.
120
6.5 HEN-D Using Grid Diagram
Figure 6.3 Heat exchanger network design (HEN-D) using grid diagram (1st trial)
Figure 6.4 Heat exchanger network design (HEN-D) using grid diagram (2nd trial)
121
Figure 6.5 Heat exchanger network design (HEN-D) using grid diagram (3rd trial)
Since the supply and target temperatures of all streams are below Tpinch, hot and
Tpinch, cold, therefore heat exchanger matching can only be done for below pinch
temperature. When constructing the grid diagram, there are 3 distinct diagrams
designed and compared based on its suitability and operability. The first one is
displayed in Figure 6.3 which involves only 2 matchings and leaving remaining hot
streams to use external cooling utilities to achieve desired temperature. Whereas, the
second grid diagram is illustrated in Figure 6.4 which involves 3 matching, leaving
remaining hot streams to use external cooling as well. The third one is as illustrated in
Figure 6.5 which involves stream splitting and increase the matching to 5 matchings
and 6 coolers as external utilities requirement.
For the first trial, FCp rule is obeyed such that FCp, out > FCp, in or FCp, hot > FCp, cold
to initiate the first matching. Therefore, the first match is done between H1 and C1
since H1 has the higher FCp than C1 compared to other hot streams. However, the
energy transferred from H1 is insufficient for C1 to achieve the targeted temperature.
Therefore, another matching done between H6 and C1 since only H6 has enough heat
to transfer to C1 to cater the remaining required heat energy which is 1672.83 kW.
While, the remaining hot streams with lower FCp values and H6 as well are cooled
using external cooling using cooling water to achieve desired temperature. Besides, it
is also ensured the temperatures of streams after matching do not violate ∆Tmin which
122
is equal to 10℃. For instance, the temperature of C1 after the matching with H6 is
72.97℃ which does not violate ∆Tmin since the supply temperature of H6 is 100℃,
proven to have difference of more than 10℃. Moreover, the diagram is justified with
recalculation of QH, min and QC, min. Based on the calculation, it is proven that QH, min =
0 kW while QC, min = 4,211.87 kW.
However, the design is still infeasible after a critical analysis is made. The main
reason is the first matching done between H1 and C1. The infeasibility here is such
that the temperature profile of the cold stream, C1 is higher than the hot stream, H1
which needs cooling. In a better explanation, H1 needs cooling from 70℃ to 25℃ but
the supply temperature of C1, 72.97℃ is above the supply temperature of H1 even
though it does not violate ∆Tmin. Supposedly, a cooler stream is required to cool down
stream H1. Therefore, the second trial is initiated and complete monitoring on the
temperature profile is done ensure feasibility of heat exchange.
The second design is made such that the matching is done between H3 and C1,
followed by H4 and C1, and H6 and C1 to supply sufficient energy or heat to the cold
stream. The first matching and following matching clearly violate the FCp rule, but the
feasibility is concerned over the rule since no other than stream H2 or H3 or H4 to
transfer the heat to C1 with high temperature profile. Therefore, H3 is chosen to match
with C1 since it has the highest FCp than the rest. Next, the matching is done between
H4 and C1 instead of H1 and C1 or H6 and C1. H1 and C1 matching failed because it
does not meet the temperature requirement to heat up the cold stream from 89.36℃ to
99.6℃ since the highest temperature of H1 is 70℃ only. While, H6 and C1 matching
failed too even though the matching able to fulfil the temperature requirement and heat
requirement of C1. However, the violation of ∆Tmin occurs between leaving stream of
H6 and entering stream of C1 after the matching. Lastly, the remaining streams are
compensated with coolers to reach the desired temperature as shown in Figure 6.4.
Moreover, the diagram is also justified with recalculation of QH, min and QC, min. Based
on the calculation, it is proven that QH, min = 0 kW while QC, min = 4,211.87 kW. It must
be noted that there are no streams splitting and loop breaking applicable for the both
trials.
123
The third design is the finalised one as previous 2 designs have their own
violation on the temperature profile and FCp rule respectively. To avoid this, the third
design is initiated by obeying the FCp rule and ∆Tmin throughout the matching, as well
as the feasibility of the network is monitored. This is done via the matching between
H1 and C1 and followed by H6 and C1 for lower temperature heating of C1 as a bulk
stream. The modification or enhancement is made here by splitting the cold stream at
high temperature into 3 streams to reduce the FCp and heat requirement instead of the
bulk stream, C1. Now, the hot streams, H2, H3 and H4 with lower FCp can still cater
the energy requirement by each split stream without violating the FCp and ∆Tmin rule.
The hot streams with excess energy are then cooled using coolers to achieve the desired
temperatures. Here, it can be observed that the number of heat exchangers and coolers
increases but the feasibility and the operability of the design is more vital to run a plant.
Conclusively, the third design is approved by the plant manager for external utilities
savings despite of heat exchangers capital costs.
6.6 Percentage of Utility Savings
Percentage of hot and cold utility savings are done using formula below:
𝑈𝑡𝑖𝑙𝑖𝑡𝑦𝐵𝑒𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑒 𝐼𝑛𝑡𝑒𝑔𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 − 𝑈𝑡𝑖𝑙𝑖𝑡𝑦𝐴𝑓𝑡𝑒𝑟 𝐼𝑛𝑡𝑒𝑔𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛

%𝑆𝑎𝑣𝑖𝑛𝑔 = | | ×100%
𝑈𝑡𝑖𝑙𝑖𝑡𝑦𝐵𝑒𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑒 𝐼𝑛𝑡𝑒𝑔𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛
1. Percentage of hot utility saving:
3,265.08 − 0
%𝑆𝑎𝑣𝑖𝑛𝑔 = | | ×100% = 100% 𝑠𝑎𝑣𝑖𝑛𝑔
3,265.08
2. Percentage of cold utility saving:
7,475.95 − 4,211.87
%𝑆𝑎𝑣𝑖𝑛𝑔 = | | ×100% = 43.66% 𝑠𝑎𝑣𝑖𝑛𝑔
7,475.95
6.7 Modification on PFD After HEN-D
Figure 6.6 PFD before modification
124
Figure 6.7 PFD after modification
125
126
. After finishing the problem table algorithm (PTA), heat cascade and grid
diagram. a new modification on PFD was made based on the plotted grid diagram,
where hot streams are paired with cold streams for all the streams below the pinch.
This pairing of streams is done to ensure a minimum wastage of heat would occur.
Based on the Figure 6.6, the amount of heat exchanger used is seven which is six of
them are coolers (E-1, E-2, E-3, E-4, E-6, E-7) and another one is heater (E-5).
Meanwhile, after modification was made, the amount of heat exchanger has increased
by four units as illustrated in Figure 6.7. One of the heater was removed since the cold
stream can utilize another heat exchangers as a heating source.
Figure 6.7 shows an alternative process used to save energy by using the excess
heat in the form of steam. For this purpose, Heat Exchanger (E-1) and (E-7) are used
as a function of heating process stream 13 from 45℃ to 87.11℃ before the splitting
into 3 streams. Thus, heat exchanger E-5 is removed from PFD since there is an excess
of heat that can be obtained from E-7 and E-1. Then, the first split stream, stream 30
receives heat at E-2, while the second stream, stream 22 receives heat at E-3, whereas
the third stream, stream 32 receives heat at E-4 to achieve the desired temperature of
99.6℃. Later, all these streams join via mixer before entering the evaporator for
further process. As for the hot streams, 6 coolers (E-6, E-8, E-9, E-10, E-11 and E-12)
with different external utilities requirement are installed to achieve the respective
temperature.
Overall, the energy integration is valid since there are huge savings on external
utilities requirement compared to before integration design, even though the number
of units has increased to 11 units. Thus, it can achieve maximum energy recovery
(MER) as well as to reduce cost. Based on the data collected, it is shown that the hot
and cold utilities can save up to 100% and 43.66% respectively, if the pinch technology
is used to recover the plant’s heating and cooling capability.
CHAPTER 7
PROCESS OPTIMIZATION
7.1 Introduction
In any production plant, the basic concept or idea is to maximize profit by

investing a minimum amount of cost. In order to achieve this target, various methods
and schemes can be employed both by the management and technical side. One such
area that is considered important is the optimization of process or design parameters.
The task of optimizing a design of a chemical process plant involving hundred
variables, with complex interactions. The optimization of one unit may be the expense
of another. Optimization of the sub-units will not always give the optimum design for
the whole process, since optimization of the plant is basically concern with the
economic (total capital cost of equipment).
Optimization does not necessary mean that the process production will increase
or the plant will bring more profit after optimization. Optimization also can bring
changes that lead to reduction of plant cost, increase in management productivity and
make the plant more safety to work with. There are a few advantages in optimization
of selected design parameters. Among the advantages include:
a) Increase the production output or capacity

b) Obtain higher purity product from separation system
128
c) Reduction in manufacturing cost, whether it is capital or utility cost. For

example, optimization of heat exchanger network can reduce the number
of external coolers or heaters and overall hot or cold utilities
d) Minimize material loss or energy loss
e) Minimize environmental pollution due to the discharge of wastewater and
residue gas.
f) Increase in safety prevention procedures
g) Increase the working life of particular unit by optimizing the load to it.
Most common and applicable method being employed is Linear Programming

(LP) method. LP problems can be solved using various software such as Microsoft
Excel Solver, GAMS and even MATLAB. In this project, Excel tool is used to carry
out LP method to the selected equipment.
7.2 Optimization on Selected Equipment
The major equipment chosen for optimization is evaporator, S-2 since there are
some potentials found to improve and optimize. The PFD of the unit operation is
presented as shown in Figure 7.1.
Figure 7.1 PFD with stream data of evaporator in previous design

129
Objectives:
To minimize the total cost consisting the capital and operating cost of the evaporator.
Step 1: Define the decision variable
Product mole fraction (Xp) in bottom stream, L
Step 2: Define the objective function
Percentage Error (%) = (Actual Flowrate - Estimated Flowrate)/ Actual Flowrate ⨯100%
Annualised Total Cost (RM) = Annualised Operating Cost (RM) + Annualised Capital
Cost (RM)
Annualised Operating Cost (RM) = Steam cost (RM/s) × (3600 s)/(1 hr)×(24 hr)/(1
day)×(355 days)/(1 yr)
Annualised Capital Cost (RM) = Bare-module cost (RM) ⨯ (AP, 20%, 15)
(Assuming the capital cost is annualised for 15 years of operation with 20%
interest/year)
Energy balance, f(Q) = F(hf - hp) + Q - (F - L)(Hv - hp) - 0
Step 3: Define all the possible constraints
Inequality constraint:
1. Temperature of evaporator, 100 ℃ ≤ T ≤ 110 ℃
2. Product mole fraction, 0.3 ≤ XP ≤ 1.0
130
Equality constraint:
1. F = V + L Overall
2. F(1-XF) = V + L(1-XP) Water Balance
3. FXF = LXP Solute Balance
Step 4: Define the parameter
1. Cost of sodium chloride and ammonium chloride product

(assuming 60% of revenue from the produced sulphuric acid)
2. Utility Cost
(steam consumed for evaporator to keep the column operates at 100 ℃)
Electric Tariff
 (On peak – RM 33.70 per kW for 12 hours)
 (Off peak – RM 20.20 per kW for 12 hours)
Water Tariff
 (≤ 227 m3 - RM 0.92/m3)
 (>227 m3 - RM 0.84/m3)
Steam
 ∆HV = 2716 kJ/kg at 120℃ steam feed
 Steam cost = 0.00084 /kg steam feed (assumed)
 Tin = 120℃, Tout = 110℃
Table 7.1 LP method Excel tool along with percentage of flowrate errors and heat duty saving
XP/XF - (1 - % %
XF XP XP/XF XP/XF - (1 - Xp) L (mol/hr) V (mol/hr) Q (kW) % Saving
Xp) + 1 Error Error
0.100057 0.30 3.00 2.30 3.30 870534.00 203.07 2000748.03 22.45 51641.03 14.93
0.100057 0.35 3.50 2.85 3.85 746172.00 159.78 2125110.03 17.63 53461.41 11.93
0.100057 0.40 4.00 3.40 4.40 652900.50 127.30 2218381.53 14.01 54826.70 9.68
0.100057 0.45 4.50 3.95 4.95 580356.00 102.05 2290926.03 11.20 55888.59 7.94
0.100057 0.50 5.00 4.50 5.50 522320.40 81.84 2348961.63 8.95 56738.10 6.54
0.100057 0.55 5.50 5.05 6.05 474836.73 65.31 2396445.30 7.11 57433.16 5.39
0.100057 0.60 6.00 5.60 6.60 435267.00 51.54 2436015.03 5.58 58012.37 4.44
0.100057 0.65 6.50 6.15 7.15 401784.92 39.88 2469497.11 4.28 58502.48 3.63
0.100057 0.70 7.00 6.70 7.70 373086.00 29.89 2498196.03 3.17 58922.56 2.94
0.100057 0.75 7.50 7.25 8.25 348213.60 21.23 2523068.43 2.20 59286.64 2.34
0.100057 0.80 8.00 7.80 8.80 326450.25 13.65 2544831.78 1.36 59605.21 1.81
0.100057 0.85 8.50 8.35 9.35 307247.29 6.97 2564034.74 0.62 59886.30 1.35
0.100057 0.90 8.99 8.89 9.89 290178.00 1.02 2581104.03 0.05 60136.15 0.94
0.100057 0.95 9.49 9.44 10.44 274905.47 4.29 2596376.56 0.64 60359.71 0.57
0.100057 1.00 9.99 9.99 10.99 261160.20 9.08 2610121.83 1.17 60560.91 0.24
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Table 7.2 Annualised capital cost of evaporator data summary
Purchase Cost, Bare-module Annualised Capital Cost
XP Q (kW) Q (Btu/ hr) A (ft2) CBM (RM)
Cp ($) Cost, CBM ($) (RM/yr)
0.30 51641.03 176352054.60 35931.55 1977768.57 4845532.99 21562621.80 4612244.80
0.35 53461.41 182568590.82 37198.16 2015814.28 4938744.98 21977415.17 4700969.10
0.40 54826.70 187230992.98 38148.12 2043967.28 5007719.84 22284353.28 4766623.17
0.45 55888.59 190857305.78 38886.98 2065646.57 5060834.09 22520711.72 4817180.24
0.50 56738.10 193758356.01 39478.07 2082856.86 5102999.30 22708346.90 4857315.40
0.55 57433.16 196131942.57 39961.68 2096851.93 5137287.23 22860928.16 4889952.53
0.60 58012.37 198109931.37 40364.70 2108456.37 5165718.10 22987445.56 4917014.60
0.65 58502.48 199783614.20 40705.71 2118234.85 5189675.37 23094055.41 4939818.45
0.70 58922.56 201218199.48 40998.00 2126587.10 5210138.39 23185115.82 4959296.27
0.75 59286.64 202461506.72 41251.33 2133804.06 5227819.95 23263798.79 4976126.56
0.80 59605.21 203549400.56 41472.98 2140102.56 5243251.28 23332468.21 4990814.95
0.85 59886.30 204509306.89 41668.56 2145647.50 5256836.37 23392921.84 5003745.98
0.90 60136.15 205362556.96 41842.41 2150566.50 5268887.93 23446551.29 5015217.32
0.95 60359.71 206125991.23 41997.96 2154959.93 5279651.82 23494450.61 5025462.98
1.00 60560.91 206813082.08 42137.95 2158907.75 5289323.99 23537491.78 5034669.49
132
Table 7.3 Annualised operating cost and total cost (utility cost + capital cost)
XP Q (kW) Operating Cost, Co Annualised Operating Cost

msteam (kg/s) Annualised Total Cost (RM /yr)
(RM /s) (RM /yr)
0.30 51641.03 1234.25 1.04 31799816.10 36412060.90
0.35 53461.41 1277.76 1.07 32920782.39 37621751.50
0.40 54826.70 1310.39 1.10 33761507.11 38528130.28
0.45 55888.59 1335.77 1.12 34415404.11 39232584.35
0.50 56738.10 1356.07 1.14 34938521.72 39795837.12
0.55 57433.16 1372.69 1.15 35366527.03 40256479.56
0.60 58012.37 1386.53 1.16 35723198.12 40640212.72
0.65 58502.48 1398.24 1.17 36024996.74 40964815.19
0.70 58922.56 1408.28 1.18 36283681.27 41242977.54
0.75 59286.64 1416.98 1.19 36507874.52 41484001.09
0.80 59605.21 1424.60 1.20 36704043.62 41694858.58
0.85 59886.30 1431.32 1.20 36877134.01 41880879.99
0.90 60136.15 1437.29 1.21 37030992.13 42046209.45
0.95 60359.71 1442.63 1.21 37168654.65 42194117.64
1.00 60560.91 1447.44 1.22 37292550.93 42327220.42
133
ANNUALISED COST (RM/ YEAR) VERSUS PRODUCT MOLE FRACTION
45.00
Millions
40.00
ANNUALISED COST (RM/ YEAR)
35.00
30.00
25.00
Annualized Operating Cost
20.00 Annualized Capital Cost
15.00 Annualised Total Cost
10.00
5.00
0.00
0.00 0.10 0.20 0.30 0.40 0.50 0.60 0.70 0.80 0.90 1.00 1.10
PRODUCT MOLE FRACTION
Optimum variable (higher yield with better cost)
Figure 7.2 Graphical illustration of annualised cost versus decision variable (highlighting optimum point)
134
135
Sample Calculation
Given:
i. F = 2871282.03 mol/hr, XF = 0.100057 mol/mol

ii. Lideal = 287235.94 mol/hr, Videal = 2579911.2098 mol/hr
iii. Hv = -236.17 kJ/mol, hF = -1043.41 kJ/mol, hP = -763.13 kJ/mol
iv. QOriginal = 60,705.60 kW
v. (𝐴/𝑃, 20%, 15) = 0.2139 (based on interest table)
vi. Heat capacity of steam, Cp = 4.184 kJ/kg∙℃ (based on water properties)
vii. FBM = 2.45
At XP = 0.3000,
𝑋𝑃 0.3000
= = 𝟑. 𝟎𝟎
𝑋𝐹 0.100057
𝑋𝑃
⁄𝑋 − (1 − 𝑋𝑃 ) = 3.00 − (1 − 0.3000) = 𝟐. 𝟑𝟎
𝐹
𝑋𝑃
⁄𝑋 − (1 − 𝑋𝑃 ) + 1 = 2.30 + 1 = 𝟑. 𝟑𝟎
𝐹
𝐹 2871282.03
𝐿= = = 𝟖𝟕𝟎, 𝟓𝟑𝟒. 𝟎𝟎 𝒎𝒐𝒍/𝒉𝒓
𝑋𝑃 3.30
⁄𝑋 − (1 − 𝑋𝑃 ) + 1
𝐹
𝐿𝑛𝑒𝑤 − 𝐿𝑖𝑑𝑒𝑎𝑙
%𝐷𝑒𝑣𝑖𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑒𝑟𝑟𝑜𝑟 = | | ×100%
𝐿𝑖𝑑𝑒𝑎𝑙
870534.00 − 287235.94
=| | ×100%
287235.94
= 𝟐𝟎𝟑. 𝟎𝟕%
𝑋
𝑉 = ( 𝑃⁄𝑋 − (1 − 𝑋𝑃 )) ×𝐿 = 2.30×870534.00 = 𝟐, 𝟎𝟎𝟎, 𝟕𝟒𝟖. 𝟎𝟑 𝒎𝒐𝒍/𝒉𝒓
𝐹
136
𝑉𝑛𝑒𝑤 − 𝑉𝑖𝑑𝑒𝑎𝑙
%𝐷𝑒𝑣𝑖𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑒𝑟𝑟𝑜𝑟 = | | ×100%
𝑉𝑖𝑑𝑒𝑎𝑙
2000748.03 − 2579911.2098
=| | ×100%
2579911.2098
= 𝟐𝟐. 𝟒𝟓%
(𝐹 − 𝐿)(𝐻𝑣 − ℎ𝑃 ) − 𝐹(ℎ𝐹 − ℎ𝑃 )
𝐻𝑒𝑎𝑡 𝐷𝑢𝑡𝑦, 𝑄 =
3600
(2871282.03 − 870534.00)( −236.17 − ( −763.13))
−
2871282.03(−1043.41 − ( −763.13))
𝑄=
3600
𝑸 = 𝟓𝟏, 𝟔𝟒𝟏. 𝟎𝟑 𝒌𝑾
𝑄𝑂𝑟𝑖𝑔𝑖𝑛𝑎𝑙 − 𝑄𝑁𝑒𝑤
%𝐸𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑦 𝑆𝑎𝑣𝑖𝑛𝑔 = | | ×100%
𝑄𝑂𝑟𝑖𝑔𝑖𝑛𝑎𝑙
60,705.60 − 51641.03
=| | ×100%
60,705.60
= 𝟏𝟒. 𝟗𝟑%
𝐵𝑡𝑢
Heat duty, Q = 51641.03 kW = 176352054.60 ℎ𝑟
Mean temperature difference, ∆Tm = 100 C – 99.6 oC = 0.40 oC = 32.72 ℉

o
𝐵𝑡𝑢
Assume overall heat coefficient, U = 150 ℎ𝑟.𝑓𝑡 2 .℉
𝐵𝑡𝑢
𝑞 176352054.60
𝐴𝑇 = = ℎ𝑟
𝑈∆𝑇𝑚 𝐵𝑡𝑢
150 (32.72℉)
ℎ𝑟. 𝑓𝑡 2 . ℉
𝑨𝑻 = 𝟑𝟓, 𝟗𝟑𝟏. 𝟓𝟓 𝒇𝒕𝟐
541.7
Purchase cost, 𝐶𝑝 = 5,700𝐴0.55 = ( 500 ) [5,700(35931.55 )0.55 ]
𝑪𝒑 = $ 𝟏, 𝟗𝟕𝟕, 𝟕𝟔𝟖. 𝟓𝟕
Bare-module cost, 𝐶𝐵𝑀 = 𝐶𝑝 𝐹𝐵𝑀 = $ 1977768.57(2.45)

𝑪𝑩𝑴 = $ 𝟒, 𝟖𝟒𝟓, 𝟓𝟑𝟐. 𝟗𝟗 = 𝑹𝑴 𝟐𝟏, 𝟓𝟔𝟐, 𝟔𝟐𝟏. 𝟖𝟎
137
Annualised bare-module cost, 𝐶𝐵𝑀 = 𝑅𝑀 21,562,621.80×(𝐴/𝑃, 20%, 15)

𝐶𝐵𝑀 = 𝑅𝑀 21,562,621.80×(0.2139)
𝑪𝑩𝑴 = 𝑹𝑴 𝟒, 𝟔𝟏𝟐, 𝟐𝟒𝟒. 𝟖𝟎 /𝒚𝒓
𝑄 51641.03
𝑚𝑠𝑡𝑒𝑎𝑚 = = = 𝟏𝟐𝟑𝟒. 𝟐𝟓 𝒌𝒈/𝒔
𝐶𝑝(∆𝑇) 4.184(10)
Operating cost (utility), 𝐶𝑜
𝑅𝑀0.00084 𝑹𝑴𝟏. 𝟎𝟒
𝐶𝑜 = 𝑚𝑠𝑡𝑒𝑎𝑚 × = 1234.25 ×0.00084 =
𝑘𝑔 𝒔
Annualised operating cost (utility), 𝐶𝑜
𝑅𝑀1.04 3600 𝑠 24 ℎ𝑟 355 𝑑𝑎𝑦𝑠

𝐶𝑜 = × × × = 𝑅𝑀 31,799,816.10 /𝑦𝑟
𝑠 1 ℎ𝑟 1 𝑑𝑎𝑦 1 𝑦𝑟
𝑇𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑡 = 𝐴𝑛𝑛𝑢𝑎𝑙𝑖𝑠𝑒𝑑 𝑐𝑎𝑝𝑖𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑡 + 𝐴𝑛𝑛𝑢𝑎𝑙𝑖𝑠𝑒𝑑 𝑐𝑎𝑝𝑖𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑡

= 𝑅𝑀 4,612,244.80 /𝑦𝑟 + 𝑅𝑀 31,799,816.10/𝑦𝑟
= 𝑹𝑴 𝟑𝟔, 𝟒𝟏𝟐, 𝟎𝟔𝟎. 𝟗𝟎 /𝒚𝒓
Justification on Optimization
For earlier design, product mole fraction was set at 1.0 at 203.15K. The product
flowrates for bottom stream was 287,291.03 mol/hr while for top stream the flowrate
was 2,583,991.00 mol/hr, which deviated from the ideal values at 0.04% and 0.16%
respectively. The heat duty of the evaporator to vaporize the water in the sodium
chloride-ammonium chloride-water mixture was estimated at 60,705.60 kW. The
annualised operating cost and annualised capital cost were RM 5,041,281.74/yr and
37,381,649.55/yr respectively, summing a total of RM 42,422,931.29/yr.
138
Table 7.1 shows the optimization of evaporator by manipulating the value of

product mole fraction. From the result of optimization, it can be determined that, the
optimum value of mole fraction is 0.90 because it gives the least deviation for top
stream flowrate, V and bottom stream flowrate, L with ideal values. At mole fraction
of 0.90, the deviations of L and V are recorded at 1.01% and 0.05% respectively, which
highlight the higher yield for top stream which is more important that bottom stream
consisting NaCl-NH4Cl mixture since the water stream from top exit will be condensed
and recycled for further use. As for the heat duty, at product mole fraction of 0.90, the
enthalpy flow is recorded at 60,136.15 kW, almost 1% saving in terms of energy by
seconds. For years of operation, a significant saving can be observed.
Annualised capital cost of evaporator and annualised operating cost of utility

consumption as well as the total cost are estimated and presented in Table 7.2 and
Table 7.3. From the calculation, it can be noticed that both annualised capital cost and
operating cost increases as the mole fraction increases due to the rising of heat duties
of the evaporator. However, the factor of top and bottom flowrates deviations play an
important role too. For example, even at mole fraction or 0.30, the total cost is observed
the lowest as displayed in Figure 7.2 but the flowrates deviations for L and V are very
huge compared to mole fraction at 0.90. It is undeniable that optimization is needed to
minimize the cost at most but still product yield and production rate matters. At
product mole fraction of 0.90, it is observed that the annualised capital cost is RM
5,015,217.32/yr, while the annualised operating cost is RM 37,030,992.13/yr,
summing up the annualised total cost at RM 42,046,209.45/yr. The total cost saving
compared to the previous design is about RM 376,721.84/yr which can concluded as
a good saving.
CHAPTER 8
WASTE MANAGEMENT
8.1 Introduction
Waste is a common problem in some industries and it needs to be treated

thoroughly by not exceeding levels at which they are considered harmful. This waste
can be in the form of solid, liquid, gas or a mixture. Type of waste treatment to be used
are different because it based on the type of waste being produced by the industry.
Despite the differences in the type of treatment, the treated waste must be planned
carefully to meet the regulation of Environmental Quality Act 1974.
In Malaysia, Department of Environment (DOE) of Malaysia is responsible for

the prevention, control and abatement of pollution in the country over the enforcement
of the Environmental Quality Act 1974 and its subsidiary legislation. They monitor
air, water quality, noise, hazardous wastes and manages toxic based on the “cradle-to-
grave” principle, which means to assess environmental impacts associated with all the
stages of a product’s life from the beginning of its life cycle to its end or disposal.
Discharging wastes from industry directly to the natural ecosystem is prohibited

unless the wastes have already meet the requirements. Practically, most of wastes need
to be treated first to an acceptable level before discharging them into the environment
as it could harm the natural ecosystem. The wastes discharged should comply with the
Environmental Quality (Sewage and Industrial Effluents) Regulations 1979,
Environmental Quality (Clean Air) Regulation 1978 and Environmental Quality
140
(Schedule Wastes) Regulations, 1989. The main purpose of this regulation is to prevent
environmental pollution and to provide a long term healthy environment.
Economic aspect is one of the most important elements in designing a waste

treatment. The cost of monitoring waste should be monitored carefully to ensure that
it does not more than the main product profit. Otherwise, the company will be in a debt
situation. In some cases, the wastes also can be recovered and being sold as a product.
Besides, safety factor also needs to be considered in designing waste treatment to
ensued it does not dangerous to the environment. Practically, there are two ways to
deal with the waste produced from an industry which are waste minimization and end-
of-pipe treatment.
Waste minimization is a practice which the quantity of generated waste is

reduced through the optimal use of raw materials, water and energy. Thus, it may
reduce the capital cost, ensures profit and improve environmental performance.
Meanwhile, end-of-pipe treatment means to remove the contaminants formed from a
stream before it is discharged to the environment. The treatment can use either physical
treatment, chemical treatment, biological treatment or combination of the three
methods. In the meantime, at the end of treatment, it should comply with the
Environmental Quality Act 1974.
141
8.2 Waste Management Hierarchy
Figure 8.1 Hierarchy of waste management
Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) developed the waste management

hierarchy in understanding that no particular waste management approach is suitable
for managing all materials and waste streams in all situations. The hierarchy arranged
from the most to the least environmental preferred as illustrated in Figure 8.1.
Reducing, recycling, energy recovery, treatment and disposal are the key to sustainable
materials management.
Table 8.1 Options of waste management

Waste Management Description
Known as waste prevention, which is reducing
Source Reduction and Reuse
waste at the source.
Collecting used, reused, or unused items that can
Recycling/ Composting
be considered as waste
Conversion of non-recyclable waste materials into
Energy Recovery useable heat, electricity or fuel through a variety
processes.
142
- Treatment helps in reducing the volume and

toxicity of waste either through physical,
Treatment and Disposal
chemical or biological treatment.
- Disposal of waste through landfills.
As illustrated in the Table 8.1, source reduction and reuse always become the
top priority in waste management. It can be done in several ways, such as reducing
packaging, redesigning products and reducing toxicity. The advantages of source
reduction are to save natural resources, conserve energy, reduce pollution and save
money by reducing waste treatment and disposal cost. Next, recycling and composting
is the second priority. The purpose is to remanufacturing the recycle raw materials into
new products. This can benefit in term of preventing the greenhouse emission and
water pollutants, saving energy and reducing the dependence on new landfills.
Energy recovery would be the third priority because once the energy is
recovered, there is still approximately about 10 percent of the volume remains as ash,
which is commonly sent to a landfill. In addition, energy recovery also called as waste-
to-energy (WTE). Last but not least, treatment and disposal is the last choice in the
waste management hierarchy, as stated in Table 8.1, it helps in reducing the volume
and toxicity of waste, thus it can minimize the amount of waste from dumping in the
landfills. One of the advantages of having landfill is the formation of methane gas from
the decomposition of waste, it can be used as fuel to generate electricity. Thus, it can
help in reducing electricity cost.
8.3 Classification of Waste in Soda Ash Production Plant
In this Soda Ash Production Plant, there are two types of waste generated from
the process which are production waste and schedule waste. Production waste is the
waste generated from a stream that need to be treated and then discharged to the
environment. The treated stream needs to comply with the standard provided.
Meanwhile, schedule waste is any matter, whether in a solid, semi-solid, liquid or in
143
the form of a gas or vapor that are no longer to be used, which may cause pollution if
discharged to the environment in such a volume or composition.
Process Effluent Wastes
In the production of soda ash via dual process, one waste stream (stream 19) is
discharged as a bottom product after the separation process by using separation drum.
This stream contains a major amount of water and a minor amount of carbon dioxide.
Both are in the liquid phase with 25 oC and at a pressure of 1 atm. The details of the
stream composition are shown in the Table 8.2 below.
Table 8.2 Waste stream compositions and conditions

Stream Number 19
Phase Liquid
Temperature (oC) 25
Pressure (atm) 1.00
Water (kmol/hr) 104.30
Carbon Dioxide (kmol/hr) 1.62
Total Mole (kmol/hr) 105.92
Based on Table 8.2, it shows that the discharged water contains minor amount
of carbon dioxide that soluble in the water itself. A suitable treatment needs to undergo
to remove the carbon dioxide from the water before it will be discharged to the
environment. The details of the treatment are discussed in the wastewater treatment
part.
144
Scheduled Wastes
In schedule waste, there are two types of waste that being produced which are
from the water purification process and the boiler system. Since the water supplied
from the Pengurusan Air Pahang Berhad (PAIP) contains only 85% of purity, thus the
water purification process is needed to remove the contaminants of magnesium and
calcium in the water. This is to ensure that the is no impurities along the process and
the desired product can be achieved. In the water purification process, soda ash and
sodium hydroxide will be fed to the water system to remove the magnesium and
calcium ion present in the water. The reaction occurs as shown below:
Ca2+ (aq) + CO32- (aq)  CaCO3 (s)

Mg2+ (aq) + 2OH- (aq)  Mg(OH)2 (s)
At the end of the process, there are formed of calcium carbonate and
magnesium hydroxide in a solid form. The solution is filtered and then sludge will be
formed as a bottom product of the clarifier. This sludge is considered as schedule waste
and need to be sent to the waste treatment experts such as Kualiti Alam in Bukit Nenas
Negeri Sembilan. The details of the procedure are explained in schedule waste
treatment part.
In the boiler system, wood chips are used to process steam as the source of
heating system to increase the temperature of a stream and some of the processing
units. The purpose of using wood chip is because their energy requirements are higher
and their demand for energy is steady year-round. During the combustion process, the
fuel (wood chips) is automatically injected into the furnace, combustion air is added
and the fuel burns to produce heat. The hot exhaust gas gases the flow out of the
furnace area and into the heat exchanger. However, there is formation of ash after the
combustion process which will accumulate in certain locations and must be removed
regularly. Once this ash has been removed, it can be classed as a schedule waste and
it will be sent to the waste treatment expert for further treat process. The details of the
procedure are discussed in schedule waste part.
145
8.4 Waste Treatment Approaches
Wastewater Treatment
After analysing the composition in the waste water stream, the wastewater
only contains a little amount of carbon dioxide. The calculated concentration of
carbon dioxide as below:
1878.95𝑘𝑔 𝑚3 1000𝐿
× × = 1878.95 𝐿/ℎ𝑟
ℎ𝑟 1000 𝑘𝑔 𝑚3
71.12 𝑘𝑔 1000𝑔 1000𝑚𝑔
× × = 71120000 𝑚𝑔/ℎ𝑟
ℎ𝑟 1𝑘𝑔 1𝑔
71120000𝑚𝑔 ℎ𝑟
÷ = 37850.93 𝑚𝑔/𝐿
ℎ𝑟 1878.95𝐿
It means that the water contains about 37,850.93 ppm of carbon dioxide
which is in quite high amount. The carbon dioxide can be removed by using two
proposed methods which are aeration process and Hollow Fibre membrane contactor.
Usually, wastewater from chemical industries contains organic and inorganic

matter that varies in concentrations. Wastewater produced by chemical industry is
mostly toxic and hazardous wastewater due to fact that various material used in
chemical industries are toxic, mutagenic, carcinogenic or simply almost non-
biodegradable. Therefore, there is high possibility for the wastewater to contain a wide
range of substances that cannot be easily degraded
In soda ash plant, wastewaters contain carbon dioxide. Carbon Dioxide in

water yields an acidic condition. Water plus carbon dioxide yields carbonic acid
(H2CO3). The dissociation of carbonic acid yields hydrogen (H) and bicarbonate
alkalinity (HCO3). The pH value will drop as the concentration of carbon dioxide
increases, and conversely will increase as the bicarbonate alkalinity content increases.
146
H2O + CO2 <===> H2CO3 <==> H+ + HCO3-
Water with a pH of 3.5 or below generally, contains mineral acids such as

sulfuric or hydrochloric acid. Carbon Dioxide can exist in waters with pH values from
3.6 to 8.4, but will never be present in waters having a pH of 8.5 or above. The pH
value is not a measurement of the amount of carbon dioxide in the water, but rather
the relationship of carbon dioxide and bicarbonate alkalinity.
There are several current technologies or treatment processes that are

commercially available for the waste treatment purposes. Since there is a specificity
in the wastewater, many improvement on the waste water treatment process or
combinations of various processes are being developed to treat the wastewater
especially treatment of high strength wastewater.
To select the best method to treat the wastewater produced from propylene
glycol production plant, two current technologies are being reviewed for this purposes:
i) Waste water treatment using Aeration Process

ii) Waste water treatment using Hollow Fiber Membrane Contactor.
Water Quality Standard Information
In the production of soda ash, only liquid waste is produced where the major
component is water with a 98.47% from total amount of the waste. However, this
liquid waste will be referred as wastewater. But after the calculation of concentration
of carbon dioxide, the carbon dioxide must be removed from the water since level of
30 ppm are harmful to the most organisms. While at the ocean the average
concentration of carbon dioxide is about 387 ppm. Water quality criteria based on
present day standards and guides are presented to assist in the establishment of water
147
system performance goals for any plant. Quality criteria are expected to change as new
information on the nature and behaviour of water is revealed.
The trend is toward production of water of higher quality. The quality of raw-
water sources is not expected to improve substantially and indeed may worsen in many
places as greater use is made of streams for waste disposal. The water treatment plant,
therefore, will have an increasingly important role of production of water of high
quality.
The Environmental Quality Act (EQA), 1974 specifies two standards for effluent
discharge:
1. Standard A for discharge upstream of any raw water intake.

2. Standard B for discharge downstream of any raw water intake.
*The standards are listed in the Third Schedule of the Environmental Quality Act 1974,
under the Environmental Quality (Sewage and Industrial Effluents) Regulation, 1979,
regulations 8 (1), 8 (2) and 8 (3). An extract of the standards is given below:
Table 8.3 Standard parameters for Standard A and Standard B

Maximum Permitted Value
Parameters
Standard A Standard B
Temperature (oC) 40 40
pH 6.0 – 9.0 5.5 – 9.0
BOD5 at 20 oC (ppm) 20 50
COD (ppm) 50 100
Suspended Solids (ppm) 50 100
Adopted from : (https://www.doe.gov.my/portalv1/wp-
content/uploads/2015/01/Environmental_Quality_Industrial_Effluent_Regulations_2
009_-_P.U.A_434-2009.pdf)
148
Alternative 1: Aeration Process
Aeration (gas addition) and gas stripping (gas removal) are common
wastewater treatment method to remove carbon dioxide from water. This artificially
induced gas transfer aims at the addition of oxygen (O2) and the removal of carbon
dioxide (CO2), methane (CH4), hydrogen sulfide (H2S), and other volatile organic
compounds. But, reducing the carbon dioxide concentration leads to a rise in pH and
a reduction of aggressive carbon dioxide that can disintegrate (concrete) pipes.
Aeration brings water and air in close contact to remove dissolved gases (such
as carbon dioxide) and oxidizes dissolved metals such as iron, hydrogen sulfide, and
volatile organic chemicals (VOCs). Aeration is often the first major process at the
treatment plant. During aeration, constituents are removed or modified before they can
interfere with the treatment processes.
Aeration brings water and air in close contact by exposing drops or thin sheets
of water to the air or by introducing small bubbles of air (the smaller the bubble, the
better) and letting them rise through the water. The scrubbing process caused by the
turbulence of aeration physically removes dissolved gases from solution and allows
them to escape into the surrounding air.
Aerators fall into two categories. They either introduce air to water, or water
to air. The water-in air method is designed to produce small drops of water that fall
through the air. The air-in-water method creates small bubbles of air that are injected
into the water stream. All aerators are designed to create a greater amount of contact
between air and water to enhance the transfer of gases and increase oxidation. Most
aerators can remove carbon dioxide by the physical scrubbing or sweeping action
caused by turbulence. At normal water temperatures, aeration can reduce the carbon
dioxide content of the water to as little as 4.5 mg/L.
149
Alternative 2: Hollow Fiber Membrane Contactor
Although the presence of carbon dioxide in water is mostly due to natural

processes, the carbon dioxide content is significantly increased by the effluence of
industrial wastewater into water bodies. Hollow fiber membrane contactor is (HFMC)
one of the methods to which operates in the liquid- liquid extraction mode for the
removal of dissolve carbon dioxide from wastewater. The membrane contactor
consists of hydrophobic polypropylene microporous hollow fibers. HFMC has the
potential to degasify liquid streams. The principle of separation through HFMC is
based on inter-phase mass transfer. HFMC-based technology provides non-dispersive
contact along with larger interfacial area per unit volume than conventional contactors
(Drioli et al., 2011). Diffusion mass transfer occurs at high rates across the interface.
Further, the membrane contactor system is advantageous owing to its compact
operational setup.
The hollow fibers of HFMC consist of a solid, microporous polymeric matrix

that may be either hydrophobic or hydrophilic. Hydrophobic membranes are generally
used for the removal of volatile species from water. Polypropylene (PP),
polytetrafluoroethylene (PTFE), and polyvinylidene fluoride (PVDF) are reasonably
good hydrophobic materials. These polymeric materials allow only gases to permeate
through the solid membrane phase (Drioli et al., 2005). During operation, water flows
over the outside of the hollow fibers while a vacuum, strip gas, or both in combination,
is applied to the inside of the fibers. Because the membrane is hydrophobic it allows
direct contact between gas and water without dispersion. Applying a higher pressure
to the water stream relative to the gas stream creates the driving force for dissolved
gas in the water to pass through the membrane pores. The gas is then carried away by
a vacuum pump and/or sweep gas.
150
Justification on Selection
Table 8.4 Comparison between Alternative 1 and Alternative 2

Alternatives Advantages Disadvantages
 Plants are easy to operate,  Flexibility is limited to
as the management of adapt to changing effluent
operation is for a requirements resulting
maximum of two or three from regulatory changes
hours per day.  longer aeration period and
 Systems are odor free, can hence requires more
Aeration be installed in most energy
locations, have a  High cost due to heavy
relatively small footprint, duty equipment such as
and can be landscaped to pump and blower are
match the surrounding employed.
area.  May result in excess
oxygenation of water.
 Low Energy  Not Cost Effective for
 Membrane Space efficient small plants
for large installations >5  Membranes damaged
MGD easily
 Cost effective for large  Cannot operate with high
installations mixed liquor suspended
Hollow Fiber
 The operation is free from solids (MLSS).
Membrane
loading and flooding in
Contactor
the column.
 Involves minimal pressure
drop and independent
flow control
 Diffusion mass transfer
occurs at high rates.
151
After considering advantages and disadvantages for both methods as shown in

Table 8.4, hollow fiber membrane contactor is chosen as the best method to treat out
wastewater. This selection can be supported by the fact that hollow fiber membrane
contactor is efficient in removal carbon dioxide which is suit with our main purpose to
treat the wastewater. The main reason HFMC is selected is the operation of HFMC is
free from loading and flooding, it involves minimal pressure drop and independent
flow control. Besides, aeration process may also result in excess oxygenation of water,
which may be undesirable. Therefore, the effluent will be discharged within the
permissible limit as discussed in previous section and will be treated by using hollow
fiber membrane contactor.
Treatment Plant Layout
As describe in Figure 8.2, carbon dioxide water is fed at a constant flow rate
from a tank into the lumen side of the contactor. The extractant liquid (aqueous)
diethanolamine (DEA) flows counter-currently at a constant rate on the shell side. The
carbon dioxide depleted exit water is continuously recycled and returned to the tank.
The carbon dioxide molecules are desorbed from water, diffuse into the air-filled pores
of the fibers and exit on the shell side. Maintaining DEA at levels of high
concentration, it is assumed that permeated carbon dioxide molecules instantaneously
react with DEA causing no change in the resistance of the extract phase. Therefore, in
such an arrangement the concentration of carbon dioxide in the tank decreases from
an initial concentration level before exponentially attaining a steady-state level of
concentration.
Figure 8.2 Plant Layout of wastewater treatment
152
153
Scheduled Waste Treatment
Per designed process, there are several steams feeding processes such as
calcination and evaporation. The usage of high pressure steam and medium pressure
steam in respective unit operations are generated using boiler system which involves
combustion process in furnace. The boiler feed such as wood chips are used as the fuel
to combust to produce sufficient amount of heat to boils up the water flowing in pipe
in the furnace. The combusted ashes together with gases are carried away from the top
to the ash collector and to the flare system to ensure no harm to environment. Here,
the wood ashes in the collector is considered as scheduled waste for disposal in landfill
(Maker, 2004). Secondly, the water purification system is implemented to purify the
water to highest level before feeding into the production plant. The water typically
contains ions such as magnesium and calcium which require to be removed as it may
affect the production of soda ash (ESAPA, 2004). These ions are removed by reaction
with sodium hydroxide and sodium carbonate respectively, forming sludge containing
calcium carbonate and magnesium hydroxide which is also considered as scheduled
waste for disposal.
Scheduled wastes treatment is done in accordance to Environmental Quality

Act 1974, complying Environmental Quality (Scheduled Wastes) Regulations 2005,
Malaysia. All industries need to comply to these regulations and management
procedures, varying only based on type of scheduled wastes generated referring to First
Schedule (Regulation 2). The scheduled wastes are classified into 5 categories as
follows:
1. Metal and metal-bearing wastes;

2. Wastes containing principally inorganic constituents which may contain metals
and inorganic materials;
3. Wastes containing principally organic constituents which may contain metals
and inorganic materials;
4. Wastes which may contain either inorganic or organic constituents; and
5. Other wastes such as residues from recoveries or treatment of scheduled wastes.
154
Based on the categories, the wastes generated from boiler system and purification
system can be classified as Scheduled Wastes Category 4 (SW4).
Regulations and Management Procedures
There are total of 17 general regulations are implemented (EQA, 2005) as tabulated in
Table 8.5.
Table 8.5 Regulations of scheduled wastes treatment

Regulation Issue
1. Citation and commencement
2. Interpretation
3. Notification of the generation of scheduled wastes
4. Disposal of scheduled wastes
5. Treatment of scheduled wastes
6. Recovery of material or product from scheduled wastes
7. Application for special management of scheduled wastes
8. Responsibility of waste generator
9. Storage of scheduled wastes
10. Labelling of scheduled wastes
11. Waste generator shall keep an inventory of scheduled wastes
Information to be provided by waste generator, contractor and
12.
occupier of prescribed premises
Scheduled wastes transported outside waste generator's premises
13.
to be accompanied by information
14. Spill or accidental discharge
15. Training Programme
16. Compounding of offences
17. Revocation
155
Referring to Regulation (3), the notification of wastes generated is informed to

Director General within 30 days from date of generation under subregulation (1),
including information in Second Schedule. As for disposal, treatment and recovery of
materials, the scheduled wastes are disposed at prescribed premises only or on-site
recovery facilities. "Prescribed premises" means premises prescribed by the
Environmental Quality (Prescribed Premises) (Scheduled Wastes Treatment and
Disposal Facilities) Order 1989.
According to Regulation (8), it is ensured that the wastes are properly stored
treated on-site, recovered on-site for material or product from such scheduled wastes
or delivered to and received at prescribed premises for treatment, disposal or recovery
of material or product from scheduled wastes. It is ensured that the scheduled wastes
that are subjected to movement or transfer be packaged, labelled and transported in
accordance with the guidelines prescribed by the Director General.
Next, the management focuses on storage, labelling and inventory of scheduled

wastes. The wastes from boiler and purification plant is stored in separated, closed
containers that are compatible with the wastes to prevent spillage or leakage. As for
labelling, the date when the scheduled wastes are first generated, name, address are
clearly labelled on the containers. An accurate and up-to-date inventory in accordance
with Fifth Schedule is developed to monitor the wastes generated over time.
Regulation (12) and Regulation (13) are two main rules or references that needs
attention from the design team to dispose the scheduled wastes properly. The
information provided through copies of forms are closely monitored and updated
following the time frame fixed. The agreement between the design team, contractor
and occupier of premises is clear enough such that the handling, transportation and
disposal are carried out under approval of Director General in accordance with the act.
In case of spillage occurs during the transportation, the contractor is

responsible to inform Director General and take immediate action to overcome the
occurrence, with supporting assistance from the designed team. Besides, the
156
production company ensures the training is provided to all employees on handling,

transportation, storage and spill response of scheduled wastes. Finally, compounding
of offences are also included in the management procedures to reinforce the safety in
handling the wastes.
Overall summary of scheduled wastes treatment procedures is illustrated in Figure 8.3

below.
Figure 8.3 Scheduled waste treatment overall handling procedures

CHAPTER 9
EQUIPMENT SIZING AND COSTING
9.1 Introduction
Equipment sizing and costing is a very important element in plant design project
before the start-up to check the feasibility of plant to run. This is done intensively
considering all features of the plant which covers only the machinery sizing and
costing includes the major equipment such as reactors, absorbers, etc. and auxiliary
equipment such as pumps and compressors. In soda ash production plant, there are 7
major equipment and 15 auxiliary equipment which needs intensive sizing and costing.
Even in the major equipment, there are possibilities to have auxiliary equipment such
as agitator in dissolver. Furthermore, the costing part is vital as it highlights necessary
amount of capital cost needed for a plant start-up. Both the sizing and costing of each
equipment are done based on equations, physical data, and reference tables and figures
available in books written by Felder and Rousseau (2005), Geankoplis (2014), Sinnott
(2005) and Seider et al. (2010), as well as from internet sources for parameters
estimation such as L/D ratio of vessels (ICARUS, 1998), and earlier sections in the
report such as Aspen data. Several assumptions are also made with proper justification
or evidence due to lack of minor data. As for the costing part, the base cost index is
denoted as 500 while the latest base cost index is taken from (Jenkins, 2017), stated as
541.7, average value in 2016. Besides, most calculations are done is English units and
in dollars which is further converted into Ringgit Malaysia for reference of USD:RM
with ratio of = 1:4.45.
158
9.2 Major Equipment
Mixer 1/ Dissolver
The construction material is fixed to be low-alloy steel instead of carbon steel

is for better corrosion resistance against chloride ions in the solution. Retention time
of 5 minutes is assumed to ensure perfect mixing of salt in water.
Table 9.1 Equipment data sheet for dissolver

Equipment Specification Sheet
Item no. : D-1
Identification : Dissolver
Function : To dissolve sodium chloride in water
Technical Specification Design Sizing
Construction Low-alloy steel, Length/ diameter 3
material MIM-2700 (Fe- ratio (L/D)
7%Ni) Carbo-
nitride (FM =
1.2)
Additional feature Two-paddle Length, L (ft) 12.75
stirrer/ turbine
(speed of more
than 30
rev/min)
Vessel orientation Vertical Inside Diameter, 4.25
Di (ft)
Fractional weld 0.85 (10% spot Cross-sectional 14.19
efficiency, E X-ray check) area, A (ft2)
Corrosion 0.125 Vessel volume, V 180.25
allowance, tC (in.) (ft3)
Vessel weight, W 2,684.79 Shell thickness, tS 0.3125
(lb) (in.)
159
Operating Condition
Maximum allowable 15,000 Retention time, θ 300
stress, S (psi) (sec)
Design pressure, Pd 21.76
(psig)
Cost
Vessel cost, CV ($) 19,660.58 Platform cost, CPL 6,377.40
($)
Agitator cost, CA ($) 13,449.58 Purchase cost, CP 49,955.13
($)
Bare-module cost, CBM (RM)
924,769.36
Ammonia Absorption Tower
The packed tower is used to enhance the surface are contact between ammonia
and brine (Zuehlsdorff, 1979). Stainless steel 316 is utilised as it provides the best
corrosion resistance for corrosive medium consisting of ammonia and chloride ions
(Steels, 2013).
Table 9.2 Equipment data sheet for ammonia absorption tower

Item no. : V-1
Identification : Ammonia Absorption Tower
Function : To carry out ammonia absorption process at 100%.
Construction Stainless steel Tower height, z (ft) 18.72
material 316 (FM = 2.1)
Additional feature Packed column Shell thickness, tS 0.3125
(in.)
160
Vessel orientation Vertical Inside Diameter, Di 3.68

(ft)
Fractional weld 0.95 (excellent Cross-sectional area, 10.64
efficiency, E welding) A (ft2)
Corrosion 0.125 Vessel weight, W (lb) 3,223.51
allowance, tC (in.)
Henry’s Law 0.95 (very low
constant, H NH3
concentration in
inlet stream)
Operating Condition
Maximum allowable 29732.70 Residence time, θ 3.85
stress, S (psi) (sec)
Pressure drop at 178.05 Design pressure, Pd 21.76
flooding, ∆Pflood (psig)
(mmH2O/m)
Flooding velocity, Uf 5.63
(ft/s)
Cost
Vessel cost, CV ($) 28,261.35 Platform cost, CPL ($) 7,187.66
Packing cost, 5,112.61 Purchase cost, CP ($) 77,624.64
CPackings ($)
1,436,987.33
Carbonation Reactor
The main reaction of Dual process takes place in carbonation tower in form of
gas absorption process. Stainless steel 316 is used for material construction as the inlet
reactant and outlet product contain chloride ions (IEAGHG, 2010). Bubble-cap plates
161
are used as baffles since it has higher absorption efficiency even though expensive in
terms of cost (MNZIFST, 2014).
Table 9.3 Equipment data sheet for carbonation reactor

Item no. : R-1
Identification : Carbonation Reactor
Function : To carry out main reaction process to produce sodium bicarbonate
and ammonium chloride
Construction Stainless steel Tower height, z 25.50
material 316 (FM = 2.1) (ft)
Additional feature Spray tower Shell thickness, 0.3125
with series of tS (in.)
bubble-cap
plates (based on
tray tower
calculation)
Vessel orientation Vertical Inside 3.90
Diameter, Di (ft)
Fractional weld 0.95 (excellent Cross-sectional 11.95
efficiency, E welding) area, A (ft2)
Corrosion allowance, 0.125 Tower weight, 4,511.34
tC (in.) W (lb)
Henry’s Law 0.8317 (very Number of 17.00
constant, H low CO2 plates, 𝑵𝑨𝒄𝒕𝒖𝒂𝒍
concentration in
inlet stream)
Operating Condition
Maximum allowable 29732.70 Residence time, 21.76
stress, S (psi) θ (sec)
Flooding velocity, Uf 7109.06 Design pressure, 78.59
(ft/hr) Pd (psig)
162
Cost
Tower cost, CV ($) 26,253.24 Platform cost, 9,553.39
CPL ($)
Plate/ Tray cost, CT 55,650.07 Purchase cost, 130,371.23
($) CP ($)
2,413,432.22
Rotary Drum Filter
Rotary drum filter is an extremely effective solid and liquid separation device
due to its unique methods of handling formed cake solids. The vessel is in the
horizontal shape and it is constructed using stainless steel to prevent corrosion from
the mixture of water and sodium chloride.
Table 9.4 Equipment data sheet for rotary drum filter

Item no. : F-1
Identification : Rotary Drum Filter
Function : To separate solid and liquid
Construction Stainless steel Vessel volume, V 261.88
material 316 (FM = 2.1) (ft3)
Drum Speed (rpm) 3.00 Inside diameter, 4.37
Di (ft)
Pre-coat cake size 1.00 Length, L (ft) 17.48
(inch)
Cross-sectional 15.00
area, A (ft2)
Purchase cost, CP ($)
113,606.79
163

1,172,876.47
Calciner (Pyrolysis Furnace)
The construction material used is stainless steel because it can withstand the
200oC temperature of the furnace. Besides, it is also excellent resistance to corrosion
since the product obtained after the calcination process are water vapor and carbon
dioxide which may cause corrosive to the equipment.
Table 9.5 Equipment data sheet for calciner

Item no. : R-2
Identification : Calciner (Pyrolysis Furnace)
Function : To carry out decomposition of sodium bicarbonate to soda ash
Construction Stainless steel 316 Stack height, H 277.56
material (FM = 2.1) (ft)
Type of feed Sodium bicarbonate Pipe diameter, D 5.60
(ft)
Tube pipes Manaurite 36 XS Radiant surface 1012.42
pipe requirement, AR
(ft2)
Tube 3 row adjacent Convective 992.10
arrangement arrangement surface
requirement, AC
(ft2)
Vessel Vertical Heat Exchanger 483.83
orientation Design, 𝑨𝑯𝑿 (ft2)
583,284.29
164

4,827,844.10
Separation Drum
The vertical separator is used for larger flow of carbon dioxide out through
mist eliminator (Svrcek and Monnery, 1993). Stainless steel 304 is strong enough to
resist to the corrosion caused by carbon dioxide (wet) in feed (Standard, 2004).
Table 9.6 Equipment data sheet for separation drum

Item no. : S-1
Identification : Separation Drum
Function : To separate CO2 and water
Construction Stainless steel Length/ diameter 3
material 304 (FM = 1.7) ratio (L/D)
Additional feature Mist eliminator Length, L (ft) 33.06
Vessel orientation Vertical Inside Diameter, Di 11.02
(ft)
Fractional weld 0.95 (excellent Cross-sectional area, 95.38
efficiency, E welding) A (ft2)
Corrosion 0.125 Vessel volume, V 3153.64
allowance, tC (in.) (ft3)
Vessel weight, W 26,483.14 Shell thickness, tS 0.4375
(lb) (in.)
Operating Condition
Maximum 29732.70 Retention time, θ 120
allowable stress, S (sec)
(psi)
165
Design pressure, Pd 21.76

(psig)
Cost
Vessel cost, CV ($) 64,629.13 Platform cost, CPL 3,262.98
($)
Purchase cost, CP 122,567.75
($)
1,663,550.80
Evaporator
Evaporator used to separate between water and a mixture of sodium chloride

and ammonium chloride. A long tube vertical (rising film) is used due to high heat
transfer performance exhibit under most conditions, and partially because of the
simplicity and low cost of construction.
Table 9.7 Equipment data sheet for evaporator

Item no. : S-2
Identification : Evaporator
Function : To evaporate water from the mixture
Construction Carbon Steel Inside diameter, 4.71
material (FM = 1) Di (ft)
Equipment type Long-tube vertical Length, L (ft) 14.13
(rising film)
Vessel volume, V 245.61 Area, A (ft2) 17.42
(ft3)
Vessel orientation Vertical Length of Tube, 12
LT (ft)
166
Operating Condition
Heat Transfer Rate 3,317.86 Heat Transfer 2308.55
(kW) Area (ft2)

437,018.98
4,764,599.40
9.3 Auxiliary Equipment
Heat Exchangers
Shell and tube heat exchanger is the most commonly type of heat transfer used
in the chemical industries. The type of heat exchanger to be designed is a cooler and
heater. In this current design, only cooler is used in the process flow diagram. Type of
flow arrangements available into the cooler are parallel flow, counter flow and cross
flow. The chosen flow arrangement is counter current flow. The material of
construction factor which is FM are available in book written by Seider et al. (2010).
While, the overall heat coefficient value, U is assumed from book (Sinnott, 2005).
167
Table 9.8 Equipment data sheet for heat exchanger 1

Item no. :E-9
Identification : Heat Exchanger
Function : To transfer heat between stream 6 and chilled water
Type of heat 1-1 fixed head, 1- Tube length, L 20.00
exchanger in. O.D., 16 BWG, (ft)
titanium tubes, on
square pitch in a
Heat exchanger 312.69
carbon-steel shell
area, A (ft2)
- Stream contain
ammonium
chloride that
corrosive
Operating Condition
Heat transfer Chilled water Heat Duty 2.3750 × 106
medium (Btu/hr)
Log mean 91.83
temperature (˚F)
51,230.26
782,951.16
168

Item no. : E - 10
Type of heat 1-1 fixed head, 1-in. Tube length, L 20.00
exchanger O.D., 16 BWG, (ft)
carbon-steel tubes, on
square pitch in a
Heat 109.97
carbon-steel shell
exchanger
- Low cost and stream
area, A (ft2)
not highly corrosive
Operating Condition
medium (Btu/hr)
Log mean 105.39
temperature (˚F)
7,219.74
110,339.17
169

Item no. : E - 11
exchanger in. O.D., 16 (ft)
BWG, stainless-
steel tubes, on
square pitch in a
area, A (ft2)
carbon-steel shell
- Wet carbon
dioxide is highly
corrosive
Operating Condition
Heat transfer Chilled water Heat Duty 8.6190× 105
medium (Btu/hr)
Log mean 59.14
temperature (˚F)
70,474.62
1,077,062.34
170

Item no. : E - 12
BWG, carbon-
steel tubes, on
square pitch in a
area, A (ft2)
carbon-steel shell
- Low cost and
stream not highly
corrosive
Operating Condition
medium (Btu/hr)
Log mean 53.20
temperature (˚F)
10,843.43
165,719.96
171

Item no. :E-6
titanium-steel
tubes, on square
pitch in a carbon-
area, A (ft2)
steel shell
- Stream contain
ammonium
chloride that
corrosive
Operating Condition
medium (Btu/hr)
Log mean 102.22
temperature (˚F)
48,371.56
739,261.68
172

Item no. : E-8
BWG, carbon-
steel tubes, on
square pitch in a
area, A (ft2)
carbon-steel shell
- Low cost and
stream not highly
corrosive
Operating Condition
medium (Btu/hr)
Log mean 44.44
temperature (˚F)
22,042.69
336,878.04
173

Item no. : E-1
Function : To transfer heat between stream 5 and stream 13
titanium tubes, on
square pitch in a
titanium-steel shell
area, A (ft2)
- Stream contain
ammonium
chloride that
corrosive
Operating Condition
Heat transfer Cold stream, C1 Heat Duty 3.0632× 106
medium (NaCl, NH4Cl & (Btu/hr)
H2O
Log mean 50.81
temperature (˚F)
234,872.76
3,589,556.19
174

Item no. : E-2
carbon tubes, on
square pitch in a
titanium-steel shell
area, A (ft2)
- Stream contain
ammonium
chloride that
corrosive
Operating Condition
H2O
Log mean 70.57
temperature (˚F)
45,309.86
692,469.78
175

Item no. :E-3
BWG, monel
tubes, on square
pitch in monel
area, A (ft2)
shell
- Both streams are
corrosive
Operating Condition
Heat transfer Cold stream, C1 Heat Duty 1.2297 × 106
H2O
Log mean 102.04
temperature (˚F)
93,619.67
1,430,787.74
176

Item no. :E-4
BWG, monel
tubes, on square
pitch in monel
area, A (ft2)
shell
- Both streams are
corrosive
Operating Condition
Heat transfer Cold stream, C1 Heat Duty 1.0671 × 106
H2O
Log mean 98.47
temperature (˚F)
35,004.58
534,974.37
177

Item no. :E-7
BWG, monel
tubes, on square
pitch in monel
area, A (ft2)
shell
- Both streams are
corrosive
Operating Condition
H2O
Log mean 52.48
temperature (˚F)
59,258.29
905,643.40
Pumps
The material of construction factor, FM of pump 1 is assumed 2.0 (stainless

steel). Stainless steel is used in design pump 1 because sodium chloride is corrosive.
When the liquid pumped is corrosive, higher alloyed materials such as stainless steel
is often required to achieve acceptable pump life. The pump-type factor is assumed
178
1.0 based on flow rate range and pump head range which is 496.10 gpm and 50 ft
respectively.
Table 9.19 Equipment data sheet for pump 1

Item no. : P-1
Identification : Centrifugal Pump
Function : To increase the pressure of the feed reactor stream
Construction Stainless steel Pump head, H (ft) 50.00
material (FM = 2.0)
Type of driver Electric motor Brake horsepower, 19.0892
PB (BHp)
Volumetric flow 496.10 Power consumption, 21.7368
rate (gpm) PC (Hp)
Operating Condition
Inlet pressure 14.70 Inlet temperature 45
(psig) (OC)
Outlet pressure 58.78 Outlet temperature 45
(psig) (OC)
10,286.63
163,657.49
The material of construction factor, FM of pump 2 is assumed 1.0 (cast iron).

Cast iron is used in design pump 2 because water is less corrosive. Cast iron is the
generally preferred material in most water and wastewater pumping applications. The
pump-type factor is assumed 1.7 based on flow rate range and pump head range which
is 204.69 gpm and 101.66 ft respectively.
179
Table 9.20 Equipment data sheet for pump 2

Item no. : P-2
Identification : Centrifugal Pump
Construction Cast iron Pump head, H (ft) 101.66
material (FM = 1.0)
Type of driver Electric motor Brake horsepower, 8.4550
PB (BHp)
Volumetric flow 204.6893 Power consumption, 9.8337
rate (gpm) PC (Hp)
Operating Condition
Inlet pressure 14.70 Inlet temperature 25
(psig) (OC)
Outlet pressure 58.78 Outlet temperature 25
(psig) (OC)
7,257.50
115,464.86
Compressors
The material of construction factor, FM of compressor 1 and compressor 2 is

assumed 1.0 (cast iron). Cast iron is used in design compressor 1 because carbon
dioxide gas is less corrosive. Dry CO2, be it in gas phase or a supercritical fluid is not
corrosive to metals and alloys.
180
Table 9.21 Equipment data sheet for compressor 1

Item no. : K-1
Identification : Reciprocating Compressor
material (FM = 1.0)
Type of driver Electric motor Brake 166.32
horsepower, PB
(Hp)
Volumetric flow 204.6893 Isentropic power 163.01
rate (gpm) requirement (Hp)
Compressibility 1 Net work required 166.32
factor (Hp)
Operating Condition
Inlet volumetric 11779.10 Outlet volumetric 3953.18
flow rate (gpm) flow rate (gpm)
Inlet pressure 14.6959 Outlet pressure 58.7838
(psig) (psig)
Inlet temperature 25.00 Outlet 127.10
(OC) temperature (OC)
172,341.93
1,786 398.08
181
Table 9.22 Equipment data sheet for compressor 2

Item no. : K-2
Identification : Reciprocating Compressor
material
Type of driver Electric motor Brake 166.53
horsepower, PB
(Hp)
Volumetric flow 204.6893 Isentropic power 163.22
rate (gpm) requirement (Hp)
Compressibility 1 Net work 166.53
factor required (Hp)
Operating Condition
Inlet volumetric 11786.8 Outlet volumetric 3960.63
flow rate (gpm) flow rate (gpm)
Inlet pressure 14.6959 Outlet pressure 58.7838
(psig) (psig)
Inlet temperature 25.00 Outlet 127.59
(OC) temperature (OC)
172,515.16
1,788 193.70
CHAPTER 10
PROCESS CONTROL AND INSTRUMENTATION
10.1 Introduction
In a chemical processing plant, process control system plays a vital role in

maintaining or optimizing the processes to avoid mishaps. However, several necessary
requirements such as safety, production specifications, environmental regulations,
operational constraints and economics are considered in the presence of ever-changing
disturbances (Leveson et al., 1994). To satisfy the control objectives, these
requirements are given attention via implementing a complete process control system
for each unit operation. There are four basic components of a control system: sensor
(primary element), transmitter (secondary element), controller (brain of the control
system) and final control element (such as control valve, other elements are variable
speed pumps, conveyors and electric motors)(Seborg et al., 2010). The control of a
process is often accomplished by measuring the variables (controlled variables),
comparing this measurement with the value at which it is desired to maintain the
controlled variables (set point), and adjusting some further variables (manipulated
variables) which has a direct or indirect effect on the controlled variables.
As for the designed soda ash plant, control mechanism with complete
instrumentation and automatic control equipment are implemented to overcome the
negative impact that could result from such disturbances. Besides, the instrumentation
is computer monitored for convenience, stability, safety and optimisation.
183
The primary objectives of the instrumentation and control schemes are:
a) Production safety
A safe operational plant is emphasized through the implementation of safe

process control system, since there are plenty of accidents in CPI that occurred
due to the failure of the control mechanism besides human interventions.
Therefore, the safety of the plant can be ensured by providing alarms and
automatic shutdown systems or interlocks system (Marlin, 2000).
b) Product quality
To maintain the soda ash purity and composition within the specified quality
standard, which is 99.9%.
c) Production rate
The production rate of soda ash plant is targeted at 100,000 metric tonnes per
annum.
d) Economics
The processes must be carried out at optimum conditions to minimize losses in

energy, other resources, operational cost, and maximize the profit.
These objectives are achieved by a combination of automatic control, manual

monitoring and laboratory analysis. Detailed designs of control system paired with
instrumentation for each process unit are done considering the controlled objective,
manipulated and controlled variables, control configuration provided with
justification. A completed Piping and Instrumentation Diagram (P&ID) is developed
by connecting each control system unit for the soda ash processing plant.
184
10.2 Procedures for Control System Design
In developing a control scheme, control objective is first to be defined. Then,

critical controlled variables are identified, whereby measured variables, manipulated
variables must be decided to conceptualise the control strategies. The following
procedure is used to identify and locate the control instruments in the process (Seborg
et al., 2010):
a) Identify and draw in those control loops that are obviously needed for steady
plant operation, such as level control, flow control, pressure control,
temperature control and composition control.
b) Identify the key process variables that need to be controlled to achieve the
specified product quality. Include control loops using direct measurement of
the controlled variable, where possible.
c) Identify and include those additional control loops required for safe operation,
not covered in steps (a) and (b).
d) Decide and show those ancillary instruments needed for the monitoring of the
plant operation by the operators and for trouble-shooting.
As for P&ID, it provides a graphical presentation of the whole control

configuration for the process. The standardised layout is used for entire control system
design and the diagram is drawn using Microsoft Visio.
10.3 Instrumentation in Control System
All operations and control in the plant are represented by instrumentation

diagrams. Hardware elements that involved in a general control configuration are unit
operation, measuring devices (sensors and transducers), transmission lines, controller
and final control element. Generally, close loop control system is the most common
control configuration that has been widely applied in chemical plant. This
configuration is illustrated in Figure 10.1.
185
Set point
Command Process
input Controller Final Control Unit output
Feedback Measurement
Figure 10.1 Typical close loop control system
For the ease of recognizing various equipment, instruments, valves and control
loop in the process flow sheet, standard symbols (BS 1646) have been. The commonly
used legends in the Piping and Instrument Diagram (P&ID) are shown the following
Table 10.1.
Table 10.1 Piping and instrument diagram legends

Symbol Description
PI and PC Pressure Indicator and Pressure Controller
TI and TC Temperature Indicator and Temperature Controller
FI and FC Flow Indicator and Flow Controller
LI and LC Level Indicator and Level Controller
PAH and PAL Pressure Alarm High and Pressure Alarm Low
TAH and TAL Temperature Alarm High and Temperature Alarm Low
LAH an LAL Level Alarm High and Level Alarm Low
T1A, LIA, PIA Temperature, Flow and Pressure Indicator Alarm
10.4 Individual Control System and Instrumentation
Dissolver (D – 1)
Table 10.2 Control system for dissolver

Dissolver, D-1
Control Objective: To maintain the level of sodium chloride and water mixture in the vessel
Controlled Manipulated Control
Measured Variable Disturbances Justification
Variable Variable Configuration
Level of mixture Level of mixture Flowrate of exit Flowrate and Feedback Mixture level should be
in the vessel in the vessel stream 3 pressure of recycled maintained to prevent from
water stream 28 overflowing or
underflowing in the
dissolving vessel.
Control Objective: To control the feed ratio of recycled water to sodium chloride at 2.7:1 (set point)
186
Flowrate of sodium Flowrates of sodium Flowrate of sodium Flowrate of recycled Feedforward Both feed streams must
chloride in feed chloride and recycled chloride in feed water (wild stream) (ratio control) enter the dissolver at fixed
stream water in feed streams stream ratio of 2.7 to ensure better
mixing of brine solution.
Company: Y Chemical Sdn. Bhd. Indication:

Title: P&ID for Dissolver (D-1) Pneumatic signal
Date: 17/5/2017 Major pipe line
Designer: Dinesh A/L Arumugam Electric signal
187
Ammonia Absorption Tower (V – 1)
Table 10.3 Control system for ammonia absorption tower

Ammonia Absorption Tower, V-1
Control Objective: To control the feed stoichiometry ratio of brine to ammonia at 1:1 (set point)
Flowrate of ammonia Flowrates of brine Flowrate of ammonia Flowrates of brine Feedforward Both feed streams must
in fresh feed stream and ammonia feed in fresh feed stream (wild stream) (ratio control) enter the ammonia
streams absorption tower at fixed
ratio of 1:1 to ensure
complete absorption.
Control Objective: To maintain the level of mass transferring solution in absorption tower
Level of mixture Level of mixture Flowrate of exit Flowrate of ammonia Feedback Mixture level should be
in the tower in the tower stream 5 in fresh feed stream, maintained to prevent from
pressure drop in overflowing or
tower
188
underflowing and as well
as flooding in the tower.

Title: P&ID for Ammonia Absorption Tower (V-1) Pneumatic signal
189
Carbonation Reactor (R – 1)
Table 10.4 Control system for carbonation reactor

Carbonation Reactor, R-1
Control Objective: To control the temperature of carbonation reactor at 45oC (set point)
Temperature of Temperature of Flowrate of steam Temperature of Feedforward Temperature of reactor should
carbonation reactor carbonation reactor inlet stream in vessel carbon dioxide in (cascade be maintained at, slightly
and steam in vessel jacket stream 34 control) below 45oC to ensure
jacket complete reaction between
ammoniacal brine and carbon
dioxide.
Control Objective: To control the pressure of carbonation reactor at 4 atm (set point)
Pressure of Pressure of Flowrate of Temperature in Feedback Pressure should be maintained
carbonation reactor carbonation reactor ammoniacal brine in carbonation reactor at 4 atm to prevent from
stream 7 overpressure in the column, as
190
well blocking the feed of
ammoniacal brine at 4 atm.
Control Objective: To control the stoichiometry ratio of the ammoniacal brine to carbon dioxide at 1:1 (set point)
Flowrate of carbon Flowrates of Flowrate of carbon Flowrates of Feedforward Both feed streams must enter
dioxide in stream 34 ammoniacal brine dioxide in stream 34 ammoniacal brine (ratio control) the carbonation reactor at
and carbon dioxide (wild stream) fixed stoichiometry ratio of
feed streams 1:1 to ensure complete
consumption of carbon
dioxide and production of
ammonium chloride and
sodium bicarbonate.
191
Title: P&ID for Carbonation Reactor (R-1) Pneumatic signal
192
Rotary Drum Filter (F – 1)
Table 10.5 Control system for rotary drum filter

Rotary Drum Filter, F-1
Control Objective: To maintain the level of mixture in the filter
Level of mixture Level of mixture Flowrate of Pressure of Feedback Mixture level should be
in the filter in the filter stream 12 stream 12 maintained to prevent from
overflowing or
underflowing of the filter
193
Title: P&ID for Rotary Drum Filter (F-1) Pneumatic signal
Designer: Mohamad Hanafi bin Noslan Electric signal
194
Calciner (R – 2)
Table 10.6 Control system for furnace

Calciner/ Furnace, R-2
Control Objective: To control the temperature of furnace at 200oC (set point)
Manipulated Control
Controlled Measured Variable Disturbances Justification
Temperature of Temperature of Flowrate of heating Ambient temperature Feedback Temperature should be
furnace
furnace utilities maintained at 200oC to
ensure the desired product
can be produced
Control Objective: To control the pressure of furnace at 1 atm (set point)
Manipulated Control
Pressure of furnace Pressure of furnace Flowrate of Temperature of Feedback Pressure should be
stream 14 stream 14 maintained at 1 atm to
prevent from pressure build
up in the furnace
195
Title: P&ID for Furnace (R-2) // Pneumatic signal
196
Separation Drum (S – 1)
Table 10.7 Control system for separation drum

Separation Drum, S-1
Control Objective: To maintain the level of water-carbon dioxide mixture in horizontal vessel for better separation
Manipulated Control
Level of mixture Level of mixture Flowrate of exit Composition of Feedback Mixture level should be
in the vessel in the vessel liquid water stream dissolved carbon maintained to prevent from
19 dioxide in water, overflowing or reaching the
mist collector, affecting the
separation process in the
horizontal vessel.
197
Title: P&ID for Separation Drum (S-1) Pneumatic signal
198
Evaporator (S – 2)
Table 10.8 Control system for evaporator

Evaporator, S-2
Control Objective: To control the temperature of evaporator at 100oC (set point)
Temperature Temperature Flowrate of Temperature of Feedback Temperature should be
of evaporator of evaporator heating utilities stream 32 maintained at 100oC to
ensure that only the water is
evaporated
Control Objective: To control the pressure of evaporator at 1 atm (set point)
Pressure Pressure Flowrate of Temperature of Feedback Pressure should be
of evaporator of evaporator stream 37 stream 37 maintained at 1 atm to
prevent from pressure build
up in the evaporator
Control Objective: To maintain the liquid level in evaporator
199
Liquid level Liquid level in Flowrate of liquid in Flowrate of Feedback Liquid level should be
in evaporator evaporator stream 23 stream 37 maintained to prevent from
overflowing or underflowing
of the evaporator
200
Title: P&ID for Evaporator (S-2) // Pneumatic signal
201
202
Heat Exchangers
The control system for heat exchanger is designed to operate optimally and for
safety purposes. For heat exchanger in the plant, the control systems are designed as
feedback control system. The outlet temperature of the process stream from the heat
exchanger is controlled by the utility inlet flow rate. It is done to ensure the process
stream reaches the desired temperature and the other processes will not be affected.
Another objective for heat exchanger control design is the safety aspect to keep
the stream temperature from getting too high or too low that will have impact to the
plant operation and indirectly cause the plant operation to be unsafe. In this report,
only 3 selected heat exchangers are discussed as they give significant results in this
design plant.
Heat Exchanger (E – 4)
Table 10.9 Control system for heat exchanger (E – 4)

Heat Exchanger, E-4
Control Objective: To control temperature of stream 16 at 106.99°C (set point)
Temperature of Temperature of stream Amount of cooling Temperature of Feedback Temperature of stream 16 is
stream 16 16 water entering heat stream, temperature to be maintained as the
exchanger E-4 of stream 31 product must further cooled
to room temperature
203
Title: P&ID for Heat Exchanger (E-4) Pneumatic signal
Designer: Rizmalinda binti Jamaludin Electric signal
204

Heat Exchanger, E-9
Control Objective: To control temperature of stream 33 at 45°C (set point)
Temperature of Temperature of stream 33 Amount of chilled Temperature of Feedback Temperature of stream 33 is
stream 33 water entering heat chilled water to be maintained as the
exchanger E-9 reaction is exothermic
process and the temperature
must be cooled down to the
desired temperature
205
206

Heat Exchanger, E-11
Control Objective: To control temperature of stream 35 at 25°C (set point)
Temperature of Temperature of stream Amount of chilled Temperature of Feedback Temperature of stream 35 is
stream 35 35 water entering heat chilled water to be
exchanger E-11 maintained as the water
vapour must be condensed to
become water to flash it out
207
208
Pumps
Pump 1 (P – 1)
Table 10.12 Control system for pump 1

Pump, P-1
Control objective: To control the pressure of stream 7 at 4 atm (set point)
Pressure of stream Pressure of stream 7 Flow rate of Temperature and Feedback Pressure of stream 7 need
7 stream flowrate of mixture in to be maintained to supply
stream 33 the feed at 1 atm to
carbonation reactor since it
optimum operating
pressure is at 4 atm
209
Title: P&ID for Pump (P-1) Pneumatic signal
Designer: Nurnaziha Binti Mohd Saad Electric signal
210
Pump 2 (P – 2)
Table 10.13 Control system for pump 2

Pump, P-2
Pressure of stream Pressure of stream Flow rate of stream Temperature and Feedback Pressure of stream 28
28 28 27 flowrate of inlet need to be maintained at
water 4 atm to ensure that the
water can be supplied to
dissolver through a long
channel/ pipe.
211
Company: Y Chemical Sdn Bhd Indication:
Title: P&ID for Pump (P-2) Pneumatic signal
212
Compressors
Compressor 1 (K – 1)
Table 10.14 Control system for compressor 1

Compressor, K-1
Pressure of stream 9 Pressure of stream 9 Flow rate of stream Flow rate of stream Feedback Flow rate of stream 8 need
8 8 and temperature to be maintained at 4 atm
of stream 9 to ensure the compressor
to supply the carbon
dioxide gas to carbonation
reactor
213
Title: P&ID for Compressor (K-1) Pneumatic signal
214
Compressor 2 (K – 2)
Table 10.15 Control system for compressor 2

Compressor, K-2
Pressure of stream Pressure of stream Flow rate of stream Flow rate of stream Feedback Flow rate of stream
21 21 20 20 and temperature 21 need to be
of stream 21 maintained at 4 atm
to ensure the
compressor to supply
the carbon dioxide
gas to carbonation
reactor
215
Title: P&ID for Compressor (K-2) Pneumatic signal
216
CHAPTER 11
PROCESS SAFETY STUDIES
11.1 Introduction
The chemical industry has traditionally devoted considerable attention to safety,

beginning with the research and development new process through plant design and
construction, manufacture and the distribution and use of products. Its safety record
therefore compares favorably with most other major industries. In recent years,
however, due to the continued expansion of the industry, advantages in chemical
knowledge and medicine, political, social and environmental trends, a fundamental
revision of the approach to safety has taken place. In chemical plant, the main hazards
are toxic and corrosive chemicals, explosions, fires and accidents common to all
industrial activities. Safety or loss prevention is the prevention of accidents by using
appropriate technologies to identify the hazards of chemical plant and to eliminate
them before an accident occurs. Hazard is defined as anything with the potential to
produce an accident while risk is probability of a hazard resulting in an accident.
Significant advanced technology has been made in chemical process safety since
1950. Today, safety is important to produce and develop scientific disciplines which
include many highly technical and complex theories and practices. The chemical
industry has traditionally devoted considerable attention to safety, beginning with the
research and development of new processes through plant design and construction
(Weinstein, 1997). In chemical plant, the main hazards are toxic and corrosive of
chemicals, explosions, fires and accidents. It is common to all industrial
218
activities. The Occupational Safety and Health Act (OSHA) 1974provided a new legal
administrative framework to promote, simulate and encourage even higher standards
of health and safety at work. Its aim is to promote safety awareness and effective safety
organization and performance in companies. Employers are required to carry out
certain specific duties and employees must co-operate with the employer to comply
with the law and not misuse safety equipment. Every employer must prepare a
statement of policy on health and safety, together with the arrangement for the
implementation of that policy.
11.2 General Process Safety Procedures
As been stated in the introduction part of this chapter, process safety study
plays an important role in designing a chemical plant. In this part, an introduction to
general plant safety such as concept hazard analysis, hazard and operability studies
will be discussed. Due to the chemical substances handled in the plant are hazardous,
the workers in the plant should be thoroughly informed of the safety procedure before
plant start operating.
Basic Safety Rules
There are a few basic safety rules, which must be observed when working in
all chemical-manufacturing areas:
i. Each employee is expected to know and observe all safety instructions and
danger signs. It is part of their job safety and correctly. For example, know how
to use all types of fire extinguishers, fire hoses, fire blankets, and the location
of escape routes.
ii. The employer is responsible for their employee’s safety.
iii. No smoking, except in specific areas designated for smoking.
iv. No eating, drinking except of water fountains.
219
v. No flammable chemical substances, drugs allowed bringing into the plant,

except in need.
vi. The area around the unit should be positioned in a level, which is sufficiently
to provide reasonable safety of movement by workers.
vii. Do not enter processing areas other than the place of work.
viii. Detective equipment, unsafe conditions and unsafe practices must be reported
to the Supervisor as soon as discovered.
ix. All unclear, accident, injuries must get report at once to the Supervisor for the
next instruction.
x. Get immediate medical attention for injuries, however minor they appear to be.
Each employee should explore the basic first-aid poison information.
xi. Every visitor must get the permission and be instructed of plant safety rules
before they can enter the plant.
xii. Wear all personal protective clothing and equipment provided while in the
plant to minimize risk of injuries should the unexpected happen.
Detection of Possible Hazards
Most danger can be avoided if readily recognized and the right corrective
action taken promptly. Some of the ways in the signs of possible hazards may be
recognized (Cook and Cullen, 2014) are as follows:
i. Seeing
Look for warning signs, tags and safety instructions. Smokes, fumes or sparks,
particularly from electrical equipment, is signs of overheating and constitute a fire
hazard. A blue flash may indicate a discharge of static electricity. Observe gauges for
sudden increase in temperature, rapid pressure changes, rise or fall in liquid levels in
tanks and gauge glasses. Look for cracks or other visible damage to equipment,
particularly glassware and glass linings and leaks at valves, gaskets or seals. Keep
watch for physical changes of chemicals, such as a change in color, lumpiness, and
change in crystal form, bubbling or frothing. Do no poke your head into any vessel to
220
see it is clean. Look out for reddening of the skin or rashes: they may indicate contact
with an irritating, corrosive or dermatitis chemical.
ii. Hearing
Whistling or hissing noises may be a warning of the escape of gas or steam

under pressure. Banging, rattling, grinding or whining sounds usually indicate faults
in moving parts of machinery. Hammering or knocking noises in pipes usually indicate
rapid pressure changes, surging or a liquid-vapor mixture in the line. Dripping or
splashing noise may lead to the detection of leaking vessels; pump seals, valves or
gaskets. The sound of shattering or cracking of glass is associated with fracturing of
glass pipeline, glass vessels or fittings caused by excessive pressure, being struck or
being subjected to a sudden change in temperature (thermal shock). A cracking noise
may indicate the discharge of static electricity, which constitutes a fire hazard.
iii. Feeling
Unusual vibrations indicate pressure changes or uneven running, for example

misalign moving parts or basket of a centrifuge loaded unevenly. Excessive heat
radiating from reaction vessels may be a warning of an exothermic reaction, in the case
of electrical equipment or machinery it may indicate an unusual overload due, perhaps,
to loss of lubricant. Burning, irritation or itching of the skin indicates contact with
corrosives, irritants or dermatitis chemicals. Dryness of the lips or skin may indicate
contact with organic solvents. Smarting, irritating, watering or itching of the eyes may
be caused by contact with certain dusts or lachrymatory vapors. Difficulty in breathing,
choking, giddiness or the feeling of weakness at the knees may be the effects of
harmful gases, dusts or vapors.
iv. Smelling
Some chemicals may irritate the mucous membranes: some are sweet and
sickly (such as nitrous oxide), others are pungent, and suffocating and may cause
gasping (such as ammonia). A pungent, irritating smell is characteristic of chlorine or
221
bromine: a sweet, scented smell may indicate the organic chemicals called esters (such
as amyl acetate). Organic compounds of benzene give a characteristic aromatic smell,
which is easily recognizable. There are also many chemicals, which give smells
identifiable with common day-to day smells such as hydrogen disulphide (rotten eggs)
or carbon disulphide (decaying vegetables). Even the absence of a smell may, in some
cases, cause one to suspect the identity of a material. In all cases, smell should only be
used to detect from general atmospheric pollution. Never deliberately sniff at a
chemical, under any circumstances.
v. Tasting
Chemicals must never be tasted, as this is a very dangerous practice. However,

in the event of accidental contact with the lips or mouth, an acute sense of taste may
the person affected to take the appropriate action quickly by washing the mouth with
copious quantities of cold water at least 15 minutes. For example, the sour taste of
acids, the sweet, sickly taste of nitrous oxide or even the loss of taste caused, for
example, by phenol may be recognized readily.
Housekeeping
Generally, the efficiency of any industrial plant can be judged by the standard
of its cleanliness and tidiness. In the chemical industry, poor housekeeping is challenge
to safety. Chemicals and volatile flammable liquids must be stored and handled in
authorized and clearly marked containers, which are kept closed. The methods need to
be used for dealing with spillages of particular hazardous liquids and accumulations
of dangerous dust must be clearly stated in the standing instructions and followed
promptly. Operations involving hazardous dusts should only be allowed where there
is proper local exhaust ventilation and other facilities must protect the worker. Besides
that, regular inspection is needed to ensure that well housekeeping and regular cleaning
are enforced. Exits should not be blocked for fast and easy movements during
222
emergencies. Furthermore, fire-extinguishing equipment shall have a minimum clear

space around them of at least 3 feet (Deshmukh, 2005).
Clear responsibilities for the receipt, storage and issue of materials used in
processes must be established. Proper arrangements for inventory control, records and
security must be made. Materials and supplies used at a plant site should be stored in
a neat and orderly manner at the site to prevent them from falling off of shelves onto
moving equipment. Lastly, junk parts removed from a piece of equipment should be
disposed of in a proper manner.
Personal Protective Equipment
Personal Protective Equipment (PPE) includes all clothing and accessories

designed to protect against workplace hazards (Dickson, 2012). In some situations, the
only available protection for employees will be the use of PPE and often in
emergencies, PPE will be required for the safety of the workers. As required by federal
and state regulations, personal protective equipment is essential for the protection of
eyes, ears, face and other body parts when working around hazardous machinery and
equipment. All PPE must meet established standards (ANSI, NIOSH, OSHA, etc). The
chemical operative should seek for the suitable type for the work being done. Workers
should be trained to use personal protective equipment correctly and whenever
necessary. It is a responsibility for the employee to provide complete and clean
personal protective equipment to the workers. Examples of PPE are listed below:
i. Safety helmets
Soft caps of plastic or leather give protection against chemical splashes,

especially when working with overhead pipes, tanks, heat exchangers and other
equipment, which may leak. Reinforced helmets of metal, laminated plastics, or other
materials resistant to impact from falling objects should be worn when overhead work
is performed.
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ii. Dust mask
Many types are now available, all giving protection against the inhalation of
harmful dust. Special absorbent pads are covered by a perforated metal disc or fitted
to a mounded rubber face piece: the pads should be changed regularly and the face
piece cleaned after use. It is most important to remember that dust mask offer no
protection against gases.
iii. Air masks
Air mask is mainly used as protection against gases and fumes especially when
handling with chemical substances. The most common air masks are the “army gas-
mask” type: a mounded rubber front with two eye ports is held to face by adjustable
elastic straps fitting around the head. Air is drawn through a flexible hose and a non-
return valve, in front of the mouth, from a canister strapped to the body, and is expelled
between the cheeks and the rubber sides of the mask. The canister contains suitable,
absorbent material and it is therefore of vital importance to distinguish the correct
canister for the conditions to be entered. Check with a supervisor, there is a limited life
before the absorbent material is spent and it is susceptible to deterioration, so
immediately area.
iv. Safety footwear/ boots
Industrial safety shoes and boots, with steel toecaps, are good appearance and
comfortable. Ordinary shoes are unsuitable as they offer little resistance to corrosive
chemicals or to falling objects. Sparks from nailed boots are a source of danger. Rubber
boots are watertight and resistant to most corrosive chemicals, but may be attacked by
many organic solvents.
v. Eye Protectors
Safety spectacles, goggles, face shields, visors, or masks provide eye

protection against chemical splashes. Spectacles with rein forced glass give the least
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protection, but have the advantages that they may be worn for long periods without
discomfort. Some spectacles are fitted with plastic side-shields for added protection.
Perspex goggles, with a surrounding shield of plastic fitting tightly to the face around
the eyes, are particularly useful, not only against chemical splashes, but also in the
presence of dust or gases which affect the eyes. Face shields or visors give full
protection against splashes or sparks, and although they tend to “steam up” under
certain conditions, they may be treated with “demisters”.
Personal protective equipment (PPE) is needed against particular hazards of

the working environment. PPE should be selected to meet the following general
requirements:
i. Adequate protection against the specific hazard(s) to which the worker will be
exposed;
ii. Minimum weight and discomfort compatible with efficient protection.
iii. Flexible but effective attachment to the body;
iv. Weight carried by a part of the body which is able to support it;
v. No restrictions on those body movements and sensory perceptions which are
essential to the job;
vi. Durability;
vii. Clothing should be attractive;
viii. Accessibility of parts which should be maintainable on the premises;
ix. No additional hazards introduced by the PPEs even when they are misused; and
x. Compliance with relevant standards.
Storage of Chemical
The chemical storage is important because it has a huge amount of raw material
or complicated product along with chemicals used for other processes such as water
treatment, cleaning, waste treatment etc. To avoid any form of unnecessary risk, the
storage tank farm should not be situated Adjacent to urban development to eliminate
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any possibility of Vapor Cloud Explosion (VPE), fireball or toxic cloud drift over
population. To avoid any form of unnecessary risk, the storage tank should not be
situated adjacent to urban development to eliminate any possibility of vapor cloud
explosion, fireball or toxic cloud release. A buffer zone is suggested around the plant.
Transportation
Many accidental releases of dangerous liquids in process plants have occurred

at road and rail tanker loading and unloading stations. This is hardly surprising
considering the different hazards, which concentrate and interact at these points. They
include:
i. Vehicle hazards – collisions, error in parking position, unauthorized starting,

and damage to and poor maintenance of vehicles;
ii. Hazards of temporary hose and solid pipe connections;
iii. Hazards of ignition both from vehicle engines and from electricity; and
iv. Hazards of overfilling and errors in sequence of valve opening and closing.
Loading and offloading should only be allowed at carefully selected sites

where necessary facilities are installed. It should be within but near the perimeter fence,
in paved, leveled or concreted areas. The bay must be clearly marked and provided
with light roofs and upper side coverings to protect against sun and driving rain, but
without end wall for easy through-transit of vehicles and good natural ventilation. Only
vehicles approved for the liquid in question may be used.
Plant Location
Chemical plant, there is a need to locate the plant far from any housing areas
in order to minimize the probability of harming the public during any explosion fire or
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order probabilities or release event. For every chemical plant, there is a need to locate
the plant far from any housing areas to minimize the probability of harming the public
in any possible way. Accidents that normally occur can be related to fire, explosion or
vapor cloud and each of these factors can result in a big catastrophe.
Utility
Plants should be designed so that the sudden failure of one or more utility
supplies does not prove disastrous. The routing of service supplies should be as secure
as possible. The position of underground supplies should be clearly marked on
drawings and, where possible, by ground posts. Underground supplies must be
adequately protected from heavy vehicles.
i. Electricity
The use of flameproof and intrinsically safe electrical equipment and conduit
is to reduce the risk of flammable gases, vapors and dusts. A ‘hazardous zone drawing’
is made when all sources of leaks of flammable materials have been identified. This
shows the categories of electrical equipment allowed in each zone.
Loss of electrical power is especially serious if it causes materials to solidify

in a process or pipeline, air-cooled and refrigerated heat exchangers to cease
functioning and cooling water and process pumps to fail. Reliable back-up systems,
which are ultimately reliant on local battery power packs, are especially important. To
prevent electrical shock, insure that all equipment is properly grounded. The entire
wiring and electrical component should comply with the standard of the local authority.
Check all equipment regularly to prevent accidents. There are several steps to prevent
electrical hazards:
a) Keep electrical panels clearly visible and unobstructed;

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b) Know how your circuits are labeled so equipment can be de-energized quickly
in an emergency;
c) Never use extension cords as permanent wiring. Unplug them at the end of the
workday;
d) Mount multi-plug adaptors a few inches off the floor to avoid possible water
damage;
e) Never use multi-plug adaptors in series; and
f) Replace any damaged or frayed electrical cords immediately.
ii. Cooling Water
Problems found in cooling water include corrosion, scaling, growth of

mollusks and the presence of solid objects, which block heat exchanger tubes, small
valves and lines. This requires expert study to kill algae and mollusks; and to control
pH, scaling, precipitation and corrosion. A sometime serious problem of circulating
cooling water systems is the day-to-night temperature fluctuations, which cause
process disturbances. In the cases where cooling water failure is serious, stand-by
pumps provided with an alternative power source are often installed.
iii. Process Air
Failure of the compressor usually results in an automatic emergency plant

shutdown, but the consequences are seldom disastrous. Air entering air-separation
plants requires special treatment to remove traces of hydrocarbons and other impurities
to prevent plant explosions.
Flammability
Flammability simply means the capability of a material or substance to burn,

ignite, combust or catch fire. It applies to gases, liquids and solids. In the process
industries, it is always most concerned with the flammability of gases, liquids and their
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vapors and of dispersed dusts and liquid droplets, all of which refers to as fuels. The
result of ignition can be a fire or explosion or sometimes both.
Accidental fires and explosions of flammable air mixtures often follow the
escape of combustible materials, which may result from an uncontrolled reaction or an
explosion within the process or storage plant. The constructional materials used in the
process industries are mostly of low flammability, although the plant and structure
used often require fire protection. Flammable gases and vapors of flammable liquids
are in many ways more dangerous than the liquids themselves. This is because they
are invisible, cannot easily be contained and may travel considerable distance before
they reach an ignition source and ignite
Parameters of Flammability
There is no single parameter by which the flammability of different materials

can be compared several needs to be considered. The flash point is special important
for liquids. The following lists include properties which, while affecting flammability
to some degree, are mainly important for containing and fighting fires:
i. Flammability limit (for gases and vapor)

ii. Flash-point (for liquid and low-melting solids)
iii. Auto ignition temperature (mainly for gases and vapor)
iv. Burning velocity (mainly for gases and vapor)
v. Heat of combustion (for all materials)
vi. Oxygen requirements for complete combustion
vii. Specific gravity relative to: Air, for gases and vapor
i. Water for liquid
ii. Solubility in water (mainly for liquid)
iii. Melting point and softening point for solids
iv. Viscosity (mainly for liquids and low melting solids)
v. Carbon/ H2 ratio (mainly for Hydrocarbons)
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Explosion
Explosion in the vapor spaces of fixed roof storage tanks have been numerous.
The reason for the large number of explosion is that explosive mixtures are present in
the vapor space of many storage tanks. It is almost to be certain that a source of ignition
will never turn up, particularly if the liquid in the tank has a low conductivity so that
static charges can accumulate on the liquid. For this reason, many companies insist
that fixed roof storage tanks containing hydrocarbons above their flash points must be
blanketed with Nitrogen. Other companies insist that such Hydrocarbons are stored
only in floating roof tanks.
First Aid
First aid is generally defined as emergency treatment and skilled help

provided to an injured, drowning, unconscious or suddenly ill person before
professional medical help arrives. Normally first aid kits box is attached on the easily
seen wall and should be easily to be taken when emergency comes up. The content of
first aid kits box is depends on the condition of the industries, but in a normal box the
entire list below is compulsory:
i. Move victim to fresh air; call emergency medical care

ii. If not breathing, give artificial respiration (CPR)
iii. If breathing is difficult, give oxygen
iv. Remove and isolate contaminated clothing and shoes at the site
v. In case of contact with mineral, immediately flush skin or eyes with running
water for at least 15 minutes
vi. Keep victim quiet and maintain normal body temperature
vii. Effects may be delayed; keep victim under observation
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General Safety in Soda Ash Plant
Soda ash is not classified as being flammable, explosive, or toxic and it is

categorized as a GRAS (Generally Recognized as Safe) substance for use in foods, by
the U.S. Food and Drug Administration (FDA).
Personnel Protection
Although relatively harmless, there are several precautions that should be

taken by personnel working with soda ash:
i. Eye googles and respiratory masks
Although classified as non-toxic the dust can be moderately irritating to the

mucous membranes of the eyes, throat and nose.
ii. Skin protection (Long sleeved shirts, pants and gloves)
Soda ash is mildly alkaline and will dissolve in human perspiration. This
could lead to mild skin irritation in individuals with sensitive skin,
particularly in hot and humid conditions.
iii. Safety belts and lifelines
Soda ash piles can cake to give the appearance of a hard crust. This can yield
and engulf a worker. Personnel entering bins or silos containing soda ash must
wear safety belts properly roped to rescue facilities and be physically
observed by someone not on the soda ash pile.
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Handling of Soda Ash
Soda ash is friable, so it tends to break into small dusty particles when under
pressure or by abrasion. Dust is commercially undesirable since particle dimension is
critically important, particularly in glass manufacture. To limit dust formation, soda
ash needs to be moved using handling equipment that minimizes grinding during
transportation. Ideal handling equipment includes:
i. grabs
ii. conveyor belts
iii. front-end loaders
iv. belt elevators
v. drag chains
Moreover, Soda ash is not corrosive to steels, but it will readily attack iron
and rust. Painted surfaces other than epoxy resins are undesirable. Refractory surfaces
such as concrete and brick should be smooth and sound and designed so that handling
equipment is unlikely to break off small pieces that can contaminate the soda ash.
Storage Characteristics
Soda ash is mildly hygroscopic. It will absorb atmospheric moisture to form

an undesirable crust up to five centimeters thick. To prevent this soda ash should be
stored in weather tight warehouses. Such warehouses should not be ventilated or
subject to gross changes in the atmosphere. Silos with a bottom cone of greater than
40 degrees are acceptable, as are flat warehouses.
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11.3 Introduction to HAZOP Studies
Hazard and Operability Analysis (HAZOP) is a structured and systematic

technique for system examination and risk management. Initially, HAZOP technique
was developed to analyse chemical process systems, but has been further introduced
to complex operations and to software systems (Kletz, 1999). HAZOP is based on a
theory that assumes risk events are caused by deviations from design or operating
intentions. Identification of such deviations is facilitated by using sets of “guide words”
as a systematic list of deviation perspectives. HAZOP is very commonly used in risk
assessments for industrial and environmental health and safety applications, therefore
it is implemented in the designed plant. Additional details on the HAZOP methodology
may be found within online standard resources such as “The International Standard
IEC 61882 Hazard and Operability Studies (HAZOP) - Application Guide” by
Standard and IEC (2001).
Application of HAZOP study as a risk assessment methodology has several advantages

and disadvantages as explained by NSW (2011). The advantages are as follows:
i. Helpful when confronting hazards that are difficult to quantify, i.e.: hazards
rooted in human performance and behaviours hazards that are difficult to detect,
analyse, isolate, count, predict, etc.
ii. Built-in brainstorming methodology
iii. Systematic & comprehensive methodology
iv. More simple and intuitive than other commonly used risk management tools
Whereas, the disadvantages are as follows:
i. No means to assess hazards involving interactions between different parts of a

system or process
ii. No risk ranking or prioritization capability teams may optionally build-in such
capability as required
iii. No means to assess effectiveness of existing or proposed controls (safeguards)
may need to interface HAZOP with other risk management tools
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However, the effectiveness of HAZOP study can be improved via several

techniques such as improving the accuracy of information collected for study, reducing
deviations with standards, and maintaining of a sense of proportion in assessing the
seriousness of a hazard (Dunjó et al., 2010).
The systematic approach of HAZOP study is illustrated via graphical flowchart

in Figure 11.2. There are several important terminologies involved in completing the
assessment based study such as study nodes, intention, deviations, causes,
consequences, guide words and action.
a) Study Nodes
The locations (on piping and instrumentation drawings and procedures) at

which the process parameters are investigated for deviations.
b) Intention
The intention defines how the plant is expected to operate in the absence of
deviations at the study nodes. This can take a number of forms and can either
be descriptive or diagrammatic; e.g., flowsheets, line diagrams, P&IDS.
c) Deviations
These are departures from the intention which are discovered by systematically
applying the guide words (e.g., "more pressure").
d) Causes
These are the reasons why deviations might occur. Once a deviation has been
shown to have a credible cause, it can be treated as a meaningful deviation.
These causes can be hardware failures, human errors, an unanticipated process
state (e.g., change of composition), external disruptions (e.g., loss of power),
etc.
234
e) Consequences
These are the results of the deviations should they occur (e.g., release of toxic
materials). Trivial consequences, relative to the study objective, are dropped.
f) Guide Words
These are simple words which are used to qualify or quantify the intention in
order to guide and stimulate the brainstorming process and so discover
deviations. The guide words shown in the Figure 11.1 are the ones most often
used in a HAZOP. Each guide word is applied to the process variables at the
point in the plant (study node) which is being examined.
Figure 11.1 Example of guide words (Crowl and Louvar, 2011)
g) Action
The improvement strategies or recommendations required to overcome the

deviations caused. For example, installation of check valve to prevent “reverse
flow” of fluid in pipe.
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Figure 11.2 Quick view on HAZOP procedure

11.4 HAZOP Studies for Major Equipment
Dissolver
Table 11.1 HAZOP study for dissolver

UNIT OF OPERATION Dissolver (D-1)
IDEAL CONDITIONS Temperature: 25oC; Pressure: 1 atm
FUNCTION OF UNIT To allow complete dissolution of sodium chloride in water at 1:3 ratio
STUDY NODE Vessel
PARAMETERS GUIDE WORDS POSSIBLE CAUSES POSSIBLE CONSEQUENCES ACTION REQUIRED
1. Outlet control valve is not
1. Install level indicating
functioning well 1. Overflow from vessel
More alarm
2. Ratio control failure, flow 2. Production loss
2. Regular monitoring
readings incorrect
Level
1. Blockage in inlet piping and
valve system 1. Production loss
Less alarm
2. Ratio control failure, flow 2. Downtime to overall process
readings incorrect
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STUDY NODE Stirrer
1. No mixing, possible
1. Stirrer motor malfunction
No accumulation of unreacted 1. Interlock with feed line
2. Power failure
materials
Agitation
1. Stirrer motor controller
1. The temperature of motor 1. Regular monitoring and
More fails, resulting in higher
might increase rapidly servicing
speed
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Table 11.2 HAZOP study for ammonia absorption tower

UNIT OF OPERATION Ammonia Absorption Tower (V-1)
IDEAL CONDITIONS Temperature: 70oC (due to exothermic); Pressure: 1 atm
FUNCTION OF UNIT To ensure complete absorption of ammonia gas in brine solution to form ammoniacal brine
STUDY NODE Tower
functioning well 1. Flooding occurs
More alarm
readings incorrect
Level
valve system 1. Incomplete absorption
Less alarm
readings incorrect
238
Carbonation Reactor
Table 11.3 HAZOP study for carbonation reactor

UNIT OF OPERATION Carbonation Reactor (R-1)
FUNCTION OF UNIT To allow reaction between ammoniacal brine and carbon dioxide to produce sodium bicarbonate and
ammonium chloride
functioning well 1. Flooding occurs
More alarm
readings incorrect
Level
1. Incomplete reaction 3. Install level indicating
valve system
Less 2. Less production, production alarm
2. Ratio control failure, flow
target is not achieved 4. Regular monitoring
readings incorrect
1. Failure of inlet feed hot 1. Install high temperature
Temperature Higher 1. Temperature run away
utility, higher flowrate indicating alarm
239
2. Pressure build up in the 2. The decomposition of sodium 2. Regular maintenance or
reactor/tower bicarbonate into valuable soda checking
3. Cascade control failure, ash in tower itself
readings incorrect 3. Loss of product yield
1. Leaking of inlet heating 1. Incomplete reaction at non- 1. Install low temperature
utility optimum temperature indicating alarm
Lower
2. Cascade control failure, 2. Loss of product yield 2. Regular maintenance or
readings incorrect checking on
1. Install pressure low
1. Incomplete reaction at non- indicating alarm
Lower 1. Relief valve fails open optimum pressure 2. Update procedures to
2. Loss of product yield handle relief valve fail
open
Pressure
1. Install high pressure
1. Carbonation tower over
1. Relief valve malfunction alarm
pressure
Higher 2. Temperature build up in the 2. Schedule regular
2. Explosion will occur
tower maintenance of relief
3. Production loss
valve
240
Rotary Drum Filter
Table 11.4 HAZOP study for rotary drum filter

UNIT OF OPERATION Rotary Drum Filter (F-1)
FUNCTION OF UNIT To separate a mixture of solid and liquid
1. Blockage in piping and 1. Production loss 1. Install flow alarm or
No valve system 2. Downtime to overall process back-up control valve
2. Filter blockage 3. No mixture to be filtered 2. Install flow indicator
1. Control valve not 1. Filter drum rotating much
1. Install flow alarm or
functioning slower
Flow More back-up control valve
2. Instrument reading is 2. Mixture cannot be filtered
2. Install flow indicator
incorrect 3. Production loss
1. Blockage in piping and 1. Install flow alarm or
1. Production loss
Less valve system back-up control valve
2. Downtime to overall process
2. Filter blockage 2. Install flow indicator
241
Calciner
Table 11.5 HAZOP study for calciner

UNIT OF OPERATION Calciner/ Furnace (R-2)
FUNCTION OF UNIT To heat up sodium bicarbonate and turn it into soda ash with water vapor and carbon dioxide
1. Failure of inlet feed hot 1. Install high temperature
1. Temperature run away
utility indicating alarm
2. Loss of product yield
Higher 2. Pressure build up in the 2. Install pressure indicator
3. Possibility of explosion
furnace 3. Regular maintenance or
hazard
3. Instrument failure checking on
Temperature
3. Leaking of inlet heating
1. Install low temperature
utility 1. Temperature run away
indicating alarm
Lower 4. Control valve failure 2. Loss of product yield
2. Regular maintenance or
5. Instrument failure
checking on
1. Overheating by heating 1. Pressure run away 1. Install high temperature

Pressure Higher
source 2. Fire explosion alarm
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2. Instrument failure 2. Install pressure relief valve
3. Plant shutdown
1. Install pressure indicator
1. Inconsistent inlet 1. Loss of product yield
2. Install low temperature
Lower flowrate 2. Temperature drop
alarm
2. Unit leakage 3. Reversible flow
3. Install control valve
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Separation Drum
Table 11.6 HAZOP study for separation drum

UNIT OF OPERATION Separation Drum (S-1)
FUNCTION OF UNIT To separate out the water-carbon dioxide liquid-gas mixture to top and bottom stream
functioning well 1. Overflow from vessel
More alarm
readings incorrect
Level
valve system 1. Production loss
Less alarm
readings incorrect
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Evaporator
Table 11.7 HAZOP study for evaporator

UNIT OF OPERATION Evaporator (S-2)
FUNCTION OF UNIT To separate water as vapor from a liquid mixture
1. Temperature run away 1. Install high temperature
1. Failure of inlet feed hot
2. Loss of product yield alarm
utility
3. No liquid product will be 2. Install temperature indicator
Higher 2. Pressure build up in the
produced 3. Install pressure indicator
evaporator
4. Possibility of explosion 4. Regular maintenance or
Temperature 3. Instrument failure
hazard checking on
1. Leaking of inlet heating 1. Temperature run away 1. Install low temperature alarm
utility 2. Loss of product yield 2. Install temperature indicator
Lower
2. Control valve failure 3. No vapor product will be 3. Regular maintenance or
3. Instrument failure produced checking on
1. Overheating by heating 1. Pressure run away 1. Install high temperature
Pressure Higher
source 2. Fire explosion alarm
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2. Instrument failure 2. Install pressure indicator
3. Plant shutdown
1. Loss of product yield 1. Install pressure indicator
1. Inconsistent inlet flowrate
Lower 2. Temperature drop 2. Install low temperature alarm
2. Unit leakage
3. Reversible flow 3. Install control valve
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11.5 HAZOP Studies for Auxiliary Equipment
Heat Exchangers
Table 11.8 HAZOP study for representative of heat exchangers

UNIT OF OPERATION Heat Exchanger (E – 4)
IDEAL CONDITIONS Temperature inlet: 200 OC, Temperature outlet: 106.99 OC; Pressure: 1 atm
FUNCTION OF UNIT Exchange the heat energy between stream 15 and stream 32
Shell – To provide area of exchange heat in stream 15
FUNCTIONS OF STUDY NODES
Tube – To provide area of exchange heat in stream 32
1. Heat exchanger is not

1. Install high temperature alarm at
functioning 1. Pressure will increase
the out flow hot fluid stream
Temperature Higher 2. Temperature of the hot 2. Explosion will occur
2. Repair the damage part of heat
fluid is too high 3. Failure of other equipment
exchanger
3. Valve failure
247
1. Control system not
functioning
2. No temperature change at 1. Temperature increases with 1. Install low temperature alarm
Lower the coolant flow stream that condition 2. Schedule regular cleaning of
3. Condensation occurs at 2. Failure of other equipment valves and pipes
the tube of the heat
exchanger
248
Pumps
Table 11.9 HAZOP study for representative of pumps

UNIT OF OPERATION Centrifugal Pump (P-1)
IDEAL CONDITIONS Outlet Temperature: 45 OC; Pressure: 4 atm
FUNCTION OF UNIT To increase the pressure of the fluid before enter the carbonation tower
1. Install flow indicator and negative
1. Pipe clog
Reverse 1. Pump failure flow alarm
2. Possible runaway
2. Install check valve
1. Pump and valve not 1. Install temperature indicator and
1. Temperature and pressure
No functioning high temperature alarm
Flow increase
2. Pipe clog 2. Install flow indicator
1. Temperature and pressure
1. Install pressure low alarm
decrease
Higher 1. Pump failure 2. Install level indicator
2. Increase the level inside the
3. Install check valve
carbonation tower
1. Relief valve fails 1. Insufficient outlet flowrate for
Pressure Lower 1. Install pressure low alarm
open next unit operation
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2. Instruct operators and update
procedures to handle relief valve
fail open
1. Pipe blockage 1. Install high pressure alarm
1. Explosion will occur
Higher 2. Relief valve 2. Schedule regular maintenance of
2. Production loss
malfunction relief valve
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Compressors
Table 11.10 HAZOP study for representative of compressors

UNIT OF OPERATION Reciprocating Compressor (K-1)
IDEAL CONDITIONS Outlet Temperature: 127.10 OC; Pressure: 4 atm
FUNCTION OF UNIT To increase the pressure of the carbon dioxide before enter the carbonation tower
1. Trigger automatic emergency
Higher 1. Compressor control 1. Carbonation reactor will
shut down.
failure operate at very high pressure.
2. Install pressure safety valve
Pressure
1. Carbon dioxide loss
1. Pipeline leakage
Lower 2. Lower the absorption rate in 1. Install low pressure alarm.
2. Valve fully open
carbonation tower
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Relief Valve
Table 11.11 HAZOP study for relief valve

UNIT OF OPERATION Relief Valve
IDEAL CONDITIONS Temperature: 25 OC; Pressure: 4 atm
FUNCTION OF UNIT To maintain the pressure of fluid at 4 atm
Lower 1. Pipe blockage 1. Pressure of fluid increase 1. Install high pressure alarm
1. Schedule regular
Flow 2. Temperature and pressure
Higher 1. Valve failure maintenance of relief valve
decrease
2. Install flow indicator
Lower 1. Leakage of the pipe 1. Fluid release to environment 1. Install pressure low alarm
Pressure 1. Relief valve
Higher 1. Reverse flow of fluid occur 1. Install high pressure alarm
malfunction
252
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11.6 Plant Start-up and Shut Down Procedure
The most difficult and critical time in the operation is during start-up and
shutdown. A small mistake during the procedure could have led to severe destruction
to the equipment or the whole plant. Therefore, commissioning program is necessary
before a new plant start its operation. Start-up procedure should be planned properly
to avoid any possible hazard. The same consideration should be given during plant
shutdown. Failures in identify and eliminate the hazards associated with the shutdown
and start-up of operation units have resulted in serious injury and death to personnel
and costly property damage. Industrialist has devoted much time and effort to improve
the design unit operating procedures to eliminate the hazard. Normally, start-up and
shut down of plant must proceed safely and easily, yet flexible enough to be carried
out in several ways. The operating limits of the plant must not be exceeded and
dangerous mixtures must not be performed. Where necessary introduce additional
equipment, sampling points, instrumentation and lines identify the use on the
engineering line diagram. There are several important things that we must take into
consideration during the start-up and shut down of the plant.
General Plant Start-up
Start-up of a new plant is the most dangerous periods and its will presents the
most challenge situation to the chemical engineer. It exposes their all basic education
and experience. Without any experience, it is quite difficult to handle it. Plant start-
ups are very difficult with seemingly impossible tasks, as well as frustrating problems
and failures. Problems may result from equipment failures, inadequate equipment and
process failures. Equipment failures, which include leaking, broken shafts and
impellers, short-circuits and plugged on line. Inadequate equipment which includes
towers that flood at design capacity, drivers that are overloaded at rated capacity of the
compressor, excessive pressure drop in exchangers and corrosion of equipment that
not suitable according to specifications. Process failures generally include those that
result from that incorrect use or interpretation of data from the laboratory and pilot
plant.
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Problems must be avoided strictly when start-up a new plant. There are several
guidelines on how the chemical engineer can start-up their new plant:
i. Organize - The various groups, crafts and technical personnel who will
participate in the commissioning.
ii. Prepare the detailed plans schedules and budgets.
iii. Train the personnel.
iv. Perform - The pressure tests, the dry runs, the hot tests, the dynamic safe-fluid
tests, the dynamic solvent tests, and the process-fluid tests.
v. Operate the plant to make product.
vi. Trouble shoots and makes performance analysis.
vii. Maintain the plant and make modifications.
The plant start-up consists of three phases:
i. Pre-commissioning.
ii. Initial start-up
iii. Performance runs.
Pre-commissioning
This phase is very important. This is an excellent time to further train

personnel and to develop operational skills. The plant crew can get exposure to real
situations. Pre-commissioning should be started as soon as a section of the plant is
mechanically complete and checked thoroughly. All equipment should be inspected
and the manufacturer’s representative should service the vendor package system. Pay
special attention to critical equipment such as analyser, alarms, safety devices, etc.
Delays due to equipment malfunction can happen at any time.
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i. Operating philosophy
Many times, the plant is shut down due to leakages in the process areas. During
pre-commissioning, the foundation for operation philosophy is established and once
set, it is difficult to change. As a precaution, care must be exercised to avoid shortcuts
that could harm the safety of the plant or the workers. Safe plant operation and good
housekeeping practices should be emphasized throughout.
ii. Simulation
The simulation process is an important element of the pre-commissioning

phases. Simulation can be done with safe fluids, such as water, air or inert gas. Using
nitrogen and steam simulated the pressure and temperature conditions. Equipment
should prepare by operating staff. It is best that operators do the work with close
supervision. Mistakes in the pre-commissioning phases, using safe fluids can provide
experience. The simulation develops operating sense and stamina. Plant operators gain
momentum in following the operating sequence, which increase productivity.
iii. Laboratory test program
The analytical laboratory is often an area that escapes attention until it is too
late. Routine analysis should be started with known product and chemical samples
before pre-commissioning. Lab technicians require a lot of practice. Lab tests
procedures, reports, record keeping, etc, should be reviewed and finalized now.
Several key points must be done at pre-commissioning.
Initial Start-up
Start-up should begin as soon as pre-commissioning of the plant has been

satisfactorily completed. For low starting with low feed rate or small batch size, the
units should be brought up to the normal operating rate to check out the limitation and
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to identify problems areas. During initial period, there are natural tendencies for
supervisors to become overly with operations. This is important to control in order to
provide exposure to plant operators.
Performance Runs
Process modifications must be done during the start-up phase and shutdown
may be necessary to handle certain jobs. Eventually, the plant will be ready for a
performance test. Usually, all the following are completed prior to the performance
run.
i. Review the contractual warranties of raw materials, consumption, product

specification, measurement tolerance and procedures. Complete all process
modification and mechanical repairs.
ii. Prepare all tables, charts, log sheets and other important things that establish
the basis for production and yield calculations.
iii. Establish a schedule.
iv. Establish proper operating conditions.
Plant Start-up Procedures
Before start-up the plant, the following items must be completed in the
processing unit after a turnaround. Below are the prestart-up procedures that should be
followed:
1. Before the manways covers are installed on the towers or vessel, a final
inspection should be made of the interiors of each tower and vessels for
cleanliness and conformance to the design specification.
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2. Check all the items in the “Turnaround Worklist” whether they have been
completed and all the equipment and the associated lines has correctly
reassembled.
3. If any heat exchangers were opened during the turnaround for inspection,
cleaning and mechanical work, they must be hydrostatically tested after they
have beeb assembled.
4. Check all the instruments control loops that the alarm circuits are functioning
correctly.
5. Check all the level gauge glasses for cleanliness
6. Make sure that all the control valves operable.
7. Check all the orifice plates have been installed properly.
8. Check the pumps for operability
9. Check all the utilities, power, steam and cooling water. Check all the steam
traps are functioning.
10. Make sure that all the safety valves are tested, installed and the block valves
are sealed in their respective operating position.
11. Check all onsite fire protection equipment such as extinguishers, water hoses,
nozzles and steam hoses are in place and ready for immediate use.
12. Check all the drains are unplugged and all the water drained from equipment.
13. Make sure all the flanges and manheads have good gasket and are made up
tight.
14. The safety valve header, the blowdown line and the flare system are
successfully commissioned.
15. All the blinds are required for tightness testing and air freeing equipments are
available, removed or installed.
16. Make all the steam tracing is operable.
17. The supply of chemicals are adequate and at hand.
18. Air freeing and tightness testing.
19. Gas blanketing.
20. Catalyst should be activated and sufficiently warm for reaction to commence
when flow of reactants is started.
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General Plant Shut-Down
There are three types of plant shutdown, the normal shutdown for turnaround,
emergency shutdown, trip by the interlock system due to the danger imposed by the
failure of the plant and resulting an automatic shutdown.
Plant Shut Down Procedure
In the following procedure, it is assumed that the plant is to be shut-down for

a general periodic inspection-turnaround. When shutting down the processing units,
sufficient notice should be available so that the necessary preparation can be made
preliminary plans can be finalized to shut-down the units safety and with the minimum
loss of products. Preparation for the shut-down include the following checks to the
advanced planning:
1. Cooling and depressurizing units – this is to reduce the heat supply and cut off.
Releasing hydrocarbon gases to a gas collecting system should relieve excess
pressure. If the cooling tends to produce vacuum in units, an inert gas should
be reduced to maintain the pressure close to atmospheric pressure.
2. The “Turnaround Worklist” is to be prepared to include all items for repair,
cleaning, inspection and modification.
3. The detailed plan has the shut-down and turnaround for the day to day and
probably hour by hour schedule of the sequence of the events are to be prepared.
This called the Critical Path Monitoring Chart.
4. Each material should be pumped out to prescribed place. This is following by
the cooling of the units.
5. Removal of residuue hydrocarbon, water and inert gases.
6. Before shutting down the unit, check the following:
 The fire fighting equipment are to correctly located the personnel
protective equipment are to available for immediate use.
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 All special precaution that are specific for the shut-down have been taken
care, for examples hoses laid to any critical points and ready for immediate
use.
7. Shut down blinds should be installed in various lines that leave and enter units
to prevent unwanted materials from entering yhe units while it is down.
8. All items that are required during the shut-down of the unit are available. These
items include blinds, hoses for steaming out circuits and equipment, hoses for
draining circuits equipments of liquids, connections for connecting those hoses.
9. Advanced preparation work are to be carried out prior to the shut-down of the
unit, to avoid any delay in mechanical work during the actual shut-down, e.g.
the erection of scaffolding, stringing of steam or fire hoses, placing of
equipment to be used by the Maintenance Section.
Plant Emergency Shut-Down
Normally, the emergency conditions on an operating unit are usually caused

by the following factors:
i. Loss of utilities such as electrical power, instrument air, steam or cooling water.
ii. Mechanical failure of equipment, which prevents normal operation or result in
a serious fire or leak.
In some instances, it will be possible to continue operation during a localized

emergency by blocking any bypassing the malfunctioning equipment while repairs are
made. Under other circumstances, however it will be necessary to shut down the unit
as rapidly as possible without damaging the equipment or creating additional hazards.
The following steps should be taken during the event of an emergency:
1. Determine the extent of the emergency condition.

2. Decide on how to cope with emergency:
260
3. Handle the emergency as a localized condition without shutting down the entire
unit.
4. Shut-down the unit using the emergency procedure.
Automatic Shut-Down
An unplanned shutdown initiated by a power outage, compressor trip or

shutdown caused by the automatic shutdown system employed in the process. There
are two types of automatic shutdown systems:
i. Individual devices such as high-pressure difference switch on reactor to detect

flow distributor clogging, condenser’s refrigeration units and distillation
column high heat in reboiler.
ii. General devices such as high pressure switch on main cooling water heaters.
Individual Equipment
Dissolver
a) General start up procedure:
1. Check outlet valve to ensure it is closed.

2. On the control panel, locate the Agitator “start” button and press “start”. This
will begin the agitator in the slurry tank at desired rotation rate.
3. Next, feed in the water to fill the vessel to the operational level which is 33%
submergence.
4. Then, the solute (NaCl) can be fed into the dissolver, controlled by ratio
control to get the optimum flowrate of feed once operation starts.
261
5. Lastly, the recycling inlet valve and outlet valve can be opened after a
maximum design height in the vessel is achieved by the brine mixture.
b) General shut down procedure:
1. Make sure all supply lines of feed is blocked or closed, as well as outlet
pipeline.
2. Switch off the agitator to stop the mixing.
3. Then, monitor and remove the vessel remaining emergency outlet, leaving the
empty vessel.
4. The cleaning of vessel may take place periodically.
1. Make sure all control systems and automation mode are available.
2. Open the valve for brine inlet line from top feeding point.
3. Open the fully feed-gas cylinder (NH3). Set the regulator pressure to the desired
setting not exceeding 4 atm.
4. Adjust the rotameters to allow the desired flow of the feed gas into the column.
5. Open the brine inlet valve and adjust the rotameters to obtain the desired flow
into the column. Ensure that no top feed is allowed when the gas feed flowrate
is zero, as the brine may enter to the gas feed line damaging its source.
6. Switch on the differential pressure gauge to measure the pressure drop across
the column. The concentration of feed gas in outlet bottom stream is
continuously monitored.
7. During the operation, ensure that the liquid level is kept at the bottom of the
column to prevent unreacted gas escape, and flooding over packing materials.
8. Lastly, monitor the changes on control panel and responsive according to the
process requirement.
262
1. Firstly, turn off the solvent flow into the column by closing brine inlet valve
completely.
2. Close completely the feed gas cylinder valve.
3. Wait for the feed gas and liquid feed into the column to go to zero on the
rotameter scales, then turn off rotameters.
4. Switch off the pressure gauge.
5. Unplug the power requirement for the column to operate.
6. Lastly, cleaning of tower or packing materials are allowed to be done.
Carbonation Reactor
Since the carbonation reactor involves absorption reaction via tray tower, it
functions almost similar to the ammonia absorption tower.
2. Open the valve for brine inlet line from top feeding point.
3. Open the fully feed-gas cylinder (CO2). Set the regulator pressure to the
desired setting not exceeding 4 atm.
4. Adjust the rotameters to allow the desired flow of the feed gas into the column.
5. Open the ammoniacal brine inlet valve and adjust the rotameters to obtain the
desired flow into the column. Ensure that no top feed is allowed when the gas
feed flowrate is zero, as the brine may enter to the gas feed line damaging its
source.
6. Switch on the differential pressure gauge to measure the pressure drop across
the column. The concentration of feed gas in outlet bottom stream is
continuously monitored.
7. During the operation, ensure that the liquid level is kept at the bottom of the
column to prevent unreacted gas escape, and flooding over trays.
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8. Lastly, monitor the changes on control panel and responsive according to the
process requirement.
1. Firstly, turn off the solvent flow into the column by closing brine inlet valve
completely.
2. Close completely the feed gas cylinder valve.
3. Wait for the feed gas and liquid feed into the column to go to zero on the
rotameter scales, then turn off rotameters.
4. Switch off the pressure gauge.
5. Unplug the power requirement for the column to operate.
6. Lastly, cleaning of tower or changing of trays are allowed to be done.
Rotary Drum Filter
1. Firstly, on the control panel, locate the Agitator “start” button and press
“start”. This will begin the agitator in the slurry tank.
2. Next is to fill the slurry tank to the operational level which is 33%
submergence.
3. After that, the vacuum seal water is turned on. In the control panel, locate the
Vacuum Pump “start” button and press the “start”. This will begin the vacuum
filtration.
4. Then, on the control panel, locate Filtrate Pump “start” button and press it.
5. After that, open the lower parts of filter valves which is the cake-forming part.
6. On the control panel, locate the Filter Drum “start” button and press it.
Starting the rotary drum filter need to be under the direction of the pilot plant
manager. It is compulsory to begin the drum rotation at the lowest possible
rpm setting.
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7. Next is to open the upper parts of the filter valves which is cake-dewatering
parts.
8. Lastly, adjust the drum rotation speed for desired production conditions.
1. Firstly, close the lower (cake forming) parts of the filter valves.
2. Then, run the remaining cake off the drum filter. On the control panel, locate
the Vacuum Pump “stop” button and press it.
3. After that, locate the Filtrate Pump “stop” button and press it.
4. After the slurry is drained, wash the filter cloth with a hose. Reduce the drum
rotation to the lowest possible rpm.
5. On the control panel, locate the Filter Drum “stop” button and press it.
6. Lastly, locate the Agitator “stop” button on the control panel and press it to
shut down everything.
Calciner
The start-up and shut down of the furnace need to be controlled carefully. It
must follow the standard operating procedures. The procedures are developed in detail
before the commissioning of the furnace. There is a maximum of two planned
shutdowns per year and can be up to 5 in total.
1. The computerised control system for the line will be started up, which will
mean that measurements and interlock system will be in operation.
2. After that, utilities for the plant such as water, electricity, instrument air, the
firewater system and safety system will then be started up.
265
3. Monitoring of some of these utilities will be carried out, as certain conditions

such as firewater availability must be satisfied before the start-up procedure
can commence.
4. On the other hand, peripheral equipment such as the equipment to supply
chemicals to the plant, to receive the process steam from the plant and the stack
emissions monitoring equipment will then be started up.
5. After verification of process parameters such as liquid levels, pressures and
system cycle, the flue gas cleaning systems will be started up.
6. The ID-fan will commence running and pre-ventilation of the line for a pre-set
time will occur.
7. The oil-fired burners, to initiate the combustion in the furnace, will be started
up and the flue gas temperature will be raised at 200oC at a gradient of 50oC.
8. Once the temperature in the furnace has stabilised, the supply of biomass will
then commence and oil firing will be stopped when the process is steady.
1. Firstly, the waste supply to the furnace will be shut off.

2. To ensure complete combustion of the waste remaining in the furnace, the oil
burners will be re-started to ensure that a temperature of 200oC, as appropriate,
will be maintained for a period of up 1 hour or until all the waste is incinerated.
3. The ID fan of the flue gas cleaning system will remain operating to ensure that
the flue gas will be treated to the emission limits during the operation.
4. The furnace will then be allowed to cool down to a temperature of 100oC at a
gradient of 50oC per hour which will be controlled by supplementary firing.
5. The furnace line will have stopped incinerating waste for several hours, there
will be no wasting remaining in the furnace and consequently there will be no
flue gases to be cleaned.
6. Once the temperature at the stack is sufficiently low at approximately 60 oC,
the flue gas cleaning system will be stopped. Some utilities such as electrical
supply will continue operating as they will be required even when the plant is
shut down.
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Separation Drum
2. Open the inlet valve and close the outlet valves on top and bottom of the
vessel.
3. Wait till 30% fill of liquid-gas mixture in the vessel. Ensure that no sudden
increase in temperature and pressure occurs.
4. Once the pressure in vessel shows an increase, may open the top outlet valve
leaving the gas to flow out to next process. Bottom stream outlet valve can be
opened too to release the liquid product to wastewater treatment (incomplete
separation).
5. The conditions and control system on the drum is continuously monitored.
1. Firstly, turn off the solvent flow into the vessel by closing brine inlet valve
completely.
2. Close completely the outlet valves after a while relieving the pressure in the
vessel.
3. The remaining liquid portion in the vessel may be drained out and kept at a
safe place.
4. The cleaning or maintenance work on separation drum can now be done.
Evaporator
1. First and foremost, stick water tank needs to be at least half full of product.
Then vacuum pump will be started.
267
2. After that, cooling tower fan and cooling water pump are started as well as
feed pump.
3. As level is established in the boot of each calandria, start the relevant
circulation and transfer pumps.
4. When level is established in the second effect, start the extraction pump and
allow flow through the extraction pump to return to the feed tank using valve.
5. Next, wait while the vacuum in the condenser climbs to around 80%. During
this time, the levels in the separators should stabilize at operating level and
the liquor should be circulating through each effect.
6. Check the cooling water at the condenser is satisfactory.
7. Then, introduce heat to the first effect by taking temperature set point out of
manual and putting into automatic. The absolute pressure in the first effect
boot should rise to around 85 kPa absolute. This will only be achieved
gradually as the liquor in the effects heats up to evaporation temperature.
8. After that, monitor the concentrate taking samples from the flow ex the
extraction pump and as the concentrate approaches 30% TS then adjust the
concentrate flow control set point and continue monitoring until the
concentrate stabilizes at 30% TS.
9. Then, monitor the vacuum in each effect and adjust the set point to increase
or decrease evaporation. The temperature set point will correlate with vacuum
in the first effect. It is not recommended to increase the temperature set point
to where the vacuum in the first effect is less than 5%. The extraction flow
rate controls the concentration of the extract. This will need to be monitored,
particularly after the temperature set point has been adjusted.
10. Adjust the vent valves, if required. These valves vent the incondensable gases
to the surface condenser and vacuum pump. There is also a loss of steam
through these valves. Air is heavier than steam, so the main adjustment is the
lower vent of each calandria. Adjust the vent valves by cracking open the top
valves.
11. The vacuum should be maintained at least at 88% (12kPa absolute) in the
surface condenser. If the vacuum falls below, It is needed to check the
operation of the vacuum pump, seal water in the tank as well as the cooling
water temperatures. The design assumes water to the condenser is a maximum
of 30°C. The temperature rise should not be more than 15°C.
268
12. Lastly, monitor the level in the feed tank and adjust the temperature set point
to match the liquor production rate. If the level gets too low and the evaporator
is in danger of running out of feed, then hot water should be added to the feed
tank.
1. As the liquor runs out in the feed tank, make up with hot water, adding water
to the feed.
2. Monitor the concentrate TS and as the solids reduce, reduce the temperature
set point and divert the liquor to the drain.
3. The evaporator will then be operating on water at reduced evaporation rate.
4. As the liquor clears then divert the extract back to the feed tank.
5. Break the vacuum at the vacuum break valve adjusting, the vacuum to about
75% which is 250kPa absolute and equivalent to 65C in the surface
condenser.
6. Reduce the temperature set point as necessary to maintain a small amount of
evaporation.
7. After that, add cleaning chemicals to the CIP Tank and introduce to the first
effect using Valve 2 in conjunction with the feed pump. Circulate for the
prescribed time.
8. Divert the chemicals to drain and rinse through with hot water. Repeat the
procedure with different chemicals as appropriate.
9. After the final rinse through, shut off the steam and the waste heat.
10. Turn off the vacuum pump, cooling tower fan and cooling tower pump.
11. Then, turn off circulation pumps, extraction pump, feed pump and condensate
pump.
12. When no vacuum, drain the vessels, if required at the pump inlets.
13. The concentrate tank is cleaned by adding cleaning chemicals to the CIP Tank
and transfer to the concentrate tank directly by closing Valve 1 and opening
Valve 3 in conjunction with running feed pump.
14. The CIP is returned from the concentrate tank by utilising the CIP Return
pump. Circulate for the prescribed time.
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15. Repeat the procedure with different chemicals as appropriate. To clean the
stickwater feed tank, add cleaning chemicals to the CIP Tank and transfer to
the stickwater tank directly opening V701-03 in conjunction with the feed
pump (P707).
16. Once the CIP chemicals have been transferred, select valve V701- 06 to
recirculate the flow within the stickwater feed tank. Circulate for the
prescribed time.
17. Repeat the procedure with different chemicals as appropriate.
Heat Exchangers
a) Start-up and shut down procedure for heat exchanger
Most problems with heat exchanger occur in plant during initial installation
or shortly thereafter. On initial start-up and shut down, heat exchanger can be subjected
to damaging thermal shock, over pressure or hydraulic hammer. This can lead to leaky
tube-to-tube sheet joints, damaged expansion packing glands because of excessive
axial thermal expansion of tubes or shell. Table 11.12lists the start-up and shut down
procedures of heat exchangers.
b) General comments
i. In all start-up and shut down operations, fluid flows should be regulated to
avoid thermal shocking the unit regardless of whether the unit is of either
a removable or non-removable type construction.
ii. For fixed tube sheet (non-removable bundle) type units where the tube side
fluid cannot be shut down, it is recommended that:
- A bypass arrangement be incorporated in the system
- The tube side fluid is bypassed before the shell side fluid is shut down.
Table 11.12 Start-up and shut down of general heat exchangers
Fluid Location & Relative Temperature
Type of Construction Shell Side Tube Side Start-Up Shut Down
Fluid Type Real Temp. Fluid Type Real Temp.
Start both fluids Shut down both fluids
Liquid Cold Liquid Hot
gradually at same time gradually at same time
Start both fluids Shut down both fluids
Liquid Hot Liquid Cold
gradually at same time gradually at same time
Fixed Tube sheet
Start cold fluid first and Shut off hot fluid first, then
(Non-Removable Liquid Cold Gas Hot
then hot fluid gradually. cold fluid.
Bundle)
Condensing Liquid or Start cold fluid first and Shut off cold fluid first,
Hot Cold
gas (steam) gas then hot fluid gradually. then hot fluid
Start cold fluid first and Shut off cold fluid
Gas Hot Liquid Cold
then hot fluid gradually. gradually, then hot fluid
Start cold fluid first and Shut off hot fluid gradually,
U-Tube Liquid Hot Liquid Cold
then hot fluid gradually then cold fluid
Packed Floating Head
Internal Floating Head Liquid Cold Liquid Hot
then hot fluid gradually cold fluid
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(All these types have Start cold fluid first and Shut off hot fluid first, then
Liquid Cold Gas Hot
removable bundles) then hot fluid gradually cold fluid
Shut off cold fluid first,
Condensing Liquid or Start cold fluid first and
Hot Cold then shut down hot fluid
Gas (Steam) Gas then hot fluid gradually
gradually
Gas Hot Liquid Cold
then hot fluid gradually cold fluid
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Pumps
1. Close the discharge valve and open the suction valve. Except for axial flow
pumps, the almost closed discharge valve creates a minimum load on the
driver when the pump is started. Assuming that the motor inrush current
allows and that the motor will not kick off, the discharge valve may be just
"cracked" --about 1/8 open -- before the pump is started.
2. Be sure the pump is primed. Opening all valves between the product source
and the pump suction should get product to the suction, but does not always
ensure that the pump is primed. Only after ascertaining that fluid emissions
are not hazardous or are routed to a safe area, open the bleeder valve from the
pump casing until all vapors is exhausted and a steady stream of product flows
from the bleeder. It may be necessary to open the bleeder again when the
pump is started, or even to shut down and again bleed off vapor if pump
discharge pressure is erratic.
3. If a minimum flow bypass line is provided, open the bypass. Be sure the
minimum flow bypass is also open on spare pump if it starts automatically.
4. Never operate a centrifugal pump without liquid in it.
5. Check lube oil and seal pot level (assumes dual seals).
6. Start the pump. Confirm that the pump is operating by observing the
discharge pressure gauge. If the discharge pressure does not build up, stop the
pump immediately and determine the cause.
7. Open the discharge valve slowly, watching the pressure gauge. The discharge
pressure will probably drop somewhat, level off and remain steady. If it does
not drop at all, there is probably a valve closed somewhere in the discharge
line. In that case, close the discharge valve. Do not continue operation for
any length of time with discharge valve or line blocked.
8. If the discharge pressure drops to zero or fluctuates widely, the pump is not
primed. Close the discharge valve and again open the bleeder from the casing
to exhaust vapor. If the pump does not pick up at once, as shown by a steady
stream of product from the bleeder and steady discharge pressure, shut down
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the pump and driver and check for closed valves in the suction line. A dry
pump will rapidly destroy itself.
9. Carefully check the pump for abnormal noise, vibration (using vibration
meter) or other unusual operating conditions. An electrician and machinery
engineer should be present when pumps are started up for the very first time,
i.e. upon being initially commissioned.
10. Be careful not to allow the bearings to overheat. Recheck all lube oil levels.
11. Observe whether the pump seal or stuffing box is leaking.
12. Check the pump nozzle connections and piping for leaks.
13. When steady pumping has been established, close the startup bypass and
chill-down line (if provided) and check that block valves in minimum flow
bypass line are open.
b) General shut down procedures:
1. Close the discharge valve. This takes the load off the motor and may prevent
reverse flow through the pump.
2. Shut down the electrical driver.
3. If pump is to be removed for mechanical work, close the suction valve and
open vent lines to flare or drain as provided. Otherwise, leave suction valve
open to keep pump at correct operating temperature.
4. Shut off steam tracing, if any. Continue oil mist lubrication, if provided.
5. Shut off cooling water and sealing oil if pump is to be removed for mechanical
work.
6. At times, an emergency shutdown may be necessary. If you cannot reach the
regular starter station (in case of fire, for example), stop the pump from the
starter box, which is located some distance away, and is usually accessible.
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Compressors
1. Make sure all lubricating, cooling systems, valves and all control
instruments are working.
2. The importance of clean suction lines from knockout drums to compressor
suctions cannot be overemphasized. Operators must be sure these lines have
been thoroughly cleaned before using compressors to take suction from
knockout drums.
3. Never start compressors with shutdown devices inoperative. Vendor
representatives may install bypass wiring on trips to check machinery;
however, operators should not do this.
4. Ensure the compressors are free of installation dirt, liquid that may damage
the compressors.
5. Performing first inspection no more than 48 hours of operation.
1. Close the service valves and run the compressor for approximately 5 minutes
to allow the compressor to cool down.
2. Press the engine switch to the off position after five minutes.
CHAPTER 12
MECHANICAL DESIGN
12.1 Introduction
Mechanical design is calculation deals with the construction of a whole unit, in

order to permit drawing as to allow fabrication and upgrade to proceed. It is
compulsory to design and evaluate the design thoroughly to ensure that all the
calculations do not produce unduly difficult and explosive problem later. This chapter
mostly will cover the mechanical drawings for the major equipment, which are the
absorption column and heat exchanger. The data needed for the equipment design
particularly the pressure vessel are, dish end type and vessel support. Vessel design is
a specialized subject, thus detailed design will be carried out by mechanical engineers
who are conversant with the current design codes and practices, and methods of stress
analysis. For software aid, the equipment is designed using PV Elite software to get
accurate basic data for mechanical design. The basic data needed by the mechanical
design are:
i. Vessel function;
ii. Process material and services;
iii. Operating and design temperature and pressure;
iv. Materials of construction;
v. Vessel dimensions and orientation;
vi. Type of vessel heads to be used;
vii. Openings and connections required;
viii. Specification on heating and cooling jackets or coils
276
ix. Vessel shell and head thickness;

x. Vessel platform and support system;
xi. Nozzles’ dimensions, and others.
12.2 Mechanical Design of Separation Drum, S-1
Figure 12.1 Complete design of separation drum (front view)

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33.03 ft.
11.01 ft.
Figure 12.2 Sketch mode design of separation drum with dimensions
278
Figure 12.3 The vertical vessel without platform or base supports
Figure 12.4 Base support system for designed vessel with bottom nozzle
Figure 12.5 Elliptical type headed vessel, with feed and top nozzles
279
12.3 Vessel Design Data Summary
Table 12.1 Separation drum mechanical design data summary

Diameter Specification 11.02 ft. ID
Vessel Design Length, Tangent to Tangent 33.39 ft.
Specified Datum Line Distance 0.00 ft.
Shell Material SA-516 70
Nozzle Material SA-106 B
Internal Design Temperature 40 ℃
Internal Design Pressure 21.76 psig
External Design Temperature 40 ℃
External Design Pressure 21.76 psig
Maximum Allowable Working Pressure 19.532 psig
External Max. Allowable Working Pressure 21.76 psig
Hydrostatic Test Pressure 0.00 psig
Minimum Design Metal Temperature -29 ℃
Warmest Computed Minimum Design Metal 23 ℃
Temperature
Warning: Computed overall MDMT was higher than
the required value !
Wind Design Code ASCE-93
Earthquake Design Code UBC-94
In Accordance with ASME Section VIII Division 1

ASME Code Version: 2015
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12.4 PV Elite Vessel Analysis Program: Input Data
Table 12.2 Input data summary for vessel analysis

Design Internal Pressure (for Hydrotest) 21.76 psig
Design Internal Temperature 40 ℃
Type of Hydrotest User entered
Hydrotest Position Horizontal
Projection of Nozzle from Vessel Top 0.00 ft.
Projection of Nozzle from Vessel Bottom 0.00 ft.
Minimum Design Metal Temperature -29 ℃
Type of Construction Welded
Special Service None
Degree of Radiography RT 1
Use Higher Longitudinal Stresses (Flag) Y
Select t for Internal Pressure (Flag) Y
Select t for External Pressure (Flag) Y
Select t for Axial Stress (Flag) N
Select Location for Stiff. Rings (Flag) N
Consider Vortex Shedding N
Perform a Corroded Hydrotest N
Is this a Heat Exchanger? No
Wind Design Code ASCE-7 93
Basic Wind Speed [V] 70.00 mile/hr
Surface Roughness Category C: Open Terrain
Importance Factor 1.0
Type of Surface Moderately Smooth
Base Elevation 0.00 ft
Percent Wind for Hydrotest 33.0
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PV Elite Complete Design of Every Component
Table 12.3 Input data for vessel elliptical heads

Element Type Elliptical
Distance "FROM" to "TO" 0.1667 ft
Inside Diameter 11.020 ft
Element Thickness 2.6250 in
Internal Corrosion Allowance 0.1250 in
Nominal Thickness 0.0000 in
External Corrosion Allowance 0.0000 in
Design Internal Pressure 1.5000 bar
Design Temperature Internal Pressure 40 °C
Design External Pressure 1.0325 bar
Design Temperature External Pressure 40 °C
Effective Diameter Multiplier 1.2
Material Name SA-516 70
Allowable Stress, Ambient 20000. psi
Allowable Stress, Operating 20000. psi
Allowable Stress, Hydrotest 26000. psi
Material Density 0.2800 lb/in³
P Number Thickness 1.2500 in
Yield Stress, Operating 37816. psi
Table 12.4 Input data for vessel cylinder

Element Type Cylinder
Distance "FROM" to "TO" 33.060 ft
Inside Diameter 11.020 ft
Element Thickness 2.7500 in
Internal Corrosion Allowance 0.1250 in
Nominal Thickness 0.0000 in
External Corrosion Allowance 0.0000 in
Design Internal Pressure 1.5000 bar
Design Temperature Internal Pressure 40 °C
282
Design External Pressure 21.760 bar

Design Temperature External Pressure 40 °C
Effective Diameter Multiplier 1.2
Material Name SA-516 70
Efficiency, Longitudinal Seam 1.0
Efficiency, Circumferential Seam 1.0
Table 12.5 Input data for vessel platforms

Detail Type Platform
Detail ID PLAT: [1 OF 1]
Dist. from "FROM" Node / Offset dist 23.000 ft
Platform Start Angle (degrees) 0.0
Platform End Angle (degrees) 270.0
Platform Wind Area 0.0000 ft²
Platform Weight 0.0000 lbf
Platform Railing Weight 0.0000 lbf/ft
Platform Grating Weight 0.0000 lb/ft²
Platform Width 60.000 in
Platform Height 48.000 in
Platform Clearance or End Offset 1.2000 in
Platform Force Coefficient 0.0
Ladder Layout Angle 0.0
Ladder Start Elevation 0.0000 ft
Ladder End Elevation 12.000 ft
Unit Weight of Ladder 0.0000 lbf/ft
Platform Length (top head platform) 0.0000 in
Detail ID PLAT: [2 OF 2]
Dist. from "FROM" Node / Offset distance 10.000 ft
Platform Start Angle (degrees) 200.0
Platform End Angle (degrees) 90.0
Platform Wind Area 0.0000 ft²
Platform Weight 0.0000 lbf
283
Platform Railing Weight 0.0000 lbf/ft

Platform Grating Weight 0.0000 lb/ft²
Platform Width 60.000 in
Platform Height 48.000 in
Platform Clearance or End Offset 1.2000 in
Platform Force Coefficient 0.0
Ladder Layout Angle 200.0
Ladder Start Elevation 0.0000 ft
Ladder End Elevation 14.000 ft
Unit Weight of Ladder 0.0000 lbf/ft
Platform Length (top head platform) 0.0000 in
Table 12.6 Input data for nozzles

Detail Type Nozzle
Detail ID CO2-H2O Inlet
Nozzle Diameter 3.0 in
Nozzle Schedule STD
Nozzle Class 150
Layout Angle 180.0
Blind Flange (Y/N) N
Weight of Nozzle (Used if > 0) 0.0000 lbf
Grade of Attached Flange GR 1.1
Detail ID CO2 Gas Outlet

Nozzle Diameter 6.0 in.
Nozzle Schedule 40
Nozzle Class 150
Layout Angle 0.0
284

Detail ID H2O Liq Outlet

Nozzle Diameter 6.0 in.
Nozzle Schedule 40
Nozzle Class 150
Layout Angle 0.0
Table 12.7 Input data for support system (legs)

Detail Type Leg
Detail ID LEGS
Dist. from "FROM" Node / Offset dist 1.0000 ft
Diameter at Leg Centerline 12.000 ft
Leg Orientation 1
Number of Legs 4
Section Identifier W8X24
Length of Legs 6.0000 ft
219
CHAPTER 13
ECONOMIC ANALYSIS
13.1 Introduction
Economic performance of projects is needed to be executed as the main purpose

of investing money in chemical plant is to gain profit. The economic potential (EP)
that we calculated in Chapter 1 is just give the rough estimation of each of the
processes. However, due to the economic behavior of depreciation, time value of
money, plant lifetime, and international and local trade regulation and so on. The EP
value is not clearly defining the economic analysis must be done, by estimation fixed
capital investment, total capital investment, total production cost and revenue sales.
Throughout the chapter, the equipment cost is calculated in sizing and costing
chapter with the CE index in preliminary 2016, which are 541.7. Finally, profitability
analysis is carried out, by analyzing the discounted cash flow analysis. Through this
study, the most concern factor i.e. payback period (PBP), the discounted break-even
period and net present value (NPV) is determined.
13.2 Grass-root Capital
In Chapter 9, the equipment costing has been carried out known as “bare module
cost”. This is for determine the grass-root capital for soda ash plant. Grass-root capital
220
cost make-up the major portion of total fixed capital cost. Basically, GRC is the cost
of equipment installed in the plant. To calculate the GRC, contingency and fees (5%
and 3% of total bare module cost respectively), Auxiliary facilities (30% of total bare
module cost) is added to the initial bare module cost. The bare module cost for all the
equipment of the soda ash plant is depicted in Table 13.1.
Table 13.1 Grass-Root Capital (GRC) summary

EQUIPMENT COST
Dissolver D-1 RM 953115.03
Ammonia
V-1 RM 1453133.25
Absorption Tower
Carbonation
R-1 RM 2440549.44
Reactor
Rotary Drum
F-1 RM 1172876.47
Filter
Calciner
(Pyrolysis R-2 RM 4827844.10
Furnace)
Separation Drum S-1 RM 1400819.85
Production Evaporator S-2 RM 4764599.40
Plant H-1 RM 794007.31
H-2 RM 113536.99
H-3 RM 829509.99
H-4 RM 115054.40
H-5 RM 739261.68
Heat Exchanger H-6 RM 171182.87
H-7 RM 3589556.19
H-8 RM 714192.87
H-9 RM 1429343.52
H-10 RM 534109.69
H-11 RM 905643.40
Pump P-1 RM 163657.49
221
P-2 RM 115464.86
K-1 RM 1786398.08
Compressor
K-2 RM 1788193.70
Waste Treatment
RM 10179874.91
Plant
Total Bare Module Cost (CTBM) RM 40,981,925.49
Contingency Cc = 0.05CTBM RM 2049096.27
Fees Cf = 0.03CTBM RM 1229457.76
Total Module Cost Cc + Cf + CTBM RM 44260479.53
Site Development CSD = 0.05CTBM RM 2049096.27
Auxiliary Building CAB = 0.04CTBM RM 1639277.02
Offsite Facilities COS = 0.21CTBM RM 8606204.35
Auxiliary Facilities 0.30CTBM RM 12294577.65
GRC = CBM +
Grass-Root Capital (GRC) RM 56,555,057.18
Auxiliary cost
13.3 Fixed and Total Capital Investment Cost
Fixed capital investment (FCI) represents the capital that is needed to start up
the operation and for the installing process equipment necessary with all auxiliaries
that are needed for complete process operation. It includes direct costs, and indirect
costs. For total capital investment (TCI),
Total Capital Investment = Fixed Capital Investment + Working capital + Start Up

Cost
Working capital refer to what must be invested to get the plant into productive
operation; that is, money invested before there is a product to sell. It consists of the
total amount of money invested in raw materials and supplies carried in stock, finished
products in stock and semi-finished products in the process of being manufactured,
account receivable, cash kept on hand for monthly payment of operating expenses, e.g.
222
salaries, wages and raw material purchases. For most chemical plant use in an initial
working capital amounting to 12% of the fixed capital investment whereas startup cost
is 8% out of fixed capital cost. Table 12.2 demonstrates the total capital investment of
soda ash plant.
Table 13.2 Total Capital Investment (TCI)

Percentage (%)
Direct Cost
GRC
Equipment Installation 39 RM 22056472.30
Instrumentation 26 RM 14704314.87
Piping Installation 31 RM 17532067.72
Electrical installation 10 RM 5655505.72
Buildings (Including services) 29 RM 16400966.58
Yard Improvement 12 RM 6786606.86
Services Facilities 5 RM 2827752.86
Land 6 RM 3393303.43
Total Direct Cost RM 89356990.34
Percentage (%)
Indirect Cost
GRC
Engineering and Supervision 32 RM 18097618.30
Construction expenses 34 RM 19228719.44
Contractor's fee and legal
RM
expenses 5 2827752.86
Contingency 10 RM 5655505.72
Total Indirect Cost RM 45809596.31
Total RM 135166586.65
Fixed Capital Investment (FCI) (FCI = GRC + Total) RM 191721643.83
Working Capital 12 % FCI RM 23006597.26
Start Up Cost 8 % FCI RM 15337731.51
Total Capital Investment RM 230,065,972.59
223
13.4 Material, Product and Utilities Cost
Material and utilities were categories as the expense to build the plant. The
expenses of the materials are calculated by taking the price for the raw materials and
are multiplied by the feed flowrate. Then by assuming that the plant is operated 24-
hour for the whole year (355 days is estimated), the annual cost for raw materials is
estimated.
The terms utilities include, power, compressed air, pump and chilled water. The
current cost of utilities supplied by the utility companies: electricity and water can be
obtained from local area offices. The material, product and utilities costing is shown
in Table 13.3.
Table 13.3 Material, Product and Utilities Costing

MATERIAL, PRODUCT AND UTILITIES
Days of Operation 355
Hours of Operation per day 24
RAW MATERIAL
Price of Raw Material (RM/kg)
Sodium Chloride, NaCl 0.52
Ammonia, NH3 0.84
Carbon Dioxide, CO2 0.74
Water, H2O 0.00084
Raw Material Usage (kg/hr)
Sodium Chloride, NaCl 16790
Ammonia, NH3 3670
Carbon Dioxide, CO2 4740
Water, H2O 3880
Total Annual Cost (RM/yr) 130564392.38
224
PRODUCT
Price of Product (RM/kg)
Soda Ash, Na2CO3 1.08
Ammonium Chloride,NH4Cl 2.14
Product Amount (kg/hr)
Soda Ash, Na2CO3 11420
Ammonium Chloride,NH4Cl 11520
Total Annual Sales (RM/yr) 315124128.00
UTILITIES
Heat Exchangers Cost (RM/yr)
E-9 1998508.78
E-10 359369.74
E-11 725269.35
E-12 791678.75
E-6 1243535.27
E-8 6986702.53
Pumps Cost (RM/yr)
P-1 46559.03
P-2 21063.24
Compressors Cost (RM/yr)
K-1 356248.2991
K-2 356698.1075
Total Utilities 12885633.10
13.5 Labour Cost
The labour costing for this 100 000 MTA soda ash plant is shown in Table 13.4.
225
Table 13.4 Labour Costing

No. of Operator per Unit per Operators per
Equipment
Unit Shift Shift
Dissolver 1 0.3 0.3
Ammonia Absorption
1 0.3 0.3
Tower
Carbonation Reactor 1 0.5 0.5
Rotary Drum Filter 1 0.3 0.3
Calciner (Pyrolysis
1 0.5 0.5
Furnace)
Separation Drum 1 0.3 0.3
Evaporator 1 0.3 0.3
Heat Exchangers 11 0.1 0.11
Pumps 2 0.1 0.2
Compressors 2 0.1 0.2
Total 3.01
Number of labours = 3.01 person/shift

= 9.03 person/day (3 shifts)
≈ 9 person/day (3 shifts)
Labor cost in Malaysia = RM 1,000 /month

Total Operating Labour cost = RM 9,000.00 /month
= RM108,000 /yr
13.6 Manufacturing Cost and Total Production Cost
Total production cost consists of manufacturing cost and general expenses.

Manufacturing cost consists of direct and indirect production cost. This is another
equally important part is the estimation of costs for operating the plant and selling the
products. For the calculation below, we had fixed the working day per year is 355 days,
226
with 24 hours continuously operation. Hence the total operating hour per year is 8520
hour. The manufacturing cost is summarized in Table 13.5 and Table 13.6.
Table 13.5 Manufacturing expenses summary

ITEM COST (RM/yr)
Direct Production Cost
Raw Material 130564392.38
Utilities
Cooler 12105064.42
Pumps 67622.28
Compressors 712946.41
Miscellaneous
Maintenance and Repairs 8 % FCI 15337731.51
3% of Maintenance and
Operating Supplies Repairs 460131.95
Operating Labor 108000.00
Direct Supervision & Clerical
Labor 10 % of Operating Labour 10800.00
Laboratory Charges 10 % of Operating Labour 10800.00
Patents and Royalties 3% FCI 5751649.31
Indirect Production Cost
Local Taxes 1 % FCI 1917216.438
Insurance 1% FCI 1917216.438
Plant Overhead 50 % of Operating labor 54000
Total Manufacturing Expenses, AME 169,017,571.13
227
Table 13.6 General expenses summary

ITEM COST (RM/yr)
Administration Cost 25 % of Plant Overhead 13500
Distribution & Selling
Expenses 10% of FCI 19172164.38
Research & Development 3% of FCI 5751649.315
Total General Expenses, AGE 24937313.7
APC = AME + AGE
Total Production Cost, APC
(excluding depreciation) 193954884.83
Depreciation, ABD 10 % FCI 19172164.38
Total Expenses, ATE ATE = APC + ABD 213127049.21
Revenue from Sales 315124128.00
Net Annual Profit, ANP 101997078.79
Income Taxes 30 % net annual profit 30599123.64
Net Annual Profit After
71397955.15
Income Taxes, ANNP
After Tax Rate of Return, I ((ANNP + ABD)/TCI)⨯100 39.37
13.7 Cash Flow Analysis
The cash flows in a manufacturing company can be likened to the material flows
in a process plant. The inputs are the cash needed to pay for research and development;
plant design and construction; and plant operation. The outputs are goods for sale; and
cash returns, are recycled, to the organisation from the profits earned. The “net cash
flow” at any time is the difference between the earnings and expenditure.
The profitability analysis is to determine the payback period (PBP) and net
present value (NPV) of soda ash plant. The value stated above can be obtained by
using graphical method as proposed in Ulrich (1984). The total operating period is 20
years, excluding the 3 years for start-up operation with fixed capital cost of RM
228
191,721,643.83. Since this is a new plant, we may meet many problems in production
flow in the beginning of start-up. Hence the production cannot achieve the target as
desired. For the discounted break event period, a different interest rate was calculated.
The after tax rate of return of the plant is about 40%. This is where the NPV become
zero at the end of the 20 years, excluded 3 years’ startup operation. Table 13.8 refers
for different discounted factors.
Payback period is the time that must elapse after startup until cumulative
undiscounted cash flow repays fixed capital investment or it is the time required after
the start of the project to pay off the initial investment from income. In illustration PBP
is the point, where undiscounted cash flow rises to the level of negative working
capital. In order to get the payback period, an undiscounted cash flow is calculated.
With refer to the calculated value in Table 13.1, Table 13.5 and Table 13.6, it can be
summarized that PBP is 3 years for undiscounted rate.
Table 13.7 Undiscounted cash flow analysis (exported from Excel)
Year Annual Capital Investment Sales Income Depreciation Total Expenses plus Depreciation Cash Income Allowances Net Profit Federal Income Taxes Net Profit After Taxes Cash Flow or Net Cash Income Cumulative Cash Flow
AI As ABD ATE - ABD ACI=AS - (ATE-ABD) AA ANP=ACI-ABD AIT=30%ANP ANNP=ANP-AIT ANCI=AI+ABD+AA+ANNP ΣANCI
0 0 0 0
1 -57516493.15 -57516493.15 -57516493.15
2 -80523090.41 -80523090.41 -138039583.6
3 -92026389.04 -92026389.04 -230065972.6
4 315124128.00 19172164.38 193954884.83 121169243.17 0 101997078.79 30599123.64 71397955.15 90570119.54 -139495853.1
5 315124128.00 19172164.38 193954884.83 121169243.17 0 101997078.79 30599123.64 71397955.15 90570119.54 -48925733.52
6 315124128.00 19172164.38 193954884.83 121169243.17 0 101997078.79 30599123.64 71397955.15 90570119.54 41644386.01
7 315124128.00 19172164.38 193954884.83 121169243.17 0 101997078.79 30599123.64 71397955.15 90570119.54 132214505.5
8 315124128.00 19172164.38 193954884.83 121169243.17 0 101997078.79 30599123.64 71397955.15 90570119.54 222784625.1
9 315124128.00 19172164.38 193954884.83 121169243.17 0 101997078.79 30599123.64 71397955.15 90570119.54 313354744.6
10 315124128.00 19172164.38 193954884.83 121169243.17 0 101997078.79 30599123.64 71397955.15 90570119.54 403924864.2
11 315124128.00 19172164.38 193954884.83 121169243.17 0 101997078.79 30599123.64 71397955.15 90570119.54 494494983.7
12 315124128.00 19172164.38 193954884.83 121169243.17 0 101997078.79 30599123.64 71397955.15 90570119.54 585065103.2
13 315124128.00 19172164.38 193954884.83 121169243.17 0 101997078.79 30599123.64 71397955.15 90570119.54 675635222.8
14 315124128.00 19172164.38 193954884.83 121169243.17 0 101997078.79 30599123.64 71397955.15 90570119.54 766205342.3
15 315124128.00 19172164.38 193954884.83 121169243.17 0 101997078.79 30599123.64 71397955.15 90570119.54 856775461.8
16 315124128.00 19172164.38 193954884.83 121169243.17 0 101997078.79 30599123.64 71397955.15 90570119.54 947345581.4
17 315124128.00 19172164.38 193954884.83 121169243.17 0 101997078.79 30599123.64 71397955.15 90570119.54 1037915701
18 315124128.00 19172164.38 193954884.83 121169243.17 0 101997078.79 30599123.64 71397955.15 90570119.54 1128485820
19 315124128.00 19172164.38 193954884.83 121169243.17 0 101997078.79 30599123.64 71397955.15 90570119.54 1219055940
20 315124128.00 19172164.38 193954884.83 121169243.17 0 101997078.79 30599123.64 71397955.15 90570119.54 1309626060
21 315124128.00 19172164.38 193954884.83 121169243.17 0 101997078.79 30599123.64 71397955.15 90570119.54 1400196179
22 315124128.00 19172164.38 193954884.83 121169243.17 0 101997078.79 30599123.64 71397955.15 90570119.54 1490766299
23 23006597.26 315124128.00 19172164.38 193954884.83 121169243.17 0 101997078.79 30599123.64 71397955.15 113576716.8 1604343015
229
Table 13.8 Discounted factor cash flow analysis for 5% & 20% & 33%
Cash flow or Net Cash Income i= 0.05 i= 0.20 i= 0.33
Completion of year ANCI=AI+ABD+AA+ANNP Discounted Factor, fd Discounted Cash Flow Cumulative Cash Flow Discounted Factor, fd Discounted Cash Flow Cumulative Cash Flow Discounted Factor, fd Discounted Cash Flow Cumulative Cash Flow
fdANCI ΣANCI fdANCI ΣANCI fdANCI ΣANCI
0 0 1 0 0 1 0 0 1 0 0
1 -57516493.15 0.952380952 -54777612.52 -54777612.52 0.833333333 -47930410.96 -47930410.96 0.751879699 -43245483.57 -43245483.57
2 -80523090.41 0.907029478 -73036816.7 -127814429.2 0.694444444 -55918812.78 -103849223.7 0.565323082 -45521561.65 -88767045.22
3 -92026389.04 0.863837599 -79495854.91 -207310284.1 0.578703704 -53256012.17 -157105235.9 0.425054949 -39116272.1 -127883317.3
4 90570119.54 0.822702475 74512261.48 -132798022.6 0.482253086 43677719.68 -113427516.2 0.319590187 28945321.46 -98937995.86
5 90570119.54 0.783526166 70964058.56 -61833964.09 0.401877572 36398099.74 -77029416.49 0.240293374 21763399.59 -77174596.27
6 90570119.54 0.746215397 67584817.67 5750853.587 0.334897977 30331749.78 -46697666.71 0.18067171 16363458.34 -60811137.93
7 90570119.54 0.71068133 64366493.02 70117346.61 0.279081647 25276458.15 -21421208.56 0.135843391 12303352.14 -48507785.8
8 90570119.54 0.676839362 61301421.93 131418768.5 0.232568039 21063715.13 -357493.4396 0.102137888 9250640.703 -39257145.09
9 90570119.54 0.644608916 58382306.6 189801075.1 0.193806699 17553095.94 17195602.5 0.076795404 6955368.95 -32301776.14
10 90570119.54 0.613913254 55602196.76 245403271.9 0.161505583 14627579.95 31823182.45 0.057740906 5229600.714 -27072175.43
11 90570119.54 0.584679289 52954473.1 298357745 0.134587986 12189649.96 44012832.4 0.043414215 3932030.612 -23140144.82
12 90570119.54 0.556837418 50432831.53 348790576.5 0.112156655 10158041.63 54170874.03 0.032642267 2956413.994 -20183730.82
13 90570119.54 0.530321351 48031268.12 396821844.6 0.093463879 8465034.692 62635908.73 0.024543058 2222867.665 -17960863.16
14 90570119.54 0.505067953 45744064.88 442565909.5 0.077886566 7054195.577 69690104.3 0.018453427 1671329.071 -16289534.09
15 90570119.54 0.481017098 43565776.07 486131685.6 0.064905472 5878496.314 75568600.62 0.013874757 1256638.399 -15032895.69
16 90570119.54 0.458111522 41491215.31 527622900.9 0.054087893 4898746.928 80467347.54 0.010432148 944840.9018 -14088054.79
17 90570119.54 0.436296688 39515443.15 567138344 0.045073244 4082289.107 84549636.65 0.00784372 710406.6931 -13377648.09
18 90570119.54 0.415520655 37633755.38 604772099.4 0.037561037 3401907.589 87951544.24 0.005897534 534140.3707 -12843507.72
19 90570119.54 0.395733957 35841671.79 640613771.2 0.031300864 2834922.991 90786467.23 0.004434236 401609.3013 -12441898.42
20 90570119.54 0.376889483 34134925.52 674748696.7 0.026084053 2362435.826 93148903.06 0.003334012 301961.8807 -12139936.54
21 90570119.54 0.358942365 32509452.87 707258149.6 0.021736711 1968696.521 95117599.58 0.002506776 227039.008 -11912897.53
22 90570119.54 0.341849871 30961383.69 738219533.3 0.018113926 1640580.435 96758180.01 0.001884794 170706.0211 -11742191.51
23 90570119.54 0.325571306 29487032.08 767706565.4 0.015094938 1367150.362 98125330.37 0.001417138 128350.3918 -11613841.12
230
Figure 13.1 Undiscounted cash flow diagram (with i = 0%)
231
232
Figure 13.2 Cash flow diagram with varies interest rate
233
From Figure 13.1, the PBP shows 3 years after 3 years of start-up period. This
means at i = 0%, the plant will start earning after the PBP. According to Ulrich (1984),
the PBP lays between the start-up of a plant to the recovery of working capital.
The discounted cash flow rate of return (DCFRR) is the point in which the rate
result a Net Present Value (NPV) of zero. From Figure 13.2, within the period of 20
operating years after start-up in year 3, the NPV will be zero if i ≈ 33%. The DCFRR
point is the maximum interest rate that counted after the taxes. If the rate of interest in
market is 20%, the payback period of this plant is roughly 6 years after the start-up
year. This means that the plant is profitable to construct as it promised short PBP.
13.8 Concluding Remarks
After carried out the economic analysis to the soda ash production plant, it has
been meet up a few conclusions:
a) The Total Capital Investment (TCI) is RM 230 million.

b) The total expenses are about RM 213 million.
c) The total utilities cost is RM 13 million.
d) The total operating labour costs is RM 108,000/year.
e) From Undiscounted Cash flow diagram, pay-back period is estimated at 3
years after start up period. At interest rate of 20%, the proposed soda ash
plant will have a pay-back period of 6 years.
f) The rate of return obtained after the taxes is 40%.
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APPENDIX A
MATERIAL BALANCES
Dissolver/ Mixer 1
NaCl(s)
Brine
Dissolved NaCl(aq)
H2O(l)
H2O(l)
Recycled H2O(l)
Process conditions: Tin = Tout = 25℃, Pin = Pout = 1atm
Degree of freedom analysis:

Number of Unknowns/ Variables: 2 (ṁH2Oout , ṁNaClout)
Independent Equation: 2
(Recycled ṁH2Oin + ṁH2Oin = ṁH2Oout , ṁNaClout = ṁNaClin )
DOF = Number of Variables - Independent Equation
DOF = 2-2 = 0
ṁNaClout = ṁNaClin = 𝟏𝟔. 𝟕𝟗 𝐦𝐭/𝐡𝐫

ṁH2Oout = 3.88 + 46.49 = 𝟓𝟎. 𝟑𝟕 𝐦𝐭/𝐡𝐫
ṁTout = ṁTin = 16.79 + 3.88 + 46.49 = 𝟔𝟕. 𝟏𝟔 𝐦𝐭/𝐡𝐫
238
NaCl(aq)
H2O(l)
NH3(g)
Ammoniated brine
Dissolved NaCl(aq)
H2O(l)
Absorbed NH3(aq)
Process conditions: Tin = 25℃, Tout = 70℃, Pin = Pout = 1atm

Given: 100% absorption

Number of Unknowns/ Variables: 3 (ṁNaClout , ṁH2Oout , ṁNH3out )
(ṁNaClout = ṁNaClin, ṁH2Oout = ṁH2Oin , ṁNH3out = 1.0ṁNH3in )
DOF = 3-3 = 0

ṁH2Oout = ṁH2Oin = 𝟓𝟎. 𝟑𝟕 𝐦𝐭/𝐡𝐫
ṁNH3out = 1.0ṁNH3in = 𝟑. 𝟔𝟕 𝐦𝐭/𝐡𝐫
ṁTouṫ = mTin = 16.79 + 50.37 + 3.67 = 𝟕𝟎. 𝟖𝟑 𝐦𝐭/𝐡𝐫
239
Cooler 1
NaCl (aq) NaCl (aq)

H2O (l) H2O (l)
NH3 (aq) NH3 (aq)
Process conditions: Tin = 70oC, Tout = 45oC, Pin = Pout = 1 atm

Number of Unknowns/ Variables: 3 (ṁNaClout , ṁH2Oout , ṁNH3out )
(ṁNaClout = ṁNaClin, ṁH2Oout = ṁH2Oin , ṁNH3out = ṁNH3in )
DOF = Number of variables – Independent Equation
DOF = 3-3 = 0
ṁNaClout = ṁNaClin = 16.79 mt/hr

ṁH2Oout = ṁH2Oin = 50.37 mt/hr
ṁNH3out = ṁNH3in = 3.67 mt/hr
ṁTout = ṁTin = 16.79 + 50.37 + 3.67 = 70.83 mt/hr
Pump 1
NaCl (aq), H2O (l), NH3 (aq) NaCl (aq), H2O (l), NH3 (aq)
Process conditions: Tin = Tout = 45℃, Pin = 1 atm, Pout = 4atm

240

Number of Unknowns/ Variables: 3 (ṁNaClout,ṁH2Oout , ṁNH3out )
(ṁNaClin = ṁNaClout , , ṁH2Oin = ṁH2Oout , ṁNH3in = ṁNH3out )
DOF = 3-3 = 0

ṁH2Oout = ṁH2Oin = 𝟓𝟎. 𝟑𝟕 𝐦𝐭/𝐡𝐫
ṁNH3out = ṁNH3in = 𝟑. 𝟔𝟕 𝐦𝐭/𝐡𝐫
ṁTout = ṁTin = 16.79 + 50.37 + 3.67 = 𝟕𝟎. 𝟖𝟑 𝐦𝐭/𝐡𝐫
Compressor 1
CO2 (g) CO2 (g)
Process condition: Tin, Pin = 25°C, 1atm, Tout, Pout = 128°C, 4atm

Number of Unknowns/ Variables: 1 (ṁCO2out )
Independent Equation: 1 ( ṁCO2in =ṁCO2out )
DOF = 1-1 = 0
ṁCO2out = ṁCO2in = 𝟒. 𝟕𝟒 𝐦𝐭/𝐡𝐫

ṁTouṫ = mTin = 4.74 = 𝟒. 𝟕𝟒 𝐦𝐭/𝐡𝐫
241
Mixer 2
CO2 (g) Mixer 2 CO2 (g)
CO2 recycled (g)
Process conditions: Tin = Tout = 25℃, Pin = Pout = 1 atm

Independent Equation: 1 (ṁCO2out = ṁCO2in + ṁrecycled CO2 )
DOF = 1-1 = 0
̇ 𝟗. 𝟒𝟖 𝐦𝐭/𝐡𝐫
ṁCO2out = ṁCO2in + ṁrecycled CO2 = 4.74 + 4.74 =
ṁTout = ṁTin = 4.74 + 4.74 = 𝟗. 𝟒𝟖 𝐦𝐭/𝐡𝐫
Cooler 2
CO2 (g) CO2 (g)

242

Independent Equation: 1 (ṁCO2out = ṁCO2in)
DOF = 1-1 = 0
ṁCO2out = ṁCO2in = 9.48 mt/hr

ṁTout = ṁTin = 9.48 mt/hr
Carbonation Reactor
Ammoniated brine
Dissolved NaCl(aq)
H2O(l)
Absorbed NH3(aq)
NaHCO3(s)
CO2(g) Dissolved NH4Cl(l)
Dissolved NaCl(aq)
H2O(l)

Given: 75% conversion of NaCl

Number of Unknowns/ Variables: 2 (ṁNaClout, ṁH2Oout )
(0.25 ṁNaClin = ṁNaClout & ṁH2Oout = ṁH2Oin − ṁH2Oreacted)
DOF = 2-2 = 0
243
ṁNaClout = 0.25 ṁNaClin = 0.25 × 16.79 = 𝟒. 𝟐𝟎 𝐦𝐭/𝐡𝐫

ṁH2Oout = ṁH2Oin − ṁH2Oreacted = 50.37 − (0.1077×2×18.02) = 𝟒𝟔. 𝟒𝟗 𝐦𝐭/𝐡𝐫
ṁTout = ṁTin = 16.79 + 50.37 + 3.67 + 9.48 = 4.20 + 46.49 + 18.10 + 11.52
= 𝟖𝟎. 𝟑𝟏 𝐦𝐭/𝐡𝐫
Rotary Filter
NaHCO3(s)
NaHCO3(s)
Dissolved NH4Cl(aq)
Dissolved NaCl(l) H2O(l)
H2O(l) Dissolved NaCl(aq)
Dissolved NH4Cl(l)

Assumption: 100% separation of NaHCO3

Number of Unknowns/ Variables: 2 (ṁNaHCO3out, ṁfiltrate )
(ṁNaHCO3out = ṁNaHCO3in & ṁfiltrate = ṁliquid in)
DOF = 2-2 = 0
ṁNaHCO3out = ṁNaHCO3in = 𝟏𝟖. 𝟏𝟎 𝐦𝐭/𝐡𝐫

ṁfiltrate = ṁliquid in = 4.20 + 46.49 + 11.52 = 𝟔𝟐. 𝟐𝟏 𝐦𝐭/𝐡𝐫
ṁTout = ṁTin = 4.20 + 46.49 + 18.10 + 11.52 = 𝟖𝟎. 𝟑𝟏 𝐦𝐭/𝐡𝐫
244
Calciner
CO2(g)
H2O(v)
NaHCO3(s) Na2CO3(s)
Process conditions: Tin =45℃, Tout = 200℃, Pin = Pout = 1 atm

Assumption: Given 100% conversion of NaHCO3 at the calciner

Number of Unknowns: 0
DOF = Number of Unknowns - Independent Equation
DOF = 0
ṁNa2CO3out = 𝟏𝟏. 𝟒𝟐 𝐦𝐭/𝐡𝐫

ṁCO2out = 𝟒. 𝟕𝟒 𝐦𝐭/𝐡𝐫
ṁH2Oout = 𝟏. 𝟗𝟒 𝐦𝐭/𝐡𝐫
ṁTout = ṁTin = 11.42 + 4.74 + 1.94 = 𝟏𝟖. 𝟏𝟎 𝐦𝐭/𝐡𝐫
Cooler 3
H2O (v) H2O (l)

CO2 (g) CO2 (g)

245

̇ , mCO2out )
Number of Unknowns/ Variables: 2 (ṁH2Oout
Independent Equation: 2 (ṁH2Oout = ṁH2Oin , ṁCO2out = ṁCO2in)
DOF = 2-2 = 0

ṁCO2out = ṁCO2in = 4.74 mt/hr
ṁTout = ṁTin = 1.94 + 4.74 = 6.68 mt/hr
Cooler 4
Na2CO3 (s) Na2CO3 (s)

Number of Unknowns/ Variables: 1 (ṁNa2CO3out )
Independent Equation: 1 (ṁNa2CO3out = ṁNa2CO3in)
DOF = 1-1 = 0
ṁNa2CO3out = ṁNa2CO3in= 11.42 mt/hr

246
Separation Drum
CO2 (g)
H2O (l)
CO2 (g)
H2O(l)
Process conditions: Tin = Tout = 25℃, Pin = Pout = 1 atm

Assumption: 100% separation of H2O and CO2

Number of Variable: 2 (ṁCO2out , ṁH2Oout )
(ṁCO2out = ṁCO2in , ṁH2Oout = ṁH2Oin )
DOF = Number of Variables - Independent Equation - Additional information
DOF = 2-2 = 0

ṁH2Oout = ṁH2Oin = 𝟏. 𝟗𝟒 𝐦𝐭/𝐡𝐫
ṁTout = ṁTin = 4.74 + 1.94 = 𝟔. 𝟔𝟖 𝐦𝐭/𝐡𝐫
247
Compressor 2
CO2 (g) CO2 (g)

Independent Equation: 1 ( ṁCO2in =ṁCO2out )
DOF = 1-1 = 0

ṁTouṫ = mTin = 4.74 = 𝟒. 𝟕𝟒 𝐦𝐭/𝐡𝐫
Heater 1
NaCl (aq), H2O (l), NH4Cl (aq) NaCl (aq), H2O (v), NH4Cl (aq)
in out out
Process conditions: Tin, Pin = 45°C, 1atm ; Tout, Pout = 99.6°C, 1atm

Number of Unknowns/ Variables: 3 (ṁNaClout,ṁH2Oout , ṁNH4Clout )
(ṁNaClin = ṁNaClout , ṁH2Oin = ṁH2Oout , ṁNH4Clin = ṁNH4Clout )
DOF = 3-3 = 0
248
ṁNaClout = ṁNaClin = 𝟒. 𝟐𝟎 𝐦𝐭/𝐡𝐫

ṁH2Oout = ṁH2Oin = 𝟒𝟔. 𝟒𝟗 𝐦𝐭/𝐡𝐫
ṁNH4Clout = ṁNH4Clin = 𝟏𝟏. 𝟓𝟐 𝐦𝐭/𝐡𝐫
ṁTout = ṁTin = 4.2 + 46.49 + 11.52 = 𝟔𝟐. 𝟐𝟏 𝐦𝐭/𝐡𝐫
Evaporator
H2O(v)
NaCl(s)
NH4Cl(s)
H2O(l) NaCl(s)
NH4Cl(s)
Process conditions: Tin = 99.6 ℃, Tout = 100℃, Pin = Pout = 1 atm

Assumption: 100% separation of H2O from NaCl, NH4Cl and H2O mixture

Number of Unknowns/ Variables: 3 (ṁH2Oout , ṁNaClout , ṁNH4Clout )
(ṁH2Oout = ṁH2Oin , ṁNaClout = ṁNaClin , ṁNH4Clout = ṁNH4Clin)
DOF = Number of Variables - Independent Equation - Additional information
DOF = 3-3 = 0

ṁNaClout = ṁNaClin = 𝟒. 𝟐𝟎 𝐦𝐭/𝐡𝐫
ṁNH4Clout = ṁNH4Clin = 𝟏𝟏. 𝟓𝟐 𝐦𝐭/𝐡𝐫
ṁTout = ṁTin = 46.49 + 4.20 + 11.52 = 𝟔𝟐. 𝟐𝟏 𝐦𝐭/𝐡𝐫
249
Cooler 5
NaCl (s) NaCl (s)

NH4Cl (s) NH4Cl (s)

Number of Unknowns/ Variables: 2 (ṁNaClout , ṁNH4Clout )
Independent Equation: 2 (ṁNaClout = ṁNaClin, ṁNH4Clout = ṁNH4Clin)
DOF = 2-2 = 0
ṁNaClout = ṁNaClin = 4.2 mt/hr

ṁNH4Clout = ṁNH4Clin= 11.52 mt/hr
ṁTout = ṁTin = 4.2 + 11.52 = 15.72 mt/hr
Cooler 6
H2O (v) H2O (l)

Number of Unknowns/ Variables: 1 (ṁH2Oout )
Independent Equation: 1 (ṁH2Oout = ṁH2Oin )
250

DOF = 1-1 = 0

Pump 2
H2O (l)
H2O (l)

Number of Unknowns/ Variables: 1 (ṁH2Oout )
Independent Equation: 1 (ṁCO2in =ṁH2Oout )
DOF = 1-1 = 0

ṁTouṫ = mTin = 46.49 = 𝟒𝟔. 𝟒𝟗 𝐦𝐭/𝐡𝐫
APPENDIX B
ENERGY BALANCES
Dissolver/ Mixer 1

Components:
1. Inlet stream: NaClin (s), H2Oin (l) and recycled H2Oin (l)
2. Outlet stream: NaClout (aq) and H2Oout (l)
𝑔
16790000 𝑘𝐽
( ℎ𝑟
𝑔 × (−411 𝑚𝑜𝑙 ))
58.44
𝑚𝑜𝑙
̂𝑓 𝑁𝑎𝐶𝑙 =
𝐻𝑁𝑎𝐶𝑙 𝑖𝑛 = 𝑚̇𝐻 = −𝟑𝟐, 𝟖𝟎𝟎. 𝟒𝟓 𝒌𝑾
3600𝑠
𝑔
3880000 𝑘𝐽
( ℎ𝑟
𝑔 × (−285.84 𝑚𝑜𝑙 ))
18.02
𝑚𝑜𝑙
̂𝑓 𝐻2𝑂 =
𝐻𝐻2𝑂 𝑖𝑛 = 𝑚̇𝐻 = −𝟏𝟕, 𝟎𝟗𝟔. 𝟏𝟐 𝒌𝑾
3600𝑠
̂𝑓 𝐻2𝑂
𝐻𝑟𝑒𝑐𝑦𝑐𝑙𝑒𝑑 𝐻2𝑂 𝑖𝑛 = 𝑚̇𝐻
𝑔
46490000 𝑘𝐽
( ℎ𝑟
𝑔 × (−285.84 𝑚𝑜𝑙 ))
18.02
𝑚𝑜𝑙
= = −𝟐𝟎𝟒, 𝟖𝟒𝟒. 𝟗𝟓 𝒌𝑾
3600𝑠
𝐻𝑁𝑎𝐶𝑙 𝑜𝑢𝑡 = 𝐻𝑁𝑎𝐶𝑙 𝑖𝑛 = −𝟑𝟐, 𝟖𝟎𝟎. 𝟒𝟓 𝒌𝑾

252
𝑔
50370000 𝑘𝐽
( ℎ𝑟
𝑔 × (−285.84 𝑚𝑜𝑙 ))
18.02
𝑚𝑜𝑙
̂𝑓 𝐻2𝑂 =
𝐻𝐻2𝑂 𝑜𝑢𝑡 = 𝑚̇𝐻 = −𝟐𝟐𝟏, 𝟗𝟒𝟏. 𝟎𝟕 𝒌𝑾
3600𝑠
∆𝐻 = (−32,800.45) + (−221,941.07)
−((−32,800.45) + (−17,096.12) + (−204,844.95))
= 𝟎 𝒌𝑾

Given: 100% absorption
Components:
1. Inlet stream: NaClin (aq), H2Oin (l) and NH3in (g)
2. Outlet stream: NaClout (aq), H2Oout (l) and NH3out (aq)
̂𝑓 𝑁𝑎𝐶𝑙 = −𝟑𝟐, 𝟖𝟎𝟎. 𝟒𝟓 𝒌𝑾

𝐻𝑁𝑎𝐶𝑙 𝑖𝑛 = 𝑚̇𝐻
̂𝑓 𝐻2𝑂 = −𝟐𝟐𝟏, 𝟗𝟒𝟏. 𝟎𝟕 𝒌𝑾

𝐻𝐻2𝑂 𝑖𝑛 = 𝑚̇𝐻
𝑔
3670000 𝑘𝐽
( ℎ𝑟
𝑔 × (−46.19 𝑚𝑜𝑙 ))
17.03
𝑚𝑜𝑙
̂𝑓 𝑁𝐻3 =
𝐻𝑁𝐻3 𝑖𝑛 = 𝑚̇𝐻 = −𝟐, 𝟕𝟔𝟓. 𝟎𝟏 𝒌𝑾
3600𝑠
70
𝐻𝑁𝑎𝐶𝑙 𝑜𝑢𝑡 ̂𝑓 𝑁𝑎𝐶𝑙 + 𝑚̇ ∫ 𝐶𝑝𝑁𝑎𝐶𝑙 𝑑𝑇
= 𝑚̇𝐻
25
70
= −32,800.45 + 𝑚̇ ∫ 0.0368 𝑑𝑇
25
253
𝑔
16790000 𝑘𝐽
( ℎ𝑟
𝑔 × (1.6556 𝑚𝑜𝑙 ))
58.44
𝑚𝑜𝑙
= −32,800.45 +
3600𝑠
= −𝟑𝟐, 𝟔𝟔𝟖. 𝟑𝟐 𝒌𝑾
70
̂𝑓 𝐻2𝑂 + 𝑚̇ ∫ 𝐶𝑝𝐻2𝑂 𝑑𝑇
𝐻𝐻2𝑂 𝑜𝑢𝑡 = 𝑚̇𝐻
25
70
= −221,941.07 + 𝑚̇ ∫ 75.4×10−3 𝑑𝑇
25
𝑔
50370000 𝑘𝐽
( ℎ𝑟
𝑔 × (3.393 𝑚𝑜𝑙 ))
18.02
𝑚𝑜𝑙
= −221,941.07 +
3600𝑠
= −𝟐𝟏𝟗, 𝟑𝟎𝟔. 𝟓𝟕 𝒌𝑾
70
̂𝑓 𝑁𝐻3 + 𝑚̇ ∫ 𝐶𝑝𝑁𝐻3 𝑑𝑇
𝐻𝑁𝐻3 𝑜𝑢𝑡 = 𝑚̇𝐻
25
70 −3 −5 −8
= −2,765.01 + 𝑚̇ ∫ 35.15×10 + 2.954×10 −12+ 0.4421×10 𝑑𝑇
25 −6.686×10
𝑔
3670000 𝑘𝐽
( ℎ𝑟
𝑔 × (1.6444 𝑚𝑜𝑙 ))
17.03
𝑚𝑜𝑙
= −2,765.01 +
3600𝑠
= −𝟐, 𝟔𝟔𝟔. 𝟓𝟕 𝒌𝑾
∆𝐻 = (−32,668.32) + (−219,306.57) + (−2,666.75)

−((−32,800.45) + (−221,941.07) + (−2,765.01))
= −𝟐, 𝟖𝟔𝟒. 𝟖𝟗 𝒌𝑾
254
Cooler 1

Components:
1. Inlet stream: NaClin (aq), H2Oin (l) and NH3 (aq)
2. Outlet stream: NaClin (aq), H2Oin (l) and NH3 (aq)
𝐻𝑁𝑎𝐶𝑙 𝑖𝑛 = −𝟑𝟐, 𝟔𝟔𝟖. 𝟑𝟐 𝒌𝑾
𝐻𝐻2𝑂 𝑖𝑛 = −𝟐𝟏𝟗, 𝟑𝟎𝟔. 𝟓𝟕 𝒌𝑾
𝐻𝑁𝐻3 𝑖𝑛 = −𝟐, 𝟔𝟔𝟔. 𝟓𝟕 𝒌𝑾

45
̂𝑓 𝑁𝑎𝐶𝑙 + 𝑚̇ ∫ 𝐶𝑝𝑁𝑎𝐶𝑙 𝑑𝑇
𝐻𝑁𝑎𝐶𝑙 𝑜𝑢𝑡 = 𝑚̇𝐻
25
45
= −32,800.45 + 𝑚̇ ∫ 0.0368 𝑑𝑇
25
𝑔
16790000 𝑘𝐽
( ℎ𝑟
𝑔 × (0.7358 𝑚𝑜𝑙 ))
58.44
𝑚𝑜𝑙
= −32,800.45 +
3600𝑠
= −𝟑𝟐, 𝟕𝟒𝟏. 𝟕𝟑 𝒌𝑾
45
̂𝑓 𝐻2𝑂 + 𝑚̇ ∫ 𝐶𝑝𝐻2𝑂 𝑑𝑇
25
45
= −221,941.07 + 𝑚̇ ∫ 75.4×10−3 𝑑𝑇
25
𝑔
50370000 𝑘𝐽
( ℎ𝑟
𝑔 × (1.5080 𝑚𝑜𝑙 ))
18.02
𝑚𝑜𝑙
= −221,941.07 +
3600𝑠
= −𝟐𝟐𝟎, 𝟕𝟕𝟎. 𝟏𝟖 𝒌𝑾
45
𝐻𝑁𝐻3 𝑜𝑢𝑡 ̂𝑓 𝑁𝐻3 + 𝑚̇ ∫ 𝐶𝑝𝑁𝐻3 𝑑𝑇
= 𝑚̇𝐻
25
255
45 −3 −5 −8
= −2,765.01 + 𝑚̇ ∫ 35.15×10 + 2.954×10 −12+ 0.4421×10 𝑑𝑇
25 −6.686×10
𝑔
3670000 𝑘𝐽
( ℎ𝑟
𝑔 × (0.7236 𝑚𝑜𝑙 ))
17.03
𝑚𝑜𝑙
= −2,765.01 +
3600𝑠
= −𝟐, 𝟕𝟐𝟏. 𝟔𝟗 𝒌𝑾
∆𝐻 = (−32,741.73) + (−220,770.18) + (−2,721.69)

−((−32,668.32) + (−219,306.57) + (−2,666.57))
= −𝟏, 𝟓𝟗𝟐. 𝟏𝟒 𝒌𝑾
Pump 1

Components:
1. Inlet stream: NaClin (aq), H2Oin (l), NH3in (aq)
2. Outlet stream: NaClout (aq), H2Oout (l), NH3out (aq)
𝐻𝑁𝑎𝐶𝑙 𝑖𝑛 = −𝟑𝟐, 𝟕𝟒𝟏. 𝟕𝟑 𝒌𝑾
𝐻𝐻2𝑂 𝑖𝑛 = −𝟐𝟐𝟎, 𝟕𝟕𝟎. 𝟖𝟎 𝒌𝑾
𝐻𝑁𝐻3 𝑖𝑛 = −𝟐, 𝟕𝟐𝟏. 𝟔𝟗 𝒌𝑾
45
̂𝑓 𝑁𝑎𝐶𝑙 + 𝑚̇ ∫ 𝐶𝑝𝑁𝑎𝐶𝑙 𝑑𝑇 + 𝑉∆𝑃
25
256
𝑔
16790000 𝑘𝐽
( ℎ𝑟
𝑔 × (411 𝑚𝑜𝑙 ))
18.02
𝑚𝑜𝑙 45
= + 𝑚̇ ∫ 0.0368 𝑑𝑇
3600𝑠 25
𝑔
16790000
( ℎ𝑟
𝑔 ) ×(4 − 1)𝑎𝑡𝑚
2165000 3
𝑚
+
(1000)(3600𝑠)
( )
𝑔
16790000 𝑘𝐽
( ℎ𝑟
𝑔 × (0.7358 𝑚𝑜𝑙 ))
58.44
𝑚𝑜𝑙
= −32,800.45 + + 6.472×10−6
3600𝑠
= −𝟑𝟐, 𝟕𝟒𝟏. 𝟕𝟑 𝒌𝑾
45
𝐻𝐻2𝑂 𝑜𝑢𝑡 ̂𝑓 𝐻2𝑂 + 𝑚̇ ∫ 𝐶𝑝𝐻2𝑂 𝑑𝑇 + 𝑉∆𝑃
= 𝑚̇𝐻
25
𝑔
50370000
( ℎ𝑟
𝑔 ) ×(4 − 1)𝑎𝑡𝑚
45 1000000 3
𝑚
= −221,941.07 + 𝑚̇ ∫ 75.4×10−3 𝑑𝑇 +
25 (1000)(3600𝑠)
( )
𝑔
50370000 𝑘𝐽
( ℎ𝑟
𝑔 × (1.508 𝑚𝑜𝑙 ))
18.02
𝑚𝑜𝑙
= −221,941.07 + + 4.197×10−5
3600𝑠
= −𝟐𝟐𝟎, 𝟕𝟕𝟎. 𝟖𝟎 𝒌𝑾
45
̂𝑓 𝑁𝐻3 + 𝑚̇ ∫ 𝐶𝑝𝑁𝐻3 𝑑𝑇 + 𝑉∆𝑃
𝐻𝑁𝐻3 𝑜𝑢𝑡 = 𝑚̇𝐻
25
257
45 −3 −5
+ 0.4421×10−8 𝑑𝑇
= −2,765.01 + 𝑚̇ ∫ 35.15×10 + 2.954×10 −12
25 −6.686×10
𝑔
3670000
( ℎ𝑟
𝑔 ) ×(4 − 1)𝑎𝑡𝑚
880000 3
𝑚
+
(1000)(3600𝑠)
( )
𝑔
3670000 𝑘𝐽
( ℎ𝑟
𝑔 × (0.7236 𝑚𝑜𝑙 ))
17.03
𝑚𝑜𝑙
= −2,765.01 + + 3.472×10−6
3600𝑠
= −𝟐, 𝟕𝟐𝟏. 𝟔𝟗 𝒌𝑾
∆𝐻 = (−32,741.73) + (−220,770.8 ) + (2,721.69)

−((−32,741.73) + (−220,770.80) + ( −2,721.69))
= −(256233.6) − (−256233.6)
= 𝟓. 𝟐𝟖×𝟏𝟎−𝟓 𝒌𝑾
Compressor 1
Process conditions: Tin = 25℃, Tout = 128℃, Pin = 1 atm, Pout = 4atm
Components:
1. Inlet stream: CO2in (g)
2. Outlet stream: CO2out (g)
𝑔
4740000 𝑘𝐽
( ℎ𝑟
𝑔 × (−393.5 𝑚𝑜𝑙 ))
44.01
𝑚𝑜𝑙
̂𝑓 𝐶𝑂2 =
𝐻𝐶𝑂2 𝑖𝑛 = 𝑚̇𝐻 = −𝟏𝟏, 𝟕𝟕𝟐. 𝟓𝟏 𝒌𝑾
3600𝑠
128
𝐻𝐶𝑂2 𝑜𝑢𝑡 ̂𝑓 𝐶𝑂2 + 𝑚̇ ∫
= 𝑚̇𝐻 𝐶𝑝𝐶𝑂2 𝑑𝑇
25
258
128
= −11772.51 + ∫ 36.1100 X 10−3 + 4.2330 X 10−5 T − 2.8870 X 10−8 T 2

25
+ 7.4640 X 10−12 T 3 dT
𝑔
4740000 𝑘𝐽
( ℎ𝑟
𝑔 × (4.07 𝑚𝑜𝑙 ))
44.01
𝑚𝑜𝑙
= −11772.51 +
3600𝑠
= −𝟏𝟏, 𝟔𝟓𝟎. 𝟕𝟓 𝒌𝑾
∆𝐻 = −11,650.75 − (−11,772.51)
= 𝟏𝟐𝟏. 𝟕𝟔 𝒌𝑾
Mixer 2

Components:
1. Inlet stream: CO2 in (g) and CO2 recycled (g)
2. Outlet stream: CO2 out (g)
𝐻𝐶𝑂2 𝑖𝑛 = −𝟏𝟏, 𝟔𝟓𝟎. 𝟕𝟓 𝒌𝑾
𝐻𝐶𝑂2 𝑖𝑛 = 𝐻𝐶𝑂2 𝑖𝑛 𝑟𝑒𝑐𝑦𝑐𝑙𝑒𝑑 = −𝟏𝟏, 𝟔𝟓𝟎. 𝟕𝟓 𝒌𝑾
128
= 𝑚̇𝐻 𝐶𝑝𝐶𝑂2 𝑑𝑇
25
128
= −23545.03 + ∫ 36.1100 X 10−3 + 4.2330 X 10−5 T − 2.8870 X 10−8 T 2

25
+ 7.4640 X 10−12 T 3 dT
259
𝑔
9480000 𝑘𝐽
( ℎ𝑟
𝑔 × (4.07 𝑚𝑜𝑙 ))
44.01
𝑚𝑜𝑙
= −23545.03 +
3600𝑠
= −𝟐𝟑, 𝟑𝟎𝟏. 𝟓𝟎 𝒌𝑾
∆𝐻 = (−11,650.75) + (−11,650.75 ) − ((−23,301.50))

= 𝟎 𝒌𝑾
Cooler 2
Process conditions: Tin = 128℃, Tout = 45℃, Pin = Pout = 4 atm

Components:
𝐻𝐶𝑂2 𝑖𝑛 = −𝟐𝟑, 𝟑𝟎𝟏. 𝟓𝟎 𝒌𝑾
45
𝐻𝐶𝑂2 𝑜𝑢𝑡 ̂𝑓 𝐶𝑂2 + 𝑚̇ ∫ 𝐶𝑝𝐶𝑂2 𝑑𝑇
= 𝑚̇𝐻
25
45 −3 −5 −8
= −23,545.03 + 𝑚̇ ∫ 36.11×10 + 4.233×10 −12− 2.887×10 𝑑𝑇
25 +7.464×10
𝑔
9480000 𝑘𝐽
( ℎ𝑟
𝑔 × (0.7526 𝑚𝑜𝑙 ))
44.01
𝑚𝑜𝑙
= −23,545.03 +
3600𝑠
= −𝟐𝟑, 𝟓𝟎𝟎. 𝟎𝟎 𝒌𝑾
∆𝐻 = (−23,500.00) − (−23,301.50)
= −𝟏𝟗𝟖. 𝟓𝟎 𝒌𝑾
260
Carbonation Reactor

Given: 75% conversion of NaCl
Components:
1. Inlet stream: NaClin (aq), H2Oin (l), NH3in (aq) and CO2in (g)
2. Outlet stream: NaClout (aq), H2Oout (l), NaHCO3out (s) and NH4Clout (aq)
45
̂𝑓 𝑁𝑎𝐶𝑙 + 𝑚̇ ∫ 𝐶𝑝𝑁𝑎𝐶𝑙 𝑑𝑇 + 𝑉∆𝑃
𝐻𝑁𝑎𝐶𝑙 𝑖𝑛 = 𝑚̇𝐻
25
𝑔
16790000
( ℎ𝑟
𝑔 ) ×(4 − 1)𝑎𝑡𝑚
45 2165000 3
𝑚
= −32,800.45 + 𝑚̇ ∫ 0.0368 𝑑𝑇 +
25 (1000)(3600𝑠)
( )
𝑔
16790000 𝑘𝐽
( ℎ𝑟
𝑔 × (0.7358 𝑚𝑜𝑙 ))
58.44
𝑚𝑜𝑙
= −32,800.45 + + 6.472×10−6
3600𝑠
= −𝟑𝟐, 𝟕𝟒𝟏. 𝟕𝟑 𝒌𝑾
45
̂𝑓 𝐻2𝑂 + 𝑚̇ ∫ 𝐶𝑝𝐻2𝑂 𝑑𝑇 + 𝑉∆𝑃
𝐻𝐻2𝑂 𝑖𝑛 = 𝑚̇𝐻
25
𝑔
50370000
( ℎ𝑟
𝑔 ) ×(4 − 1)𝑎𝑡𝑚
45 1000000 3
𝑚
= −221,941.07 + 𝑚̇ ∫ 75.4×10−3 𝑑𝑇 +
25 (1000)(3600𝑠)
( )
𝑔
50370000 𝑘𝐽
( ℎ𝑟
𝑔 × (1.508 𝑚𝑜𝑙 ))
18.02
𝑚𝑜𝑙
= −221,941.07 + + 4.197×10−5
3600𝑠
= −𝟐𝟐𝟎, 𝟕𝟕𝟎. 𝟖𝟎 𝒌𝑾
261
45
̂𝑓 𝑁𝐻3 + 𝑚̇ ∫ 𝐶𝑝𝑁𝐻3 𝑑𝑇 + 𝑉∆𝑃
𝐻𝑁𝐻3 𝑖𝑛 = 𝑚̇𝐻
25
45 −3 −5
+ 0.4421×10−8 𝑑𝑇
= −2,765.01 + 𝑚̇ ∫ 35.15×10 + 2.954×10 −12
25 −6.686×10
𝑔
3670000
( ℎ𝑟
𝑔 ) ×(4 − 1)𝑎𝑡𝑚
880000 3
𝑚
+
(1000)(3600𝑠)
( )
𝑔
3670000 𝑘𝐽
( ℎ𝑟
𝑔 × (0.7236 𝑚𝑜𝑙 ))
17.03
𝑚𝑜𝑙
= −2,765.01 + + 3.472×10−6
3600𝑠
= −𝟐, 𝟕𝟐𝟏. 𝟔𝟗 𝒌𝑾
45
̂𝑓 𝐶𝑂2 + 𝑚̇ ∫ 𝐶𝑝𝐶𝑂2 𝑑𝑇
𝐻𝐶𝑂2 𝑖𝑛 = 𝑚̇𝐻
25
𝑔
9480000 𝑘𝐽
( ℎ𝑟
𝑔 × (−393.50 𝑚𝑜𝑙 ))
44.01
𝑚𝑜𝑙
=
3600𝑠
45 −3 −5 −8
+ 𝑚̇ ∫ 36.11×10 + 4.233×10 −12− 2.887×10 𝑑𝑇
25 +7.464×10
𝑔
9480000 𝑘𝐽
( ℎ𝑟
𝑔 × (0.7526 𝑚𝑜𝑙 ))
44.01
𝑚𝑜𝑙
= −23,545.03 +
3600𝑠
= −𝟐𝟑, 𝟓𝟎𝟎. 𝟎𝟎 𝒌𝑾
45
𝐻𝑁𝑎𝐶𝑙 𝑜𝑢𝑡 ̂𝑓 𝑁𝑎𝐶𝑙 + ∫ 𝐶𝑝𝑁𝑎𝐶𝑙 𝑑𝑇)
= 𝑚̇(𝐻
25
𝑔
4200000
( ℎ𝑟
𝑔 )
58.44 𝑘𝐽 45
𝑚𝑜𝑙
= × (−411 + ∫ 0.0368 𝑑𝑇)
3600𝑠 𝑚𝑜𝑙 25
262
𝑚𝑜𝑙 𝑘𝐽 𝑘𝐽
= 19.9635 × (−411 + 0.7358 )
𝑠 𝑚𝑜𝑙 𝑚𝑜𝑙
= −𝟖, 𝟏𝟗𝟎. 𝟑𝟏 𝒌𝑾
45
𝐻𝐻2𝑂 𝑜𝑢𝑡 = 𝑚(̇𝐻
̂𝑓 𝐻2𝑂 + ∫ 𝐶𝑝𝐻2𝑂 𝑑𝑇)
25
𝑔
46490000
( ℎ𝑟
𝑔 )
18.02 𝑘𝐽 45
𝑚𝑜𝑙
= × (−285.84 + ∫ 75.4×10−3 𝑑𝑇)
3600𝑠 𝑚𝑜𝑙 25
= 716.64 × (−285.84 + 1.508 )
= −𝟐𝟎𝟑, 𝟕𝟔𝟒. 𝟐𝟓 𝒌𝑾
45
𝐻𝑁𝑎𝐻𝐶𝑂3 𝑜𝑢𝑡 = 𝑚(̇𝐻
̂𝑓 𝑁𝑎𝐻𝐶𝑂3 + ∫ 𝐶𝑝𝑁𝑎𝐻𝐶𝑂3 𝑑𝑇)
25
𝑔
18100000
( ℎ𝑟
𝑔 )
84.007 𝑘𝐽 45
𝑚𝑜𝑙
= × (−945.60 + ∫ 0.0876 𝑑𝑇)
3600𝑠 𝑚𝑜𝑙 25
= 59.85 × (−945.60 + 1.7522 )
= −𝟓𝟔, 𝟒𝟖𝟖. 𝟖𝟑 𝒌𝑾
45
𝐻𝑁𝐻4𝐶𝑙 𝑜𝑢𝑡 = 𝑚(̇𝐻
̂𝑓 𝑁𝐻4𝐶𝑙 + ∫ 𝐶𝑝𝑁𝐻4𝐶𝑙 𝑑𝑇)
25
𝑔
11520000
( ℎ𝑟
𝑔 )
53.49 𝑘𝐽 45
𝑚𝑜𝑙
= × (−361.20 + ∫ 0.0841 𝑑𝑇)
3600𝑠 𝑚𝑜𝑙 25
= 59.82 × (−361.20 + 1.6820 )
= −𝟐𝟏, 𝟓𝟎𝟕. 𝟗𝟎 𝒌𝑾
∆𝐻 = (−8,190.31) + (−203,764.25 ) + (−56,488.83) + (−21,507.90)

−((−32,741.73) + (−220,770.80) + ( −2,721.69) + (−23,500.00))
= −289,951.29 − (−279,734.22)
= −𝟏𝟎, 𝟐𝟏𝟕. 𝟎𝟕 𝒌𝑾
263
Rotary Filter

Assumption: 100% separation of NaHCO3 & pressure changes neglected since the
mixture is fed from bottom
Components:
1. Inlet stream: NaClin (aq), H2Oin (l), NaHCO3in (s) and NH4Clin (aq)
2. Outlet stream: NaClout (aq), H2Oout (l), NaHCO3out (s) and NH4Clout (aq)
45
𝐻𝑁𝑎𝐶𝑙 𝑖𝑛 ̂𝑓 𝑁𝑎𝐶𝑙 + ∫ 𝐶𝑝𝑁𝑎𝐶𝑙 𝑑𝑇) = −𝟖, 𝟏𝟗𝟎. 𝟑𝟏 𝒌𝑾
= 𝑚̇(𝐻
25
45
𝐻𝐻2𝑂 𝑖𝑛 = 𝑚(̇𝐻
̂𝑓 𝐻2𝑂 + ∫ 𝐶𝑝𝐻2𝑂 𝑑𝑇) = −𝟐𝟎𝟑, 𝟕𝟔𝟒. 𝟐𝟓 𝒌𝑾
25
45
𝐻𝑁𝑎𝐻𝐶𝑂3 𝑖𝑛 = 𝑚(̇𝐻
̂𝑓 𝑁𝑎𝐻𝐶𝑂3 + ∫ 𝐶𝑝𝑁𝑎𝐻𝐶𝑂3 𝑑𝑇) = −𝟓𝟔, 𝟒𝟖𝟖. 𝟖𝟑 𝒌𝑾
25
45
𝐻𝑁𝐻4𝐶𝑙 𝑖𝑛 = 𝑚(̇𝐻
̂𝑓 𝑁𝐻4𝐶𝑙 + ∫ 𝐶𝑝𝑁𝐻4𝐶𝑙 𝑑𝑇) = −𝟐𝟏, 𝟓𝟎𝟕. 𝟗𝟎 𝒌𝑾
25
𝐻𝑁𝑎𝐶𝑙 𝑜𝑢𝑡 = 𝐻𝑁𝑎𝐶𝑙 𝑖𝑛 = −𝟖, 𝟏𝟗𝟎. 𝟑𝟏 𝒌𝑾
𝐻𝐻2𝑂 𝑜𝑢𝑡 = 𝐻𝐻2𝑂 𝑖𝑛 = −𝟐𝟎𝟑, 𝟕𝟔𝟒. 𝟐𝟓 𝒌𝑾
𝐻𝑁𝑎𝐻𝐶𝑂3 𝑜𝑢𝑡 = 𝐻𝑁𝑎𝐻𝐶𝑂3 𝑖𝑛 = −𝟓𝟔, 𝟒𝟖𝟖. 𝟖𝟑 𝒌𝑾
𝐻𝑁𝐻4𝐶𝑙 𝑜𝑢𝑡 = 𝐻𝑁𝐻4𝐶𝑙 𝑖𝑛 = −𝟐𝟏, 𝟓𝟎𝟕. 𝟗𝟎 𝒌𝑾
∆𝐻 = (−8,190.31) + (−203,764.25 ) + (−56,488.83) + (−21,507.90)

−((−8,190.31) + (−203,764.25 ) + (−56,488.83) + (−21,507.90))
= 𝟎 𝒌𝑾
264
Calciner
Process conditions: Tin = 45 ℃, Tout = 200℃, Pin = Pout = 1atm

Components:
1. Inlet stream: NaHCO3in (s)
2. Outlet stream: Na2CO3out (s), CO2 in(g) and H2Oout (v)
𝐻𝑁𝑎𝐻𝐶𝑂3 𝑖𝑛 = −𝟓𝟔, 𝟒𝟖𝟖. 𝟖𝟑 𝒌𝑾
200
𝐻Na2CO3 out ̂𝑓 Na2CO3 + 𝑚̇ ∫
= 𝑚̇𝐻 𝐶𝑝Na2CO3 𝑑𝑇
25
200
= -33847.21+ ∫25 0.1123 dT
𝑔
11420000 𝑘𝐽
( ℎ𝑟
𝑔 × (19.65 𝑚𝑜𝑙 ))
105.99
𝑚𝑜𝑙
= −33847.21 +
3600𝑠
= −𝟑𝟑, 𝟐𝟓𝟗. 𝟏𝟎 𝒌𝑾
100 200
̂𝑓 𝐻2𝑂 + 𝑚̇ ∫
𝐻𝐻2𝑂 𝑜𝑢𝑡 = 𝑚̇𝐻 𝐶𝑝𝐻2𝑂 𝑑𝑇 + 𝑚̇ ∫ ̂𝑣
𝐶𝑝𝐻2𝑂 𝑑𝑇 + 𝑚̇𝐻
25 100
200
100
= −7231.94 + 𝑚̇ ∫ 75.4000 X 10−3 𝑑𝑇 + 𝑚̇ ∫ 33.4600 X 10−3
25
100
+ 0.6880 X 10−5 T + 0.7604 X 10−8 T 2 − 3.5930 X 10−12 T 3 dT

+ 1215.94
𝑔 𝑔
1940000 𝑘𝐽 1940000 𝑘𝐽
( ℎ𝑟 ℎ𝑟
𝑔 × (5.66 𝑚𝑜𝑙 )) ( 𝑔 × (3.43 𝑚𝑜𝑙 ))
18.02 18.02
𝑚𝑜𝑙 𝑚𝑜𝑙
= −7231.94 + +
3600𝑠 3600𝑠
+ 1215.94
= −7231.94 + 169.26 + 102.57 + 1215.94
= -5,744.17 𝒌𝑾
265
200
̂𝑓 𝐶𝑂2 + 𝑚̇ ∫
𝐻𝐶𝑂2 𝑜𝑢𝑡 = 𝑚̇𝐻 𝐶𝑝𝐶𝑂2 𝑑𝑇
25
200
= −11772.51 + ∫ 36.1100 X 10−3 + 4.2330 X 10−5 T − 2.8870 X 10−8 T 2

25
+ 7.4640 X 10−12 T 3 dT
𝑔
4740000 𝑘𝐽
( ℎ𝑟
𝑔 × (7.23 𝑚𝑜𝑙 ))
44.01
𝑚𝑜𝑙
= −11772.51 +
3600𝑠
= −𝟏𝟏, 𝟓𝟓𝟔. 𝟐𝟏 𝒌𝑾
∆𝐻 = (−33,259.10) + (−5,744.17 ) + (−11,556.21) − ((−56,488.83 ))

= −𝟓, 𝟗𝟐𝟗. 𝟑𝟓 𝒌𝑾
Cooler 3

Components:
1. Inlet stream: H2Oin (v), CO2in (g)
2. Outlet stream: H2Oout (l), CO2out (g)
𝐻𝐻2𝑂 𝑖𝑛 = −5,744.17 𝒌𝑾
𝐻𝐶𝑂2 𝑖𝑛 = −𝟏𝟏, 𝟓𝟓𝟔. 𝟐𝟏 𝒌𝑾
̂𝑓 𝐻2𝑂
𝑔
1940000 𝑘𝐽
( ℎ𝑟
𝑔 × (−285.84 𝑚𝑜𝑙 ))
18.02
𝑚𝑜𝑙
=
3600𝑠
= −𝟖, 𝟓𝟒𝟖. 𝟎𝟔 𝒌𝑾
266
̂𝑓 𝐶𝑂2
𝐻𝐶𝑂2 𝑜𝑢𝑡 = 𝑚̇𝐻
𝑔
4740000 𝑘𝐽
( ℎ𝑟
𝑔 × (−393.50 𝑚𝑜𝑙 ))
44.01
𝑚𝑜𝑙
=
3600𝑠
= −𝟏𝟏, 𝟕𝟕𝟐. 𝟓𝟏 𝒌𝑾
∆𝐻 = (−8,548.06 + ( −11,772.51)) − ( −5,744.17 + (−11,556.21 ))

= −𝟑, 𝟎𝟐𝟎. 𝟏𝟗 𝒌𝑾
Cooler 4

Components:
1. Inlet stream: Na2CO3in (s)
2. Outlet stream: Na2CO3out (s)
𝐻𝑁𝑎2𝐶𝑂3 𝑖𝑛 = −𝟑𝟑, 𝟐𝟓𝟗. 𝟏𝟎 𝒌𝑾
̂𝑓 𝑁𝑎2𝐶𝑂3
𝐻𝑁𝑎2𝐶𝑂3 𝑜𝑢𝑡 = 𝑚̇𝐻
𝑔
11420000 𝑘𝐽
( ℎ𝑟
𝑔 × (−1130.90 𝑚𝑜𝑙 ))
105.99
𝑚𝑜𝑙
=
3600𝑠
= −𝟑𝟑, 𝟖𝟒𝟕. 𝟐𝟏 𝒌𝑾
∆𝐻 = (−33,847.21) − (−33,259.10)
= −𝟓𝟖𝟖. 𝟏𝟏 𝒌𝑾
267
Separation Drum

Components:
1. Inlet stream: CO2 in (g) and H2Oin (l)
2. Outlet stream: CO2 out (g) and H2Oout (l)
𝐻𝐶𝑂2 𝑖𝑛 = −𝟏𝟏, 𝟕𝟕𝟐. 𝟓𝟏 𝒌𝑾
𝐻𝐻2𝑂 𝑖𝑛 = −𝟖, 𝟓𝟒𝟖. 𝟎𝟔 𝒌𝑾
𝐻𝐶𝑂2 𝑜𝑢𝑡 = 𝐻𝐶𝑂2 𝑖𝑛 = -11,772.51 kW
𝐻𝐻2𝑂 𝑜𝑢𝑡 = 𝐻𝐻2𝑂 𝑖𝑛 = −𝟖, 𝟓𝟒𝟖. 𝟎𝟔 𝒌𝑾
∆𝐻 = (−11,772.51) + (−8,548.06 ) − ((−11,772.51) + (−8,548.06))

= 𝟎 𝒌𝑾
Compressor 2
Process conditions: Tin = 25℃, Tout = 128℃, Pin = 1 atm, Pout = 4atm
Components:
𝐻𝐶𝑂2 𝑖𝑛 = 𝟏𝟏, 𝟕𝟕𝟐. 𝟓𝟏 𝒌𝑾
128
= 𝑚̇𝐻 𝐶𝑝𝐶𝑂2 𝑑𝑇 + 𝑉∆𝑃
25
268
𝑔
4740000 𝑘𝐽
( ℎ𝑟
𝑔 × (−393.50 𝑚𝑜𝑙 ))
44.01
𝑚𝑜𝑙
=
3600𝑠
128
+ 𝑚̇ ∫ 36.11×10−3 + 4.233×10−5 − 2.887×10−8 𝑑𝑇
25 +7.464×10−12
4740 𝑘𝑔 𝑚3
( ×( ))
ℎ𝑟 1.977 𝑘𝑔
+ · 3 𝑎𝑡𝑚
3600𝑠
𝑔
4740000 𝑘𝐽
( ℎ𝑟
𝑔 × (4.0734 𝑚𝑜𝑙 )) 𝐽
44.01 7192.716
𝑚𝑜𝑙 ℎ𝑟
= −11,772.51 + +
3600𝑠 3600𝑠
= −𝟏𝟏, 𝟔𝟓𝟎. 𝟕𝟓 𝒌𝑾
∆𝐻 = −11,650.75 − (−11,772.51)
= 𝟏𝟐𝟏. 𝟕𝟔 𝒌𝑾
Heater 1
Process conditions: Tin = 45℃, Tout = 99.6℃, Pin = Pout = 1atm

Components:
1. Inlet stream: NaClin (aq), H2Oin (l), NH4Clin (aq)
2. Outlet stream: NaClout (aq), H2Oout (l), NH4Clout (aq)
𝐻𝑁𝑎𝐶𝑙 𝑖𝑛 = −𝟖, 𝟏𝟗𝟎. 𝟑𝟏 𝒌𝑾
𝐻𝐻2𝑂 𝑖𝑛 = −𝟐𝟎𝟑, 𝟕𝟔𝟒. 𝟐𝟓 𝒌𝑾
𝐻𝑁𝐻4𝐶𝑙 𝑖𝑛 = −𝟐𝟏, 𝟓𝟎𝟕. 𝟗𝟎 𝒌𝑾

269
99.6
̂𝑓 𝑁𝑎𝐶𝑙 + 𝑚̇ ∫
𝐻𝑁𝑎𝐶𝑙 𝑜𝑢𝑡 = 𝑚̇𝐻 𝐶𝑝𝑁𝑎𝐶𝑙 𝑑𝑇
25
𝑔
4200000 𝑘𝐽
( ℎ𝑟
𝑔 × (−411 𝑚𝑜𝑙 ))
58.44
𝑚𝑜𝑙 99.6
= + 𝑚̇ ∫ 0.0368 𝑑𝑇
3600𝑠 25
𝑔
4200000 𝑘𝐽
( ℎ𝑟
𝑔 × (2.7445 𝑚𝑜𝑙 ))
58.44
𝑚𝑜𝑙
= −8,204.99 +
3600𝑠
= −𝟖, 𝟏𝟓𝟎. 𝟐𝟎 𝒌𝑾
99.6
𝐻𝐻2𝑂 𝑜𝑢𝑡 ̂𝑓 𝐻2𝑂 + 𝑚̇ ∫
= 𝑚̇𝐻 𝐶𝑝𝐻2𝑂 𝑑𝑇
25
𝑔
46490000 𝑘𝐽
( ℎ𝑟
𝑔 × (−285.84 𝑚𝑜𝑙 ))
18.02
𝑚𝑜𝑙 99.6
= + 𝑚̇ ∫ 75.4×10−3 𝑑𝑇
3600𝑠 25
𝑔
46490000 𝑘𝐽
( ℎ𝑟
𝑔 × (5.62 𝑚𝑜𝑙 ))
18.02
𝑚𝑜𝑙
= −204,844.95 +
3600𝑠
= −𝟐𝟎𝟎, 𝟖𝟏𝟕. 𝟒𝟐 𝒌𝑾
99.6
𝐻𝑁𝐻4𝐶𝑙 𝑜𝑢𝑡 ̂𝑓 𝑁𝐻4𝐶𝑙 + 𝑚̇ ∫
= 𝑚̇𝐻 𝐶𝑝𝑁𝐻4𝐶𝑙 𝑑𝑇
25
𝑔
11520000 𝑘𝐽
( ℎ𝑟
𝑔 × (−361.2 𝑚𝑜𝑙 ))
53.49
𝑚𝑜𝑙 99.6
= + 𝑚̇ ∫ 0.0841 𝑑𝑇
3600𝑠 25
𝑔
11520000 𝑘𝐽
( ℎ𝑟
𝑔 × (6.2739 𝑚𝑜𝑙 ))
53.49
𝑚𝑜𝑙
= −21,608.52 +
3600𝑠
= −𝟐𝟏, 𝟐𝟑𝟑. 𝟏𝟗 𝒌𝑾
270
∆𝐻 = (−8,150.2 ) + (−200,817.4219 ) + (−212,33.19 )

−((−8,190.31) + (−203,764.25) + ( −21,507.90))
= −230,200.61 − (−233,462.15)
= 𝟑, 𝟐𝟔𝟏. 𝟓𝟒 𝒌𝑾
Evaporator
Process conditions: Tin =99.6℃, Tout = 100℃, Pin = Pout = 1atm

Components:
1. Inlet stream: NaCl in(aq), NH4Cl in(aq) and H2Oin (l)
2. Outlet stream: NaCl out(s), NH4Cl out(s) and H2Oout (v)
𝐻𝑁𝑎𝐶𝑙 𝑖𝑛 = −𝟖, 𝟏𝟓𝟎. 𝟐𝟎 𝒌𝑾
𝐻𝐻2𝑂 𝑖𝑛 = −𝟐𝟎𝟎, 𝟖𝟏𝟕. 𝟒𝟐 𝒌𝑾
𝐻𝑁𝐻4𝐶𝑙 𝑖𝑛 = −𝟐𝟏, 𝟐𝟑𝟑. 𝟏𝟗 𝒌𝑾
100
𝐻𝑁𝑎𝐶𝑙 𝑜𝑢𝑡 ̂𝑓 𝑁𝑎𝐶𝑙 + 𝑚̇ ∫
= 𝑚̇𝐻 𝐶𝑝𝑁𝑎𝐶𝑙 𝑑𝑇
25
100
= -8205.00 + 𝑚̇ ∫25 0.0368 𝑑𝑇
𝑔
4200000 𝑘𝐽
( ℎ𝑟
𝑔 × (2.76 𝑚𝑜𝑙 ))
58.44
𝑚𝑜𝑙
= −8205.00 +
3600𝑠
= −𝟖, 𝟏𝟒𝟗. 𝟗𝟏 𝒌𝑾
100
̂𝑓 𝐻2𝑂 + 𝑚̇ ∫
𝐻𝐻2𝑂 𝑜𝑢𝑡 = 𝑚̇𝐻 𝐶𝑝𝐻2𝑂 𝑑𝑇 + 𝑚̇∆𝐻𝑣
25
271
𝑔
46490000 𝑘𝐽
( ℎ𝑟
𝑔 × (−241.83 𝑚𝑜𝑙 ))
18.02
𝑚𝑜𝑙 100
𝑘𝐽
= + 𝑚̇ ∫ 75.4×10−3 𝑑𝑇 + 𝑚̇(40.66 )
3600𝑠 25 𝑚𝑜𝑙
𝑔 𝑔
46490000 𝑘𝐽 46490000 𝑘𝐽
( ℎ𝑟 ( ℎ𝑟
𝑔 ×(5.6550𝑚𝑜𝑙)) 𝑔 ×(40.66𝑚𝑜𝑙))
18.02 18.02
𝑚𝑜𝑙 𝑚𝑜𝑙
= −173,305.54 + +
3600𝑠 3600𝑠
= −𝟏𝟒𝟎, 𝟏𝟏𝟒. 𝟐𝟕 𝒌𝑾
100
̂𝑓 𝑁𝐻4𝐶𝑙 + 𝑚̇ ∫
𝐻𝑁𝐻4𝐶𝑙 𝑜𝑢𝑡 = 𝑚̇𝐻 𝐶𝑝𝑁𝐻4𝐶𝑙 𝑑𝑇
25
100
= -21608.52 + 𝑚̇ ∫25 0.0841 𝑑𝑇
𝑔
11520000 𝑘𝐽
( ℎ𝑟
𝑔 × (6.31 𝑚𝑜𝑙 ))
53.49
𝑚𝑜𝑙
= −21608.52 +
3600𝑠
= −𝟐𝟏, 𝟐𝟑𝟏. 𝟎𝟑 𝒌𝑾
∆𝐻 = (−140,114.27 ) + (−21,231.03 ) + (−8,149.91)

−((−200,817.42 ) + (−21,233.19 ) + (−8,150.20))
= (-169,495.21) - (-230,200.81)
= 𝟔𝟎, 𝟕𝟎𝟓. 𝟔𝟎 𝒌𝑾
Cooler 5

Components:
1. Inlet stream: NaClin (s), NH4Clin (s)
2. Outlet stream: NaClout (s), NH4Clout (s)
𝐻𝑁𝑎𝐶𝑙 𝑖𝑛 = −𝟖, 𝟏𝟒𝟗. 𝟗𝟏 𝒌𝑾

272
𝐻𝑁𝐻4𝐶𝑙 𝑖𝑛 = −𝟐𝟏, 𝟐𝟑𝟏. 𝟏𝟗 𝒌𝑾
̂𝑓 𝑁𝑎𝐶𝑙
𝑔
4200000 𝑘𝐽
( ℎ𝑟
𝑔 × (−411.0 𝑚𝑜𝑙 ))
58.44
𝑚𝑜𝑙
=
3600𝑠
= −𝟖, 𝟐𝟎𝟓. 𝟎𝟎 𝒌𝑾
̂𝑓 𝑁𝐻4𝐶𝑙
𝐻𝑁𝐻4𝐶𝑙 𝑜𝑢𝑡 = 𝑚̇𝐻
𝑔
11520000 𝑘𝐽
( ℎ𝑟
𝑔 × (−361.20 𝑚𝑜𝑙 ))
53.49
𝑚𝑜𝑙
=
3600𝑠
= −𝟐𝟏, 𝟔𝟎𝟖. 𝟓𝟐 𝒌𝑾
∆𝐻 = (−8,205.00 + (−21,608.52)) − (−8,149.91 + (−21,231.19))

= −𝟒𝟑𝟐. 𝟒𝟐𝒌𝑾
Cooler 6

Components:
1. Inlet stream: H2Oin (v)
2. Outlet stream: H2Oout (l)
𝐻𝐻2𝑂 𝑖𝑛 = −𝟏𝟒𝟎, 𝟏𝟏𝟒. 𝟐𝟕 𝒌𝑾
̂𝑓 𝐻2𝑂
273
𝑔
46490000 𝑘𝐽
( ℎ𝑟
𝑔 × (−285.84 𝑚𝑜𝑙 ))
18.02
𝑚𝑜𝑙
=
3600𝑠
= −𝟐𝟎𝟒, 𝟖𝟒𝟒. 𝟗𝟓 𝒌𝑾
∆𝐻 = (−204,844.95) − (−140,114.27)
= −𝟔𝟒, 𝟕𝟑𝟎. 𝟔𝟖 𝒌𝑾
Pump 2
Components:
1. Inlet stream: H2Oin (l)
2. Outlet stream: H2Oout (l)
𝐻𝐻2𝑂 𝑖𝑛 = −𝟐𝟎𝟒, 𝟖𝟒𝟒. 𝟗𝟓 𝒌𝑾
𝐻𝐻2𝑂 𝑜𝑢𝑡 = −204,844.95 + 𝑉∆𝑃

𝑔
46490000
( ℎ𝑟
𝑔 ) ×(4 − 1)𝑎𝑡𝑚
1000000 3
𝑚
= −204,844.95 +
(1000)(3600𝑠)
( )
= −204,844.95 + 3.89×10−5
= −𝟐𝟎𝟒, 𝟖𝟒𝟒. 𝟗𝟓 𝒌𝑾
∆𝐻 = (−204,844.95) − (−204,844.95)
= 𝟑. 𝟖𝟗×𝟏𝟎−𝟓 𝒌𝑾
APPENDIX C
EQUIPMENT SIZING AND COSTING
Mixer 1/ Dissolver
Assumptions/ additional information:
i. Vertical vessel with stirrer

ii. Two-paddle stirrer/ turbine (speed of more than 30 rev/min)
iii. L/D = 3
iv. Residence time, θ = 5 min
v. Low-alloy steel, MIM-2700 (Fe-7%Ni) Carbo-nitride, FM = 1.2
vi. Bare-module factor, FBM = 4.16
vii. Maximum allowable stress, S = 15000 psi
viii. Weld efficiency, E = 0.85 (10% spot X-ray check)
From Aspen data:
Flowrate, 𝑉̇ = 36.05 ft3/min

Heat duty, Q = 0 kW = Btu/hr
Operating pressure, Po = 1atm = 14.7 psig
275
Vessel sizing
a) Vessel volume, V
𝑓𝑡 3
𝑉 = 36.05 ×5𝑚𝑖𝑛
𝑚𝑖𝑛
𝑽 = 𝟏𝟖𝟎. 𝟐𝟓 𝒇𝒕𝟑
b) Vessel diameter, D
𝜋𝐷2 3𝜋𝐷3
𝑉= ∙𝐿 =
4 4
4𝑉 1/3 4×180.25 1/3
𝐷=( ) =( )
3𝜋 3𝜋
𝑫 = 𝟒. 𝟐𝟓 𝒇𝒕
c) Vessel height, L
𝐿 = 3𝐷 = 3×4.25 𝑓𝑡
𝑳 = 𝟏𝟐. 𝟕𝟓 𝒇𝒕
d) Cross-sectional area, A
𝜋𝐷²
A= 4
𝜋(4.25)2
A= 4
𝑨 = 𝟏𝟒. 𝟏𝟗 𝒇𝒕𝟐
276
Vessel costing
a) Platform cost, CPL
𝐶𝑃𝐿 = 361.8(𝐷𝑖 )0.73960 (𝐿)0.70684

𝐶𝑃𝐿 = 361.8(4.25)0.73960 (12.75)0.70684
𝑪𝑷𝑳 = $ 𝟔, 𝟑𝟕𝟕. 𝟒𝟎
b) Vessel Cost, CV
𝑃𝑑 = 𝑒𝑥𝑝 {0.60608 + 0.91615 [𝑙𝑛 (𝑃𝑜 )] + 0.0015655 [𝑙𝑛 (𝑃𝑜 )] 2 }

𝑃𝑑 = 𝑒𝑥𝑝 {0.60608 + 0.91615 [𝑙𝑛 (14.7)] + 0.0015655 [𝑙𝑛 (14.7)] 2 }
𝑃𝑑 = 21.76 psig
𝑡𝑝 = (𝑃𝑑 ∙ 𝐷𝑖 ) / (2𝑆𝐸 – 1.2 𝑃𝑑 )

((21.76 𝑝𝑠𝑖𝑔)× (4.25 𝑓𝑡))
𝑡𝑝 =
((2×15000 𝑝𝑠𝑖𝑔×0.85)– (1.2×21.76 𝑝𝑠𝑖𝑔))
𝑡𝑝 = 0.0036 𝑓𝑡 = 0.0432 𝑖𝑛.
Since the wall thickness calculated is too small due to low pressure, table below
is used as reference for designed diameter of vessel.
𝑫𝒊 (ft) 𝒕𝒑 (in.)
Up to 4 1/4
4–6 5/16
6–8 3/8
8 – 10 7/16
10 - 12 1/2
1
Hence, 𝑡𝑝 = 4 𝑖𝑛 = 0.25 𝑖𝑛.
Assuming a wall thickness of 1.25 in., L = 153 in. and 𝐷𝑖 = 51 in.

𝐷𝑜 = 51 + 1.25(2) = 53.50 𝑖𝑛.
277
To withstand the wind load and earthquake,

0.22(𝐷𝑜 +18)𝐿2
𝑡𝑤 = 𝑆𝐷𝑜 2
0.22(53.50+18)1532
𝑡𝑤 = 15000(53.50)2
𝑡𝑤 = 0.0086 𝑖𝑛.
𝑡𝑝 + 𝑡𝑤 0.25 + 0.0086
𝑡𝑣 = = = 0.1293 𝑖𝑛.
2 2
Adding the corrosion allowance of 1/8 in.,

1
𝑡𝑠 = 0.1293 + = 0.2543 𝑖𝑛.
8
Rounding up to the nearest increment, via increment 1/16 in. from 3/16 in.
𝒕𝒔 = 𝟎. 𝟑𝟏𝟐𝟓 𝒊𝒏.
Considering ρ = 0.275 lb/in.3 for low-alloy steel,

𝑊 = 𝜋 (𝐷𝑖 + 𝑡𝑠 ) (𝐿 + 0.8𝐷𝑖 )𝑡𝑠 ∙ 𝜌
𝑊 = 𝜋(51 + 0.3125)×(153 + 0.8(51))×0.3125×0.275
𝑾 = 𝟐, 𝟔𝟖𝟒. 𝟕𝟗 𝒍𝒃
Assuming equation is applicable for the calculated weight of vessel,

𝐶𝑣 = 𝑒𝑥𝑝 {7.0132 + 0.18255[𝑙𝑛 (𝑊)] + 0.02297 [𝑙𝑛 (𝑊)]2 }
𝐶𝑣 = 𝑒𝑥𝑝 {7.0132 + 0.18255[𝑙𝑛 (2684.79)] + 0.02297 [𝑙𝑛 (2684.79)]2 }
𝑪𝒗 = $ 𝟏𝟗, 𝟔𝟔𝟎. 𝟓𝟖
c) Agitator (stirrer) cost, CA
Assuming 10 hp of stirrer in a closed system, includes speed reducer,

𝐶𝐴 = 3620𝑆 0.57 = 3620×100.57
𝑪𝑨 = $ 𝟏𝟑, 𝟒𝟒𝟗. 𝟓𝟖
278
d) Purchase cost, Cp
𝐶𝑃 = 𝐹𝑀 𝐶𝑉 + 𝐶𝑃𝐿
541.7
𝐶𝑃 = ( ) [(1.2×(19,660.58 + 13,449.58)) + 6,377.40]
500
𝑪𝑷 = $ 𝟒𝟗, 𝟗𝟓𝟓. 𝟏𝟑
e) Bare-module cost, CBM
𝐶𝐵𝑀 = 𝐹𝐵𝑀 ∙ 𝐶𝑝 = 4.16 (49,955.13)

𝑪𝑩𝑴 = $ 𝟐𝟎𝟕, 𝟖𝟏𝟑. 𝟑𝟒
i. Vertical packed tower

ii. Packing using ceramic Raschig rings:
Nominal diameter, Dp = 2.0 in.
Packing factor, Fp = 65 ft2/ft3
iii. Henry constant, H = 0.95 (very low NH3 concentration in inlet stream)
iv. Stainless steel 316, FM = 2.1
v. Bare- module factor, FBM = 4.16
i. Maximum allowable stress, S = 29732.70 psi
vi. Weld efficiency, E = 0.95 (excellent welding)
From Aspen data:
Brine volumetric flowrate, 𝑉̇𝑏𝑟𝑖𝑛𝑒 = 34.26081 ft3/min

Ammonia volumetric flowrate, 𝑉̇𝑁𝐻3= 3100.81 ft3/min
Brine mass flowrate, L = 67160.02 kg/hr
279
Ammonia mass flowrate, G = 3667.37 kg/hr

Heat duty, Q = 2864.89 kW = 10697304.02 Btu/hr
Tower sizing
a) Pressure drop at flooding, ∆Pflood
83.33𝑚𝑚𝐻2 𝑂/𝑚
∆𝑃𝑓𝑙𝑜𝑜𝑑 = 0.115𝐹𝑝 0.7 = 0.115(650.7 ) ( )
𝑖𝑛. 𝐻2 𝑂/𝑓𝑡
∆𝑷𝒇𝒍𝒐𝒐𝒅 = 𝟏𝟕𝟖. 𝟎𝟓 𝒎𝒎𝑯𝟐 𝑶/𝒎
b) Flooding velocity, Uf
Assume 𝜇𝐿 =1.676 cP at 25℃,

𝑓{𝜇𝐿 } = 0.96𝜇𝐿 0.19 = 0.96(1.6760.19 )
𝑓{𝜇𝐿 } = 0.8912
Given, ρL= 1.164 g/cm3 & ρH2O = 1 g/cm3

𝜌𝐻2𝑂 𝜌𝐻2𝑂 2
𝑓{𝜌𝐿 } = −0.8787 + 2.6776 ( ) − 0.6313 ( )
𝜌𝐿 𝜌𝐿
1 1 2
𝑓{𝜌𝐿 } = −0.8787 + 2.6776 ( ) − 0.6313 ( )
1.164 1.164
𝑓{𝜌𝐿 } = 0.9557
Given ρG = 0.00086 g/cm3,

𝐿 𝜌 1/2 67160.02 0.00086 1/2
𝐹𝐿𝐺 = (𝐺 ) ( 𝜌𝐺) = ( 3667.37 ) ( )
𝐿 1.164
𝐹𝐿𝐺 = 0.4978
𝑌 = 𝑒𝑥𝑝[−3.7121 − 1.0371(𝑙𝑛𝐹𝐿𝐺 ) − 0.1501(𝑙𝑛𝐹𝐿𝐺 )2 − 0.007544(𝑙𝑛𝐹𝐿𝐺 )3 ]

280
𝑌 = 𝑒𝑥𝑝[−3.7121 − 1.0371(𝑙𝑛0.4978) − 0.1501(𝑙𝑛0.4978)2

− 0.007544(𝑙𝑛0.4978)3 ]
𝑌 = 0.0469
𝑈𝑓 2 𝐹𝑝 𝜌𝐺
𝑌= (𝜌 ) 𝑓{𝜌𝐿 }𝑓{𝜇𝐿 }
𝑔 𝐻2𝑂
𝑈𝑓 2 (65) 0.00086
0.0469 = ( ) (0.9557)(0.8912)
32.2 1
𝑈𝑓 2 = 31.72
𝑼𝒇 = 𝟓. 𝟔𝟑 𝒇𝒕/𝒔
c) Tower diameter, DT
Assuming relative mass transfer coefficient of 𝑓 = 0.7,

1
1 𝑙𝑏 2
4𝐺 24(2.2459 𝑠 )
𝐷𝑇 = [ ] =[ ]
(𝑓𝑈𝑓 𝜋𝜌𝐺 𝑓𝑡 𝑙𝑏
𝜋(0.7) (5.63 𝑠 ) (0.0537 3 )
𝑓𝑡
𝑫𝑻 = 𝟑. 𝟔𝟖 𝒇𝒕
𝜋(𝐷)2
A= 4
𝜋(3.68)2
A= 4
𝑨 = 𝟏𝟎. 𝟔𝟒 𝒇𝒕𝟐
e) Tower height, 𝑧
Using analytical calculation method,

𝑧 = 𝐻𝐸𝑇𝑃(𝑁𝑂𝐺 )
281
Assuming structured packings at low pressure and low viscosity of brine,

Given surface area of packing, a = 28 ft2/ft3,
100 100
𝐻𝐸𝑇𝑃 = + 0.333 = + 0.333
𝑎 28
𝑯𝑬𝑻𝑷 = 𝟑. 𝟗𝟎 𝒇𝒕
𝑦 − 𝐻𝑥 1 1
𝑙𝑛 [(𝑦 𝑖𝑛 − 𝐻𝑥𝑖𝑛 ) (1 − 𝐴) + 𝐴]
𝑜𝑢𝑡 𝑖𝑛
𝑁𝑂𝐺 =
1
1−𝐴
Since the concentration of ammonia in inlet brine is almost zero and dilute,
𝑦 1 1
𝑙𝑛 [(𝑦 𝑖𝑛 ) (1 − 𝐴) + 𝐴]
𝑜𝑢𝑡
𝑁𝑂𝐺 =
1
1−
𝐴
And, absorption factor, A is computed by:
kg
𝑚̇𝑏𝑟𝑖𝑛𝑒 67160.02
𝐴= = hr = 19.28
0.95𝑚̇𝑁𝐻3 kg
0.95(3667.37 )
hr
Assuming 99% absorption in liquid stream as aqueous state leaving 1% as gas

phase,
1 1 1
𝑙𝑛 [(0.01) (1 − 19.28) + 19.28]
𝑁𝑂𝐺 =
1
1 − 19.28
𝑁𝑂𝐺 = 4.80
𝑧 = 𝐻𝐸𝑇𝑃(𝑁𝑂𝐺 ) = 3.90(4.80)
𝒛 = 𝟏𝟖. 𝟕𝟐 𝒇𝒕
f) Residence time, θ
𝑧 18.72 𝑓𝑡
𝜃= =
𝑔𝑎𝑠 𝑣𝑒𝑙𝑜𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦 3100.81 𝑓𝑡 3 /min
( )
10.64 𝑓𝑡 2
𝜽 = 𝟎. 𝟎𝟔 𝒎𝒊𝒏 = 𝟑. 𝟖𝟓 𝒔𝒆𝒄
282
Tower costing
Assuming the equation is applicable for tower height of 18.72 ft,

𝐶𝑃𝐿 = 300.9(𝐷𝑖 )0.63316 (𝐿)0.80161
𝐶𝑃𝐿 = 300.9(3.68)0.63316 (18.72)0.80161
𝑪𝑷𝑳 = $ 𝟕, 𝟏𝟖𝟕. 𝟔𝟔
b) Tower Cost, CV
𝑃𝑑 = 𝑒𝑥𝑝 {0.60608 + 0.91615 [𝑙𝑛 (𝑃𝑜 )] + 0.0015655 [𝑙𝑛 (𝑃𝑜 )] 2 }

𝑃𝑑 = 𝑒𝑥𝑝 {0.60608 + 0.91615 [𝑙𝑛 (14.7)] + 0.0015655 [𝑙𝑛 (14.7)] 2 }
𝑡𝑝 = (𝑃𝑑 ∙ 𝐷𝑖 ) / (2𝑆𝐸 – 1.2 𝑃𝑑 )

((21.76 𝑝𝑠𝑖)× (3.68 𝑓𝑡))
𝑡𝑝 =
((2×29732.70 psi×0.95)– (1.2×21.76 𝑝𝑠𝑖))
𝑡𝑝 = 0.0014 𝑓𝑡 = 0.0168 𝑖𝑛.
Since the wall thickness calculated is too small due to low pressure, hence,
1
𝑡𝑝 = 𝑖𝑛 = 0.25 𝑖𝑛.
4
Assuming a wall thickness of 1.25 in., L = 224.64 in. and 𝐷𝑖 = 44.16 in.
𝐷𝑜 = 44.16 + 1.25(2) = 46.66 𝑖𝑛.

0.22(𝐷𝑜 + 18)𝐿2
𝑡𝑤 =
𝑆𝐷𝑜 2
0.22(46.66 + 18)224.642
𝑡𝑤 =
29732.70(46.66)2
𝑡𝑤 = 0.011 𝑖𝑛.
283
𝑡𝑝 + 𝑡𝑤 0.25 + 0.011
𝑡𝑣 = = = 0.1305 𝑖𝑛.
2 2

1
𝑡𝑠 = 0.1305 + = 0.2555 𝑖𝑛.
8
𝒕𝒔 = 𝟎. 𝟑𝟏𝟐𝟓 𝒊𝒏.
Considering ρ = 0.284 lb/in.3 for stainless steel 316,

𝑊 = 𝜋 (𝐷𝑖 + 𝑡𝑠 ) (𝐿 + 0.8𝐷𝑖 )𝑡𝑠 ∙ 𝜌
𝑊 = 𝜋(44.16 + 0.3125)×(224.64 + 0.8(44.16))×0.3125×0.284
𝑾 = 𝟑, 𝟐𝟐𝟑. 𝟓𝟏 𝒍𝒃
Assuming the equation is applicable for the calculated weight of tower,

𝐶𝑣 = 𝑒𝑥𝑝 {7.2756 + 0.18255[𝑙𝑛 (𝑊)] + 0.02297[𝑙𝑛 (𝑊)]2 }
𝐶𝑣 = exp{7.2756 + 0.18255[ln(3223.51)] + 0.02297[ln(3223.51)]2 }
𝑪𝒗 = $ 𝟐𝟖, 𝟐𝟔𝟏. 𝟑𝟓
c) Packing cost, Cpackings
𝜋𝐷2 𝐻 𝜋(3.68)2 (18.72)

𝑉𝑝 = =
4 4
𝑉𝑝 = 199.11 𝑓𝑡 3
Based on installation cost table, CPK = 19 $/ft3 for ceramic Raschig rings.
Assuming installed cost of high performance of liquid distributors and

redistributors as $ 125/ft2,
𝐶𝐷𝑅 = 𝐴𝑟𝑒𝑎(𝑖𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑙𝑙𝑒𝑑 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑡) = (10.64)(125)
𝐶𝐷𝑅 = $ 1,329.52
284
𝐶𝑃𝑎𝑐𝑘𝑖𝑛𝑔𝑠 = 𝑉𝑃 𝐶𝑃𝐾 + 𝐶𝐷𝑅 = (199.11)(19) + 1329.52

𝑪𝑷𝒂𝒄𝒌𝒊𝒏𝒈𝒔 = $ 𝟓, 𝟏𝟏𝟐. 𝟔𝟏
𝐶𝑃 = 𝐹𝑀 𝐶𝑉 + 𝐶𝑃𝐿 + 𝐶𝑃𝑎𝑐𝑘𝑖𝑛𝑔𝑠
541.7
𝐶𝑃 = ( ) [(2.1×(28,261.35) + 7,187.66 + 5,112.61]
500
𝑪𝑷 = $ 𝟕𝟕, 𝟔𝟐𝟒. 𝟔𝟒
𝐶𝐵𝑀 = 𝐹𝐵𝑀 ∙ 𝐶𝑝 = 4.16 (77,624.64)

𝑪𝑩𝑴 = $ 𝟑𝟐𝟐, 𝟗𝟏𝟖. 𝟓𝟎
Carbonation Reactor
i. Vertical pressure tower (gas absorption)

ii. Spray tower with series of bubble-cap plates (based on tray tower calculation)
iii. Plate spacing, TS = 18 in.
iv. Foaming system, FF = 0.75
v. Henry’s Law constant, H = 0.8317
vi. Stainless steel 316, FM = 2.1
vii. Bare- module factor, FBM = 4.16
ii. Maximum allowable stress, S = 29732.70 psi
viii. Weld efficiency, E = 0.95 (excellent welding)
285
From Aspen data:
Ammoniated brine volumetric flowrate, 𝑉̇𝑎𝑚𝑚𝑏𝑟𝑖𝑛𝑒 = 37.39 ft3/min

Carbon dioxide volumetric flowrate, 𝑉̇𝐶𝑂2 = 840.41 ft3/min
Ammoniated brine mass flowrate, L = 70827.50 kg/hr
Carbon dioxide mass flowrate, G = 9540.74 kg/hr
ρL= 1.115 g/cm3, ρG = 0.0067 g/cm3
Heat duty, Q = 2864.89 kW = 3.66⨯107 Btu/hr
Operating pressure, Po = 4 atm = 58.78 psig
Tower sizing
a) Flooding velocity, Uf
𝜌𝐿 − 𝜌𝐺 1/2
𝑈𝑓 = 𝐶 ( )
𝜌𝐺
𝐶 = 𝐶𝑆𝐵 𝐹𝑆𝑇 𝐹𝐹 𝐹𝐻𝐴
𝐿 𝜌𝐺 0.5 70827.50 0.0067 0.5

𝐹𝐿𝐺 = ( )( ) = ( )( ) = 0.58
𝐺 𝜌𝐿 9540.74 1.115
Referring to flooding correlation graph of CSB versus FLG, with plate spacing of
18 in., CSB = 0.16 ft/s.
𝜎𝑚𝑖𝑥𝑡𝑢𝑟𝑒 0.20
𝐹𝑆𝑇 = ( )
20
𝜎𝑚𝑖𝑥𝑡𝑢𝑟𝑒 = 𝜎𝑏𝑟𝑖𝑛𝑒 𝑥𝑏𝑟𝑖𝑛𝑒 + 𝜎𝑁𝐻3 𝑥𝑁𝐻3
𝑃𝑐ℎ (𝜌𝐿 − 𝜌𝑉 ) 4
𝜎𝑖 = [ ] ×10−12
𝑀𝑊
where, 𝑃𝑐ℎ is Sugden’s parachor for organic compounds obtained from Chemical
Engineering Vol 6, reference book.
Assuming 𝜌𝑉 = 0,
𝜎𝑏𝑟𝑖𝑛𝑒 = 72 𝑑𝑦𝑛𝑒/𝑐𝑚
286
4
(12.5 + (11.3×3))(0.73) 𝑚𝐽
𝜎𝑁𝐻3 =[ ] ×10−12 = 15.65 2 = 15.65 𝑑𝑦𝑛𝑒/𝑐𝑚
17.03 𝑚
𝜎𝑚𝑖𝑥𝑡𝑢𝑟𝑒 = 72(0.95) + 15.65(0.05) = 69.18 𝑑𝑦𝑛𝑒/𝑐𝑚
69.18 0.20
𝐹𝑆𝑇 =( ) = 1.28
20
𝐹𝐹 = 0.7 & 𝐹𝐻𝐴 = 1 for foaming and bubble-cap trays.
𝑚
𝑓𝑡 𝑠
𝐶 = 𝐶𝑆𝐵 𝐹𝑆𝑇 𝐹𝐹 𝐹𝐻𝐴 = (0.16 ×0.3048 𝑓𝑡 ) (1.28)(0.75)(1) = 0.0468 𝑚/𝑠
𝑠
𝑠
𝜌𝐿 − 𝜌𝐺 1/2 1.115 − 0.0067 1/2

𝑈𝑓 = 𝐶 ( ) = 0.0468 ( ) = 0.6019 𝑚/𝑠
𝜌𝐺 0.0067
𝑼𝒇 = 𝟕𝟏𝟎𝟗. 𝟎𝟔 𝒇𝒕/𝒉𝒓
b) Tower diameter, DT
Assuming relative mass transfer coefficient of 𝑓 = 0.8,

1/2
4𝐺
𝐷𝑇 = [ ]
𝐴
(𝑓𝑈𝑓) )𝜋 (1 − 𝐴𝑑 ) 𝜌𝐺
𝑇
For FLG = 0.58,

𝐴𝑑 (𝐹𝐿𝐺 − 0.1) 0.58 − 0.1
= 0.1 + = 0.1 + = 0.1533
𝐴𝑇 9 9
Given G = 21033.73 lb/hr,

1/2
4(21033.73)
𝐷𝑇 = [ ]
(0.7)(7109.06)𝜋(1 − 0.1533)(0.4183)
𝑫𝑻 = 𝟑. 𝟗𝟎 𝒇𝒕
287
c) Cross-sectional area, A
𝜋(𝐷)2
𝐴=
4
𝜋(3.90)2
𝐴=
4
𝑨 = 𝟏𝟏. 𝟗𝟓 𝒇𝒕𝟐
d) Tower height, 𝑧
Using analytical calculation method,

𝑧 = 𝑇𝑟𝑎𝑦 𝑠𝑝𝑎𝑐𝑖𝑛𝑔(𝑁𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑢𝑎𝑙 )
𝑦 − 𝐻𝑥 1 1
𝑙𝑛 [(𝑦 𝑖𝑛 − 𝐻𝑥𝑖𝑛 ) (1 − 𝐴) + 𝐴]
𝑜𝑢𝑡 𝑖𝑛
𝑁𝑂𝐺 =
1
1−𝐴
Since the concentration of carbon dioxide in inlet ammoniated brine is almost zero
and dilute,
𝑦 1 1
𝑙𝑛 [(𝑦 𝑖𝑛 ) (1 − 𝐴) + 𝐴]
𝑜𝑢𝑡
𝑁𝑂𝐺 =
1
1−𝐴
And, absorption factor, A is computed by:

kg
𝑚̇𝑎𝑚𝑚𝑏𝑟𝑖𝑛𝑒 70827.50
𝐴= = hr = 8.93
0.8317𝑚̇𝐶𝑂2 kg
0.8317(9540.74 )
hr
Assuming 99% absorption in liquid stream as aqueous state leaving 1% as gas

state,
1 1 1
𝑙𝑛 [(0.01) (1 − 8.93) + 8.93]
𝑁𝑂𝐺 =
1
1 − 8.93
𝑁𝑂𝐺 = 5.05 = 𝑁𝐸𝑞𝑢𝑖𝑙𝑖𝑏𝑟𝑖𝑢𝑚

288
Assuming tray efficiency of 30% for absorbers,

𝑁𝐸𝑞𝑢𝑖𝑙𝑖𝑏𝑟𝑖𝑢𝑚 5.05⁄
𝑁𝐴𝑐𝑡𝑢𝑎𝑙 = ⁄
0.30 = 0.30 = 16.83 ≈ 17 𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑦𝑠
𝑧 = 𝑇𝑟𝑎𝑦 𝑠𝑝𝑎𝑐𝑖𝑛𝑔(𝑁𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑢𝑎𝑙 ) = 18 𝑖𝑛. (17) = 306 𝑖𝑛.

𝒛 = 𝟐𝟓. 𝟓𝟎 𝒇𝒕
e) Residence time, θ
𝑧 25.5 𝑓𝑡
𝜃= =
𝑔𝑎𝑠 𝑣𝑒𝑙𝑜𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦 840.41 𝑓𝑡 3 /min
( )
11.95 𝑓𝑡 2
𝜽 = 𝟎. 𝟑𝟔 𝒎𝒊𝒏 = 𝟐𝟏. 𝟕𝟔 𝒔𝒆𝒄
Tower costing

𝐶𝑃𝐿 = 300.9(𝐷𝑖 )0.63316 (𝐿)0.80161
𝐶𝑃𝐿 = 300.9(3.90)0.63316 (25.50)0.80161
𝑪𝑷𝑳 = $ 𝟗, 𝟓𝟓𝟑. 𝟑𝟗
b) Vessel Cost, CV
𝑃𝑑 = 𝑒𝑥𝑝 {0.60608 + 0.91615 [𝑙𝑛 (𝑃𝑜 )] + 0.0015655 [𝑙𝑛 (𝑃𝑜 )] 2 }

𝑃𝑑 = 𝑒𝑥𝑝 {0.60608 + 0.91615 [𝑙𝑛 (58.78)] + 0.0015655 [𝑙𝑛 (58.78)] 2 }
289
𝑡𝑝 = (𝑃𝑑 ∙ 𝐷𝑖 ) / (2𝑆𝐸 – 1.2 𝑃𝑑 )

((78.59 𝑝𝑠𝑖)× (3.90 𝑓𝑡))
𝑡𝑝 =
((2×29732.70 psi×0.95)– (1.2×78.59 𝑝𝑠𝑖))
𝑡𝑝 = 0.0015 𝑓𝑡 = 0.018 𝑖𝑛.
Since the wall thickness calculated is too small due to low pressure, table below
is used as reference for designed diameter of vessel.
𝑫𝒊 (ft) 𝒕𝒑 (in.)
Up to 4 1/4
4–6 5/16
6–8 3/8
8 – 10 7/16
10 - 12 1/2
1
Hence, 𝑡𝑝 = 4 𝑖𝑛 = 0.25 𝑖𝑛.
Assuming a wall thickness of 1.25 in., L = 306 in. and 𝐷𝑖 = 46.80 in.
𝐷𝑜 = 46.8 + 1.25(2) = 49.30 𝑖𝑛.

0.22(𝐷𝑜 + 18)𝐿2
𝑡𝑤 =
𝑆𝐷𝑜 2
0.22(49.30 + 18)3062
𝑡𝑤 =
29732.70(49.30)2
𝑡𝑤 = 0.0192 𝑖𝑛.
𝑡𝑝 + 𝑡𝑤 0.25 + 0.0192
𝑡𝑣 = = = 0.1346 𝑖𝑛.
2 2

1
𝑡𝑠 = 0.1346 + = 0.2596 𝑖𝑛.
8
290
𝒕𝒔 = 𝟎. 𝟑𝟏𝟐𝟓 𝒊𝒏.

𝑊 = 𝜋 (𝐷𝑖 + 𝑡𝑠 ) (𝐿 + 0.8𝐷𝑖 )𝑡𝑠 ∙ 𝜌
𝑊 = 𝜋(46.80 + 0.3125)×(306 + 0.8(46.80))×0.3125×0.284
𝑾 = 𝟒, 𝟓𝟏𝟏. 𝟑𝟒 𝒍𝒃

𝐶𝑣 = 𝑒𝑥𝑝 {7.0132 + 0.18255[𝑙𝑛 (𝑊)] + 0.02297 [𝑙𝑛 (𝑊)]2 }
𝐶𝑣 = 𝑒𝑥𝑝 {7.0132 + 0.18255[𝑙𝑛 (4511.34)] + 0.02297 [𝑙𝑛 (4511.34)]2 }
𝑪𝒗 = $ 𝟐𝟔, 𝟐𝟓𝟑. 𝟐𝟒
c) Tray cost, CT
𝐶𝑇 = 𝑁𝑇 𝐹𝑁𝑇 𝐹𝑇𝑇 𝐹𝑇𝑀 𝐶𝐵𝑇
𝑁𝑇 = 17 𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑦𝑠
𝐶𝐵𝑇 = 468 exp(0.1739𝐷𝑖 ) = 468 exp(0.1739×3.90) = $ 922.12
2.25 2.25
𝐹𝑁𝑇 = 𝑁𝑇
= = 1.13
1.0414 1.041417
𝐹𝑇𝑇 = 1.87 (𝑏𝑢𝑏𝑏𝑙𝑒 − 𝑐𝑎𝑝)
𝐹𝑇𝑀 = 1.401 + 0.0724𝐷𝑖 = 1.401 + 0.0724(3.90) = 1.68
𝐶𝑇 = 𝑁𝑇 𝐹𝑁𝑇 𝐹𝑇𝑇 𝐹𝑇𝑀 𝐶𝐵𝑇 = (17)(1.13)(1.87)(1.68)(922.12)

𝑪𝑻 = $ 𝟓𝟓, 𝟔𝟓𝟎. 𝟎𝟕
291
𝐶𝑃 = 𝐹𝑀 𝐶𝑉 + 𝐶𝑃𝐿 + 𝐶𝑇
541.7
𝐶𝑃 = ( ) [(2.1×(26,253.24)) + 9,553.39 + 55,650.07]
500
𝑪𝑷 = $ 𝟏𝟑𝟎, 𝟑𝟕𝟏. 𝟐𝟑
𝐶𝐵𝑀 = 𝐹𝐵𝑀 ∙ 𝐶𝑝 = 4.16 (130,371.23)

𝑪𝑩𝑴 = $ 𝟓𝟒𝟐, 𝟑𝟒𝟒. 𝟑𝟐
Rotary Drum Filter
Assumptions/additional information:
i) Residence time, θ = 5 mins

ii) L/D = 4
iii) Heat duty, Q = 3.8 kW
iv) Material = Stainless steel 316
v) Drum speed = 3 r.p.m.
vi) Pre-coat cake size = 1 in.
vii) Bare-module factor, FBM = 2.32
Vessel Sizing
a) Vessel volume, V
𝐿
𝑉̇ = 1483.15
𝑚𝑖𝑛
292
1483.15 𝐿 1𝑚3 35.3145 𝑓𝑡 3

𝑉= ( )( ) (5 𝑚𝑖𝑛)
𝑚𝑖𝑛 1000 𝐿 1 𝑚3
𝑽 = 𝟐𝟔𝟏. 𝟖𝟖 𝒇𝒕𝟑
b) Diameter inside, Di
𝑉 1
𝐷 = ( )3
𝜋
261.88 𝑓𝑡 3 1
𝐷 =( )3
𝜋
𝑫 = 𝟒. 𝟑𝟕 𝒇𝒕
c) Length of filter
𝐿 = 4𝐷 = 4(4.37)
𝑳 = 𝟏𝟕. 𝟒𝟖 𝒇𝒕
𝐷
𝐴 = 𝜋( )2
2
4.37 2
𝐴 = 𝜋( )
2
𝑨 = 𝟏𝟓 𝒇𝒕𝟐
Filter Costing
a) Purchase cost, Cp
𝐶𝑝 = exp{ 11.670 − 0.1905 𝑙𝑛 [ln(𝐴)] + 0.0554[ln(𝐴)]2 }

541.7
𝐶𝑝 = ( ) [exp{ 11.670 − 0.1905 [ln(15)] + 0.0554[ln(15)]2 }]
500
293
𝑪𝒑 = $ 𝟏𝟏𝟑, 𝟔𝟎𝟔. 𝟕𝟗
b) Bare-module cost, CBM
𝐹𝐵𝑀 = 2.32
𝐶𝐵𝑀 = 𝐶𝑝 𝐹𝐵𝑀
𝐶𝐵𝑀 = $ 113,606.79 (2.32)
𝑪𝑩𝑴 = $ 𝟐𝟔𝟑, 𝟓𝟔𝟕. 𝟕𝟒 = 𝑹𝑴 𝟏, 𝟏𝟕𝟐, 𝟖𝟕𝟔. 𝟒𝟕
Calciner (Pyrolysis Furnace)
i. Average radiant flux, QR = 20,000 Btu/(hr.ft2)

ii. Draft specification, DR = 2 in. of H2O
iii. Ri = 0.011 hr.ft2.oF/Btu
iv. Ro = 0.00181 hr.ft2.oF/Btu
v. U = 150 Btu/hr.oF.ft2
vi. Bare-module factor, FBM = 1.86
Calciner sizing
a) Radiant Section Design
𝑄𝑅
𝐴𝑅 =
𝑞
where QR is the radiant duty, and q is the average radiant flux. Assuming an
average radiant flux of 20,000 Btu/(hr.ft2).
294
QR = 5929.35 KW
𝐽 3600 𝑠 9.486×10−4 𝐵𝑡𝑢
= 5929.35 ( )( ) ×1000
𝑠 1 ℎ𝑟 1𝐽
𝐵𝑡𝑢
= 20,248,493.08 ℎ𝑟
𝐵𝑡𝑢
20,248,493.08
𝐴𝑅 = ℎ𝑟
𝐵𝑡𝑢
20,000
ℎ𝑟. 𝑓𝑡 2
𝑨𝑹 = 𝟏𝟎𝟏𝟐. 𝟒𝟐 𝒇𝒕𝟐
b) Convection Section Design
𝐷𝑟 2
𝐿= = = 277.56 𝑓𝑡
1 1 1 1
0.52𝜌(𝑇 − 𝑇 ) 0.52(2.2)(113 − 392)
𝑎 𝑔𝑎
𝑘𝑔
𝑚̇𝑓𝑙𝑢𝑒 𝑔𝑎𝑠 = 𝑚̇𝐻2𝑂 + 𝑚̇𝐶𝑂2 = 1939.89 + 4739 = 6678.89
ℎ𝑟
𝐼𝑏
= 14,721.16
ℎ𝑟
𝑖𝑏
16𝑚̇𝑓𝑙𝑢𝑒 𝑔𝑎𝑠 𝑇𝑔𝑎 0.2 16 (14,721.16 ) (392℉)
𝑑𝑜 = ( ) =( ℎ𝑟 )0.2 = 5.6 𝑓𝑡
211,000𝜋 2 𝑓 211,000𝜋 2 (0.008)
𝐼𝑏
𝑚̇𝑓𝑙𝑢𝑒 𝑔𝑎𝑠 14,721.16 1ℎ𝑟 𝐼𝑏
𝑔= = ℎ𝑟 ( ) = 0.1660
𝜋𝑑𝑜 2 /4 𝜋(5.6 𝑓𝑡)2 3600𝑠 𝑠. 𝑓𝑡 2
4
𝐼𝑏 0.6 0.28
2.14𝑔0.6 𝑇𝑔𝑎 0.28 2.14(0.1660 𝑠. 𝑓𝑡 2 ) (392 ℉) 𝐵𝑡𝑢
ℎ𝑐 = = = 1.94
𝑑𝑜 0.4 (5.6)0.4 𝐼𝑏. ℉
1 1 ℎ𝑟℉𝑓𝑡 2
𝑅𝑐 = = = 0.00086
𝑔ℎ𝑐 (0.1660 𝐼𝑏 )(1.94 𝐵𝑡𝑢 )(3600𝑠 ) 𝐵𝑡𝑢
𝑠. 𝑓𝑡 2 𝐼𝑏. ℉ 1ℎ𝑟
Assume, Ri and Ro,
Ri = 0.011 hr.ft2.oF/Btu
Ro = 0.00181 hr.ft2.oF/Btu
295
Overall heat transfer coefficient, U

1 1 𝐵𝑡𝑢
𝑈= = = 73.15
𝑅𝑖 + 𝑅𝑜 + 𝑅𝑐 0.011 + 0.00181 + 0.00086 ℎ𝑟℉𝑓𝑡 2
𝐵𝑡𝑢
𝑄𝑐 20,248,493.08
𝐶𝑜𝑛𝑣𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑣𝑒 𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑓𝑎𝑐𝑒 = 𝐴𝑐 = = ℎ𝑟
∆𝑇𝐿𝑀 𝑈 (392℉ − 113℉) (73.15 𝐵𝑡𝑢 )
ℎ𝑟℉𝑓𝑡 2
𝑨𝒄 = 𝟗𝟗𝟐. 𝟏𝟎 𝒇𝒕𝟐
c) Heat Exchanger Design
𝐵𝑡𝑢
𝑄𝐻𝑒𝑎𝑡 𝐸𝑥𝑐ℎ𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑒𝑟 20,248,493.08
𝐴𝐻𝑋 = = ℎ𝑟
𝑈∆𝑇𝐿𝑀 𝐵𝑡𝑢
(150 ) (392℉ − 113℉)
ℎ𝑟℉𝑓𝑡 2
𝑨𝑯𝑿 = 𝟒𝟖𝟑. 𝟖𝟑 𝒇𝒕𝟐
Furnace costing
𝐶𝑃 = 0.650𝑄 0.81
541.7 𝑏𝑡𝑢 0.81
𝐶𝑃 = ( ) [0.650 (20,248,493.08 ) ]
500 ℎ𝑟
𝑪𝑷 = $ 𝟓𝟖𝟑, 𝟐𝟖𝟒. 𝟐𝟗
FBM = 1.86 (Furnaces and direct fired heaters, Field fabricated)

𝐶𝐵𝑀 = 𝐹𝐵𝑀 𝐶𝑃
𝐶𝐵𝑀 = (1.86)($ 583,284.29)
𝑪𝑩𝑴 = $ 𝟏, 𝟎𝟖𝟒, 𝟗𝟎𝟖. 𝟕𝟗 = 𝑹𝑴 𝟒, 𝟖𝟐𝟕, 𝟖𝟒𝟒. 𝟏𝟎
296
Separation Drum
i. Vertical vessel with mist eliminator

ii. L/D = 3
iii. Residence time, θ = 2 min
iv. Stainless steel 304, FM = 1.7
v. Bare-module factor, FBM = 3.05
vi. Maximum allowable stress, S = 29732.70 psi
vii. Weld efficiency, E = 0.95 (excellent welding)
From Aspen data:
Flowrate, 𝑉̇ = 1576.82 ft3/min

Heat duty, Q = 0 kW = Btu/hr
Vessel sizing
a) Vessel volume, V
𝑓𝑡 3
𝑉 = 1576.82 ×2𝑚𝑖𝑛
𝑚𝑖𝑛
𝑽 = 𝟑𝟏𝟓𝟑. 𝟔𝟒 𝒇𝒕𝟑
𝜋𝐷2 3𝜋𝐷3
𝑉= ∙𝐿 =
4 4
4𝑉 1/3 4(3153.64) 1/3
𝐷=( ) =( )
3𝜋 3𝜋
𝑫 = 𝟏𝟏. 𝟎𝟐 𝒇𝒕
297
c) Vessel length, L
𝐿 = 3𝐷 = 3×11.02 𝑓𝑡
𝑳 = 𝟑𝟑. 𝟎𝟔 𝒇𝒕
𝜋𝐷²
A= 4
𝜋(11.02)2
A= 4
𝑨 = 𝟗𝟓. 𝟑𝟖 𝒇𝒕𝟐
Vessel costing
𝐶𝑃𝐿 = 2005(𝐷𝑖 )0.20294

𝐶𝑃𝐿 = 2005(11.02)0.20294
𝑪𝑷𝑳 = $ 𝟑, 𝟐𝟔𝟐. 𝟗𝟖
b) Vessel Cost, CV
𝑃𝑑 = 𝑒𝑥𝑝 {0.60608 + 0.91615 [𝑙𝑛 (𝑃𝑜 )] + 0.0015655 [𝑙𝑛 (𝑃𝑜 )] 2 }

𝑃𝑑 = 𝑒𝑥𝑝 {0.60608 + 0.91615 [𝑙𝑛 (14.7)] + 0.0015655 [𝑙𝑛 (14.7)] 2 }
𝑡𝑝 = (𝑃𝑑 ∙ 𝐷𝑖 ) / (2𝑆𝐸 – 1.2 𝑃𝑑 )

((21.76 𝑝𝑠𝑖)× (11.02 𝑓𝑡))
𝑡𝑝 =
((2×29732.70 𝑝𝑠𝑖×0.95)– (1.2×21.76 𝑝𝑠𝑖𝑔))
𝑡𝑝 = 0.0042 𝑓𝑡 = 0.0504 𝑖𝑛.
298
Since the wall thickness calculated is too small due to low pressure, hence,
1
𝑡𝑝 = 𝑖𝑛 = 0.50 𝑖𝑛.
2
Assuming a wall thickness of 1.25 in., L = 396.72 in. and 𝐷𝑖 = 132.24 in.
𝐷𝑜 = 132.24 + 1.25(2) = 134.74 𝑖𝑛.

0.22(𝐷𝑜 +18)𝐿2
𝑡𝑤 = 𝑆𝐷𝑜 2
0.22(134.74+18)396.722
𝑡𝑤 = 29732.70(134.74)2
𝑡𝑤 = 0.0098 𝑖𝑛.
𝑡𝑝 + 𝑡𝑤 0.50 + 0.0098
𝑡𝑣 = = = 0.2549 𝑖𝑛.
2 2

1
𝑡𝑠 = 0.2549 + = 0.3799 𝑖𝑛.
8
𝒕𝒔 = 𝟎. 𝟒𝟑𝟕𝟓 𝒊𝒏.

𝑊 = 𝜋 (𝐷𝑖 + 𝑡𝑠 ) (𝐿 + 0.8𝐷𝑖 )𝑡𝑠 ∙ 𝜌
𝑊 = 𝜋(132.24 + 0.4375)×(396.72 + 0.8(132.24 ))×0.4375×0.289
𝑾 = 𝟐𝟔, 𝟒𝟖𝟑. 𝟏𝟒 𝒍𝒃

𝐶𝑣 = 𝑒𝑥𝑝 {8.9552 − 0.2330[𝑙𝑛 (𝑊)] + 0.04333 [𝑙𝑛 (𝑊)]2 }
𝐶𝑣 = 𝑒𝑥𝑝 {8.9552 − 0.2330[𝑙𝑛 (26,483.14)] + 0.04333 [𝑙𝑛 (26,483.14)]2 }
𝑪𝒗 = $ 𝟔𝟒, 𝟔𝟐𝟗. 𝟏𝟑
299
c) Purchase cost, Cp
𝐶𝑃 = 𝐹𝑀 𝐶𝑉 + 𝐶𝑃𝐿
541.7
𝐶𝑃 = ( ) [(1.7×(64,629.13)) + 3,262.98]
500
𝑪𝑷 = $ 𝟏𝟐𝟐, 𝟓𝟔𝟕. 𝟕𝟓
d) Bare-module cost, CBM
𝐶𝐵𝑀 = 𝐹𝐵𝑀 ∙ 𝐶𝑝 = 3.05 (122,567.75)

𝑪𝑩𝑴 = $ 𝟑𝟕𝟑, 𝟖𝟑𝟏. 𝟔𝟒
Evaporator
Assumptions/additional information:
i) Residence time, θ = 5 mins

ii) L/D = 3
iii) Heat duty, Q = 3,317.86 kW
iv) Material = Stainless steel
v) Length of tube = 12 ft
𝐵𝑡𝑢
vi) Overall heat coefficient, U = 150 ℎ𝑟.𝑓𝑡 2 .℉
vii) Bare-module factor, FBM = 2.45
Evaporator Sizing
a) Vessel volume, V
𝑉̇ = 1391.22 𝐿/𝑚𝑖𝑛
1391 𝐿 1 𝑚3 35.3145 𝑓𝑡 3
𝑉= (1000 𝐿) ( ) (5 𝑚𝑖𝑛)
𝑚𝑖𝑛 1 𝑚3
300
𝑽 = 𝟐𝟒𝟓. 𝟔𝟏 𝒇𝒕𝟑
𝐿 = 3𝐷
𝑉 = 𝐴𝐿
𝐷
𝐴 = 𝜋( )2
2
𝑉 = 3𝐴𝐷
𝐷
𝑉 = 3𝜋( )2 𝐷
2
3
𝑉 = 𝜋𝐷3
4
4𝑉 1
𝐷 = ( )3
3𝜋
4(245.61 𝑓𝑡 3 ) 1
𝐷 =( )3
3𝜋
𝑫 = 𝟒. 𝟕𝟏 𝒇𝒕
c) Length of vessel
𝐿 = 3𝐷 = 3(4.71)
𝑳 = 𝟏𝟒. 𝟏𝟑 𝒇𝒕
𝐷
𝐴 = 𝜋( )2
2
4.28 2
𝐴 = 𝜋( )
2
𝑨 = 𝟏𝟕. 𝟒𝟐 𝒇𝒕𝟐
301
𝑘𝐽 𝐵𝑡𝑢
Heat duty, Q = 3,317.86 kW = 3,317.86 = 11,330,359.19
𝑠 ℎ𝑟
Mean temperature difference, ∆Tm = 100 oC – 99.6 oC = 0.40 oC = 32.72 ℉

𝐵𝑡𝑢
Assume overall heat coefficient, U = 150 ℎ𝑟.𝑓𝑡 2 .℉
𝐵𝑡𝑢
𝑞 11,330,359.19
𝐴𝑇 = = ℎ𝑟
𝑈∆𝑇𝑚 𝐵𝑡𝑢
150 (32.72℉)
ℎ𝑟. 𝑓𝑡 2 . ℉
𝑨𝑻 = 𝟐𝟑𝟎𝟖. 𝟓𝟓 𝒇𝒕𝟐
Evaporator Costing
541.7
𝐶𝑝 = 5,700𝐴0.55 = ( ) [5,700(2308.55)0.55 ]
500
𝑪𝒑 = $ 𝟒𝟑𝟕, 𝟎𝟏𝟖. 𝟗𝟖
𝐶𝐵𝑀 = 𝐶𝑝 𝐹𝐵𝑀
𝐶𝐵𝑀 = $ 437,018.98(2.45)
𝑪𝑩𝑴 = $ 𝟏, 𝟎𝟕𝟎, 𝟔𝟗𝟔. 𝟓𝟎 = 𝑹𝑴 𝟒, 𝟕𝟔𝟒, 𝟓𝟗𝟗. 𝟒𝟎
302
Heat Exchangers
Heat Exchanger 1
Chilled water (65000kg/hr)
TCout = 24.38°C
NH3 (3670 kg/hr) NH3 (3670 kg/hr)

NaCl (16790 kg/hr) NaCl (16790 kg/hr)
Water (50370 kg/hr) Water (50370 kg/hr)
THin = 55.92°C THout = 45°C
TCin = 10°C
Assumption/ additional information:
i. Shell and tube heat exchanger

ii. 1-in. O.D tubes
iii. Titanium tubes as ammonium chloride is corrosive, 20 ft long, on square pitch
in a carbon-steel shell and fixed head
iv. The tube-length correction, FL = 1.00
From HEN data:
Q = 695.49 kW
695.49 ×103 𝐽 9.486×10−4 𝐵𝑡𝑢 3600𝑠

𝑄= × ×
𝑠 𝐽 ℎ𝑟
Q = 2375070.53 Btu/hr
303
Sizing
a) Log mean temperature, ∆𝑇𝐿𝑀
∆T1 = THout - TCin

∆T1 = 45 - 10
∆T1 = 35°C
∆T2 = THin - TCout

∆T2 = 55.92-24.38
∆T2 = 31.54°C
∆𝑇1 − ∆𝑇2
∆𝑇𝐿𝑀 =
∆𝑇
ln(∆𝑇1 )
2
35 − 31.54
∆𝑇𝐿𝑀 =
35
ln( )
31.54
∆𝑻𝑳𝑴 = 33.24 °C
b) Surface area contact, A
U = 720 W/𝑚2 . °C
𝑄
𝐴=
𝑈∆𝑇𝐿𝑀
𝑚2 . °C
3
1
𝐴 = 695.49 ×10 𝑊× ×
720 𝑊 33.24℃
10.76𝑓𝑡 2
2
𝐴 = 29.06𝑚 ×
1𝑚2
𝑨 = 𝟑𝟏𝟐. 𝟔𝟗 𝒇𝒕𝟐
304
c) Pressure factor, FP
Assume this equation is applicable for this range,
𝑃 𝑃 2
𝐹𝑝 = 0.9803 + 0.018( ) + 0.0017( )
100 100
0 0 2
𝐹𝑝 = 0.9803 + 0.018( ) + 0.0017( )
100 100
𝑭𝒑 = 0.9803
Costing
a) Base cost, CB
CB = exp {11.0545 – 0.9228[ln (A)] + 0.09861[ln (A)]2}

CB = exp {11.0545 – 0.9228[ln (312.69)] + 0.09861[ln (312.69)]2}
CB = $ 8,165.59
b) Purchase cost, CP
Based on Table 22.25 (product and process design principles book), the material
factor, FM: a=5.20, b=0.16;
𝐴 𝑏
𝐹𝑀 = 𝑎 + ( )
100
312.69 0.16
𝐹𝑀 = 5.20 + ( )
100
𝐹𝑀 = 6.40
CP = FPFMFLCB
CP = 0.9803 x 6.40 x 1.00 x 8165.59
CP = $ 51,230.26
305
c) Bare-module cost, CBM
CBM = FBM × CP × CE
CBM = 3.17 x 51230.26x 541.7/500
CBM = $ 175,944.08 = RM 782,951.16
Heat Exchanger 2
Chilled Water (65000kg/hr)
TCout = 26.03 ℃
CO2 (4740 kg/hr) CO2 (4740 kg/hr)
TCin = 24.38℃

ii. 1-in. O.D tubes
iii. Carbon steel tubes, 20 ft long, on square pitch in a carbon-steel shell and fixed
head
306
From HEN data:
Q = 125.06 kW
125.06 ×103 𝐽 9.486×10−4 𝐵𝑡𝑢 3600𝑠
𝑄= × ×
𝑠 𝐽 ℎ𝑟
𝑸 = 𝟒𝟐𝟕𝟎𝟕𝟒. 𝟗𝟎 𝐁𝐭𝐮/𝐡𝐫
Sizing

∆T1 = 45 - 24.38
∆T1 = 20.62°C

∆T2 = 97.11 - 26.03
∆T2 = 71.08°C
∆𝑇1 − ∆𝑇2
∆𝑇𝐿𝑀 =
∆𝑇
ln(∆𝑇1 )
2
20.62 − 71.08
∆𝑇𝐿𝑀 =
20.62
ln( 71.08 )
∆𝑻𝑳𝑴 = 40.77°C
307
U = 300 W/𝑚2 . °C
𝑄
𝐴=
𝑈∆𝑇𝐿𝑀
𝑚2 . °C 1
𝐴 = 125.06×103 𝑊× ×
300 𝑊 40.77℃
10.76𝑓𝑡 2
𝐴 = 10.22 𝑚2 ×
1 𝑚2
𝑨 = 𝟏𝟎𝟗. 𝟗𝟕 𝒇𝒕𝟐
𝑃 𝑃 2
𝐹𝑝 = 0.9803 + 0.018( ) + 0.0017( )
100 100
44.1 44.1 2
𝐹𝑝 = 0.9803 + 0.018( ) + 0.0017( )
100 100
𝑭𝒑 = 0.989
Costing
a) Base cost, CB
CB = exp {11.0545 – 0.9228[ln (A)] + 0.09861[ln (A)]2}

CB = exp {11.0545 – 0.9228[ln (109.97] + 0.09861[ln (109.97 )]2}
CB = $ 7,300.04
308
Material factor, FM: a=0.00, b=0.00;

𝐴 𝑏
𝐹𝑀 = 𝑎 + ( )
100
109.97 0
𝐹𝑀 = 0 + ( )
100
𝑭𝑴 = 𝟏. 𝟎𝟎
CP = FPFMFLCB
CP = 0.989 x 1.00 x 1.00 x 7300.04
CP = $ 7,219.74
CBM = FBM x CP x CE
CBM = 3.17 x 7219.74 x (541.7/500)
CBM = $ 24,795.32= RM 110,339.17
Heat Exchanger 3
Chilled Water(17000kg/hr)
TCout = 81.95℃
CO2 (4740 kg/hr) CO2 (4740 kg/hr)

H2O (1940 kg/hr) H2O (1940 kg/hr)
Chilled Water(17000kg/hr)
TCin = 10℃
309

ii. 1-in. O.D tubes
iii. Stainless steel tubes, 20 ft long, on square pitch in a carbon-steel shell and
fixed head
From HEN data:
Q = 252.39bkW
252.39 ×103 𝐽 9.486×10−4 𝐵𝑡𝑢 3600𝑠

Q= × ×
𝑠 𝐽 ℎ𝑟
Q = 861901.75 Btu/hr
Sizing

∆T1 = 25 - 10
∆T1 = 15°C

∆T2 = 97.11 - 81.95
∆T2 = 15.16°C
∆𝑇1 − ∆𝑇2
∆𝑇𝐿𝑀 =
∆𝑇
ln(∆𝑇1 )
2
310
15 − 15.16
∆𝑇𝐿𝑀 =
15
ln( )
15.16
∆𝑻𝑳𝑴 = 15.08°C
U = 300 W/𝑚2 . °C
𝑄
𝐴=
𝑈∆𝑇𝐿𝑀
𝑚2 . °C
3
1
𝐴 = 252.39×10 𝑊× ×
300 𝑊 15.08°𝐶
10.76𝑓𝑡 2
𝐴 = 55.79𝑚2 ×
1𝑚2
𝑨 = 𝟔𝟎𝟎. 𝟑𝟎 𝒇𝒕𝟐
𝑃 𝑃 2
𝐹𝑝 = 0.9803 + 0.018( ) + 0.0017( )
100 100
0 0 2
𝐹𝑝 = 0.9803 + 0.018( ) + 0.0017( )
100 100
𝑭𝒑 = 0.9803
Costing
a) Base cost, CB
CB = exp {11.967 – 0.8709[ln (A)] + 0.09005[ln (A)]2}

311
CB = exp {11.967 – 0.8709 [ln (600.30)] + 0.09005 [ln (600.30)]2}

CB = $ 23,884.01
The material factor, FM: a=1.75, b=0.13;

𝐴 𝑏
𝐹𝑀 = 𝑎 + ( )
100
600.30 0.13
𝐹𝑀 = 1.75 + ( )
100
𝑭𝑴 = 𝟑. 𝟎𝟏
CP = FPFMFLCB
CP = 0.9803 x 3.01 x 1.00 x 23884.01
CP = $ 70,474.62
CBM = FBM x CP x CE
CBM = 3.17 x 70474.62 x (541.7/500)
CBM = $ 242,036.48 = RM 1,077,062.34
312
Heat Exchanger 4
TCout = 97.93℃
Soda ash (11420 kg/hr) Soda ash (11420 kg/hr)
THin =106.99℃ THout = 25℃
Chilled Water
(2800kg/hr)
TCin = 10℃

ii. 1-in. O.D tubes
iii. Carbon steel tubes, 20 ft long, on square pitch in a carbon-steel shell and
fixed head
From HEN data:
Q = 275.5 kW
275.5 ×103 𝐽 9.486×10−4 𝐵𝑡𝑢 3600𝑠

𝑄= × ×
𝑠 𝐽 ℎ𝑟
Q = 940821.48 Btu/hr
313
Sizing

∆T1 = 25 - 10
∆T1 = 15℃

∆T2 = 106.99 - 97.93
∆T2 = 9.06℃
∆𝑇1 − ∆𝑇2
∆𝑇𝐿𝑀 =
∆𝑇
ln(∆𝑇1 )
2
15 − 9.06
∆𝑇𝐿𝑀 =
15
ln(9.06)
∆𝑻𝑳𝑴 = 11.78°C
U = 300 W/𝑚2 . °C
𝑄
𝐴=
𝑈∆𝑇𝐿𝑀
𝑚2 . °C 1
𝐴 = 275.5 ×103 𝑊× ×
300 𝑊 11.78℃
10.76𝑓𝑡 2
2
𝐴 = 77.96 𝑚 ×
1𝑚2
𝑨 = 𝟖𝟑𝟖. 𝟖𝟓 𝒇𝒕𝟐
314
𝑃 𝑃 2
𝐹𝑝 = 0.9803 + 0.018( ) + 0.0017( )
100 100
0 0 2
𝐹𝑝 = 0.9803 + 0.018( ) + 0.0017( )
100 100
𝑭𝒑 = 0.9803
Costing
a) Base cost, CB
CB = exp {11.0545 – 0.9228[ln (A)] + 0.09861[ln (A)]2}

CB = exp {11.0545 – 0.9228[ln (838.85)] + 0.09861[ln (838.85)]2}
CB = $ 11,061.34

𝐴 𝑏
𝐹𝑀 = 𝑎 + ( )
100
838.85 0
𝐹𝑀 = 0 + ( )
100
𝐹𝑀 = 1.00
CP = FPFMFLCB
CP = 0.9803x 1.00 x 1.00 x 11061.34
CP = $ 10,843.43
315
CBM = FBM x CP x CE
CBM = 3.17 x 10843.43 x (541.7/500)
CBM = $ 37,240.44 = RM 165,719.96
Heat Exchanger 5
TCout = 19.40℃
NH4Cl (11420 kg/hr) NH4Cl (11420 kg/hr)

THin = 100℃ THout = 25℃
Chilled Water
(50000kg/hr)
TCin = 10℃

ii. 1-in. O.D tubes
iii. Titanium steel tubes as ammonium chloride is corrosive, 20 ft long, on
square pitch in a carbon-steel shell and fixed head
316
From HEN data:
Q = 432.75 kW
432.75 ×103 𝐽 9.486×10−4 𝐵𝑡𝑢 3600𝑠

𝑄= × ×
𝑠 𝐽 ℎ𝑟
Q = 1477823.94 Btu/hr
Sizing

∆T1 = 25 - 10
∆T1 = 15℃

∆T2 = 100 - 19.40
∆T2 = 80.60 ℃
∆𝑇1 − ∆𝑇2
∆𝑇𝐿𝑀 =
∆𝑇
ln(∆𝑇1 )
2
15 − 80.60
∆𝑇𝐿𝑀 =
15
ln( 80.60)
∆𝑻𝑳𝑴 = 39.01 °C
U = 500 W/𝑚2 . °C
𝑄
𝐴=
𝑈∆𝑇𝐿𝑀
317
𝑚2 . °C 1
𝐴 = 432.75×103 𝑊× ×
500 𝑊 39.01 ℃
10.76𝑓𝑡 2
𝐴 = 22.19 𝑚2 ×
1𝑚2
𝑨 = 𝟐𝟑𝟖. 𝟕𝟑 𝒇𝒕𝟐
𝑃 𝑃 2
𝐹𝑝 = 0.9803 + 0.018( ) + 0.0017( )
100 100
0 0 2
𝐹𝑝 = 0.9803 + 0.018( ) + 0.0017( )
100 100
𝑭𝒑 = 0.9803
Costing
a) Base cost, CB
CB = exp {11.0545 – 0.9228[ln (A)] + 0.09861[ln (A)]2}

CB = exp {11.0545 – 0.9228[ln (238.73)] + 0.09861[ln (238.73)]2}
CB = $ 7770.65

𝐴 𝑏
𝐹𝑀 = 𝑎 + ( )
100
238.73 0.16
𝐹𝑀 = 5.2 + ( )
100
𝐹𝑀 = 6.35
318
CP = FPFMFLCB
CP = 0.9803 x 6.35 x 1.00 x 7770.65
CP = $ 48,371.56
CBM = FBM x CP x CE
CBM = 3.17 x 48371.56 x (541.7/500)
CBM = $ 166,126.22 = RM 739,261.68
Heat Exchanger 6
TCout =61.58°C
Water (46490 kg/hr) Water (46490 kg/hr)
THin = 70°C THout = 25°C
TCin = 19.40°C
319

ii. 1-in. O.D tubes
iii. Carbon steel tubes, 20 ft long, on square pitch in a carbon-steel shell and
fixed head
From HEN data:
Q = 2431.35 kW
2431.35 ×103 𝐽 9.486×10−4 𝐵𝑡𝑢 3600𝑠
𝑄= × ×
𝑠 𝐽 ℎ𝑟
Q = 8302962.99 Btu/hr
Sizing

∆T1 = 25 - 19.40
∆T1 = 5.6°C

∆T2 = 70 - 61.58
∆T2 = 8.42°C
∆𝑇1 − ∆𝑇2
∆𝑇𝐿𝑀 =
∆𝑇
ln(∆𝑇1 )
2
5.6 − 8.42
∆𝑇𝐿𝑀 =
5.6
ln(8.42)
320
∆𝑻𝑳𝑴 = 6.91°C
U = 1500 W/𝑚2 . °C
𝑄
𝐴=
𝑈∆𝑇𝐿𝑀
𝑚2 . °C 1
𝐴 = 2431.35 ×103 𝑊× ×
1200 𝑊 6.91℃
10.76𝑓𝑡 2
2
𝐴 = 293.22𝑚 ×
1𝑚2
𝑨 = 𝟑𝟏𝟓𝟓. 𝟎𝟓 𝒇𝒕𝟐
𝑃 𝑃 2
𝐹𝑝 = 0.9803 + 0.018( ) + 0.0017( )
100 100
0 0 2
𝐹𝑝 = 0.9803 + 0.018( ) + 0.0017( )
100 100
𝑭𝒑 = 0.9803
Costing
a) Base cost, CB
CB = exp {11.0545 – 0.9228[ln (A)] + 0.09861[ln (A)]2}
CB = exp {11.0545 – 0.9228[ln (3155.05] + 0.09861[ln (3155.05 )]2}

CB = $ 22,485.66
321
𝐴 𝑏
𝐹𝑀 = 𝑎 + ( )
100
3155.05 0.00
𝐹𝑀 = 0.00 + ( )
100
𝐹𝑀 = 1.00
CP = FPFMFLCB
CP = 0.9803x 1.00 x 1.00 x 22485.66
CP = $ 22,042.69
CBM = 3.17 x 22042.69x (541.7/500)
CBM = $ 75,702.93 = RM 336,878.04
Heat Exchanger 7
NH4Cl (11520 kg/hr)

NaCl (4200 kg/hr)
NH3 (3670 kg/hr) Water (46490 kg/hr) NH3 (3670 kg/hr)
Water (50370 kg/hr) TCout = 60°C Water (50370 kg/hr)
THin = 70°C THout = 55.92°C
NH4Cl (11520 kg/hr)

NaCl (4200 kg/hr)
Water (46490 kg/hr)
TCin = 45°C
322

ii. 1-in. O.D tubes
iii. Titanium tubes as ammonium chloride is corrosive, 20 ft long, on square
pitch in a titanium-steel shell and fixed head
From HEN data:
Q = 897 kW
897×103 𝐽 9.486×10−4 𝐵𝑡𝑢 3600𝑠
𝑄= × ×
𝑠 𝐽 ℎ𝑟
Q = 3063219.12 Btu/hr
Sizing

∆T1 = 55.92 - 45
∆T1 = 10.92°C

∆T2 = 70 - 60
∆T2 = 10°C
∆𝑇1 − ∆𝑇2
∆𝑇𝐿𝑀 =
∆𝑇
ln(∆𝑇1 )
2
10.92 − 10
∆𝑇𝐿𝑀 =
10.92
ln( 10 )
∆𝑻𝑳𝑴 = 10.45°C
323
U = 300 W/𝑚2 . °C
𝑄
𝐴=
𝑈∆𝑇𝐿𝑀
𝑚2 . °C 1
𝐴 = 897×103 𝑊× ×
300 𝑊 10.45℃
10.76𝑓𝑡 2
𝐴 = 286.12𝑚2 ×
1𝑚2
𝑨 = 𝟑𝟎𝟕𝟖. 𝟔𝟗 𝒇𝒕𝟐
𝑃 𝑃 2
𝐹𝑝 = 0.9803 + 0.018( ) + 0.0017( )
100 100
0 0 2
𝐹𝑝 = 0.9803 + 0.018( ) + 0.0017( )
100 100
𝑭𝒑 = 0.9803
Costing
a) Base cost, CB
CB = exp {11.0545 – 0.9228[ln (A)] + 0.09861[ln (A)]2}

CB = exp {11.0545 – 0.9228[ln (3078.69 )] + 0.09861[ln (3078.69 ) )]2}
CB = $ 22,123.06
324

𝐴 𝑏
𝐹𝑀 = 𝑎 + ( )
100
3078.69 0.06
𝐹𝑀 = 9.60 + ( )
100
𝐹𝑀 = 10.83
CP = FPFMFLCB
CP = 0.9803 x 10.83 x 1.00 x 22123.06
CP = $ 234,872.76
CBM = 3.17 x 234872.76 x (541.7/500)
CBM = $ 806,641.84 = RM 3,589,556.19
Heat Exchanger 8
NH4Cl (11520 kg/hr)
NaCl (4200 kg/hr)
Water (46490 kg/hr)
TCout = 88.35°C
CO2 (4740 kg/hr) CO2 (4740 kg/hr)
THin = 128°C THin = 97.11°C
NH4Cl (11520 kg/hr)

NaCl (4200 kg/hr)
Water (46490 kg/hr)
TCout = 87.11°C
325

ii. 1-in. O.D tubes
iii. Titanium tubes as ammonium chloride is corrosive, 20 ft long, on square
pitch in a carbon-steel shell and fixed head
From HEN data:
Q = 74.14 kW
74.14 ×103 𝐽 9.486×10−4 𝐵𝑡𝑢 3600𝑠

𝑄= × ×
𝑠 𝐽 ℎ𝑟
Q = 253185.13 Btu/hr
Sizing

∆T1 = 97 - 87.11
∆T1 = 9.89°C

∆T2 = 128 - 88.35
∆T2 = 39.65°C
∆𝑇1 − ∆𝑇2
∆𝑇𝐿𝑀 =
∆𝑇
ln(∆𝑇1 )
2
326
9.89 − 39.65
∆𝑇𝐿𝑀 =
9.89
ln( )
39.65
∆𝑻𝑳𝑴 = 21.43°C
U = 250 W/𝑚2 . °C
𝑄
𝐴=
𝑈∆𝑇𝐿𝑀
𝑚2 . °C 1
𝐴 = 74.14×103 𝑊× ×
250 𝑊 21.43℃
10.76𝑓𝑡 2
𝐴 = 12.29𝑚2 ×
1𝑚2
𝑨 = 𝟏𝟑𝟐. 𝟐𝟒 𝒇𝒕𝟐
𝑃 𝑃 2
𝐹𝑝 = 0.9803 + 0.018( ) + 0.0017( )
100 100
44.1 44.1 2
𝐹𝑝 = 0.9803 + 0.018( ) + 0.0017( )
100 100
𝑭𝒑 = 0.989
Costing
a) Base cost, CB
CB = exp {11.0545 – 0.9228[ln (A)] + 0.09861[ln (A)]2}

CB = exp {11.0545 – 0.9228[ln (132.24)]+ 0.09861[ln (132.24)]2}
CB = $ 7,330.21
327

𝐴 𝑏
𝐹𝑀 = 𝑎 + ( )
100
132.24 0.16
𝐹𝑀 = 5.20 + ( )
100
𝐹𝑀 = 6.25
CP = FPFMFLCB
CP = 0.989 x 6.25 x 1.00 x 7330.21
CP = $ 45,309.86
CBM = FBM x CP x CE
CBM = 3.17 x 45309.86 x (541.7/500)
CBM = $ 155,611.19 = RM 692,469.78
Heat Exchanger 9
NH4Cl (11520 kg/hr)
NaCl (4200 kg/hr)
Water (46490 kg/hr)
CO2 (4740 kg/hr) CO2 (4740 kg/hr)
H2O (1940 kg/hr) TCout = 94.37°C H2O (1940 kg/hr)
THin = 200°C THout = 97.11°C
NH4Cl (11520 kg/hr)

NaCl (4200 kg/hr)
Water (46490 kg/hr)
TCin =88.35°C
328

ii. 1-in. O.D tubes
iii. Monel tubes, 20 ft long, on square pitch in a Monel shell and fixed head
From HEN data:
Q = 360.12kW
360.12×103 𝐽 9.486×10−4 𝐵𝑡𝑢 3600𝑠
𝑄= × ×
𝑠 𝐽 ℎ𝑟
Q= 1229795.40 Btu/hr
Sizing

∆T1 = 97.11 – 88.35
∆T1 = 8.76°C
∆T2 = 200 - 94.37
∆T2 = 105.63°C
∆𝑇1 − ∆𝑇2
∆𝑇𝐿𝑀 =
∆𝑇
ln(∆𝑇1 )
2
8.76 − 105.63
∆𝑇𝐿𝑀 =
8.76
ln( )
105.63
∆𝑻𝑳𝑴 = 38.91°C
329
U = 250 W/𝑚2 . °C
𝑄
𝐴=
𝑈∆𝑇𝐿𝑀
𝑚2 . °C 1
𝐴 = 360.12×103 𝑊× ×
250 𝑊 38.91°𝐶
10.76𝑓𝑡 2
𝐴 = 37.02𝑚2 ×
1𝑚2
𝑨 = 𝟑𝟗𝟖. 𝟑𝟒 𝒇𝒕𝟐
𝑃 𝑃 2
𝐹𝑝 = 0.9803 + 0.018( ) + 0.0017( )
100 100
0 0 2
𝐹𝑝 = 0.9803 + 0.018( ) + 0.0017( )
100 100
𝑭𝒑 = 0.9803
Costing
a) Base cost, CB
CB = exp {11.967 – 0.8709[ln (A)] + 0.09005[ln (A)]2}

CB = exp {11.967 – 0.8709 [ln (398.34)] + 0.09005 [ln (398.34)]2}
CB = $ 21,606.57
330

𝐴 𝑏
𝐹𝑀 = 𝑎 + ( )
100
398.34 0.08
𝐹𝑀 = 3.30 + ( )
100
𝐹𝑀 = 4.42
CP = FPFMFLCB
CP = 0.9803 x 4.42 x 1.00 x 21606.57
CP = $ 93,619.67
CBM = FBM x CP x CE
CBM = 3.17 x 93619.67 x (541.7/500)
CBM = $ 321,525.34 = RM 1,430,787.74
Heat Exchanger 10
NH4Cl (11520 kg/hr)

NaCl (4200 kg/hr)
Water (46490 kg/hr)
TCout = 94.37°C
Soda ash (11420 kg/hr) Soda ash (11420 kg/hr)

THin = 200℃ THout = 106.99℃
NH4Cl (11520 kg/hr)

NaCl (4200 kg/hr)
Water (46490 kg/hr)
TCin =99.6°C
331

ii. 1-in. O.D tubes
From HEN data:
Q = 312.5 kW
312.5 ×103 𝐽 9.486×10−4 𝐵𝑡𝑢 3600𝑠
𝑄= × ×
𝑠 𝐽 ℎ𝑟
Q = 1067175 Btu/hr
Sizing

∆T1 = 106.99 - 99.6
∆T1 = 7.39℃

∆T2 = 200 - 94.37
∆T2 = 105.63℃
∆𝑇1 − ∆𝑇2
∆𝑇𝐿𝑀 =
∆𝑇
ln(∆𝑇1 )
2
7.39 − 105.63
∆𝑇𝐿𝑀 =
7.39
ln( )
105.63
332
∆𝑻𝑳𝑴 = 36.93°C
U = 300 W/𝑚2 . °C
𝑄
𝐴=
𝑈∆𝑇𝐿𝑀
𝑚2 . °C 1
𝐴 = 312.5 ×103 𝑊× ×
300 𝑊 36.93℃
10.76𝑓𝑡 2
2
𝐴 = 28.21𝑚 ×
1𝑚2
𝑨 = 𝟑𝟎𝟑. 𝟓𝟒 𝒇𝒕𝟐
𝑃 𝑃 2
𝐹𝑝 = 0.9803 + 0.018( ) + 0.0017( )
100 100
0 0 2
𝐹𝑝 = 0.9803 + 0.018( ) + 0.0017( )
100 100
𝑭𝒑 = 0.9803
Costing
a) Base cost, CB
CB = exp {11.0545 – 0.9228[ln (A)] + 0.09861[ln (A)]2}

CB = exp {11.0545 – 0.9228[ln (303.54)] + 0.09861[ln (303.54)]2}
CB = $ 8,115.46
333

𝐴 𝑏
𝐹𝑀 = 𝑎 + ( )
100
303.54 0.08
𝐹𝑀 = 3.30 + ( )
100
𝐹𝑀 = 4.40
CP = FPFMFLCB
CP = 0.9803 x 4.4 x 1.00 x 8115.46
CP = $ 35,004.58
CBM = FBM x CP x CE
CBM = 3.17 x 35004.58 x (541.7/500)
CBM = $ 120,218.96 = RM 534,974.37
Heat Exchanger 11
NH4Cl (11520 kg/hr)

NaCl (4200 kg/hr)
Water (46490 kg/hr)
Water (46490 kg/hr) TCout = 87.11°C Water (46490 kg/hr)
THin = 100°C THout = 70°C
NH4Cl (11520 kg/hr)

NaCl (4200 kg/hr)
Water (46490 kg/hr)
TCin =60°C
334
ii. 1-in. O.D tubes
From HEN data:
Q = 1620.9 kW
1620.9 ×103 𝐽 9.486×10−4 𝐵𝑡𝑢 3600𝑠
𝑄= × ×
𝑠 𝐽 ℎ𝑟
Q = 5535308.66 Btu/hr
Sizing

∆T1 = 70 - 60
∆T1 = 10°C

∆T2 = 100 - 87.11
∆T2 = 12.89°C
∆𝑇1 − ∆𝑇2
∆𝑇𝐿𝑀 =
∆𝑇
ln(∆𝑇1 )
2
335
10 − 12.89
∆𝑇𝐿𝑀 =
10
ln(12.89)
∆𝑻𝑳𝑴 = 11.38°C
U = 1200 W/𝑚2 . °C
𝑄
𝐴=
𝑈∆𝑇𝐿𝑀
𝑚2 . °C 1
𝐴 = 1620.9 ×103 𝑊× ×
1200 𝑊 11.38℃
10.76𝑓𝑡 2
2
𝐴 = 118.70𝑚 ×
1𝑚2
𝑨 = 𝟏𝟐𝟕𝟕. 𝟏𝟔 𝒇𝒕𝟐
𝑃 𝑃 2
𝐹𝑝 = 0.9803 + 0.018( ) + 0.0017( )
100 100
0 0 2
𝐹𝑝 = 0.9803 + 0.018( ) + 0.0017( )
100 100
𝑭𝒑 = 0.9803
Costing
a) Base cost, CB
CB = exp {11.0545 – 0.9228[ln (A)] + 0.09861[ln (A)]2}

CB = exp {11.0545 – 0.9228[ln (1277.16 )] + 0.09861[ln (1277.16 )]2}
CB = $ 13,344.18
336

𝐴 𝑏
𝐹𝑀 = 𝑎 + ( )
100
1277.16 0.08
𝐹𝑀 = 3.30 + ( )
100
𝐹𝑀 = 4.53
CP = FPFMFLCB
CP = 0.9803 x 4.53 x 1.00 x 13344.18
CP = $ 59,258.29
CBM = 3.17 x 59258.29 x (541.7/500)
CBM = $ 203,515.37 = RM 905,643.40
Pumps
Pump 1
i. Centrifugal pump
ii. FM = 2 (Stainless steel)
iii. FT = 1.8 (Explosion proof enclosure for electric motor)
iv. FBM = 3.30 (Pump and drivers)
337
From Aspen Data:
Pressure inlet = 1 atm = 14.6959 psig

Pressure outlet = 4 atm = 58.7838 psig
Density of sodium chloride = 0.2888 g/cm3
Density of water = 1 g/cm3
Density of ammonia = 0.8800 g/cm3
Volumetric flow rate of sodium chloride = 58.1371 m3/hr = 255.9700 gpm
Volumetric flow rate of water = 50.3700 m3/hr = 221.7700 gpm
Volumetric flow rate of ammonia = 4.1705 m3/hr = 18.3622 gpm
Pump Sizing
a) Pressure Drop
∆𝑃 = 58.7838 − 14.6959
∆𝑷 = 𝟒𝟒. 𝟎𝟖𝟕𝟗 𝒑𝒔𝒊𝒈
b) Pump Head, H
∆𝑃 44.0879 𝑝𝑠𝑖 6.8948 ×103 𝑁⁄𝑚2 1 𝑘𝑔

𝐻= = 3
× ×
𝜌 2168.8000 𝑘𝑔⁄𝑚 1 𝑝𝑠𝑖 9.81 𝑁
𝑯 = 𝟏𝟒. 𝟐𝟖𝟕𝟒 𝒎 = 𝟒𝟔. 𝟖𝟕𝟒𝟕 𝒇𝒕 ≈ 𝟓𝟎 𝒇𝒕
c) Size Factor, S
𝑆 = 𝑄(𝐻)0.5 = 496.1022 (50)0.5

𝑺 = 𝟑𝟓𝟎𝟕. 𝟗𝟕𝟐𝟑 𝒈𝒂𝒍𝒍𝒐𝒏 . 𝒇𝒕𝟎.𝟓 ⁄𝒎𝒊𝒏
338
Electric Motor Sizing
a) Theoretical horsepower, PT
𝑔𝑎𝑙 𝑙𝑏𝑓
𝑄. 𝐻. 𝜌 496.1022 ×50 𝑓𝑡 ×18.0995
𝑚𝑖𝑛 𝑔𝑎𝑙
𝑃𝑇 = =
33000 33000
𝑷𝑻 = 𝟏𝟑. 𝟔𝟎𝟒𝟗 𝑯𝒑
b) Fraction efficiency of pump, 𝜂𝑝
𝜂𝑝 = −0.316 + 0.24015 (ln 𝑄) − 0.01199 (ln 𝑄)2

𝜂𝑝 = −0.316 + 0.24015 (ln 496.1022) − 0.01199 (ln 496.1022)2
𝜼𝒑 = 𝟎. 𝟕𝟏𝟐𝟕
c) Pump Brake Horsepower, PB
𝑃𝑇 13.6049 𝐻𝑝
P𝐵 = =
𝜂𝑝 0.7127
𝐏𝑩 = 𝟏𝟗. 𝟎𝟖𝟗𝟐 𝑩𝑯𝒑
d) Fractional Efficiency of motor, 𝜂𝑀
𝜂𝑀 = 0.80 + 0.0319 (ln P𝐵 ) − 0.00182 (ln P𝐵 ) 2

𝜂𝑀 = 0.80 + 0.0319 (ln 19.0892) − 0.00182 (ln 19.0892)2
𝜼𝑴 = 0.8782
339
e) Power Consumption, Pc
𝑃𝑇 13.6049
P𝑐 = =
𝜂𝑃 𝜂𝑀 (0.7127)(0.8782)
𝐏𝒄 = 𝟐𝟏. 𝟕𝟑𝟔𝟖 𝑯𝒑
Costing
a) Pump Base Cost, CB
𝐶𝐵 = exp{ 9.7171 − 0.6019 [ln(𝑆)] + 0.0519 [ln(𝑆)]2

𝐶𝐵 = exp{ 9.7171 − 0.6019 [ln 3507.9723] + 0.0519 [ln 3507.9723]2 }
𝑪𝑩 = $ 𝟑, 𝟖𝟕𝟒. 𝟏𝟐
b) Pump Purchase Cost, CP
Based on the information on flowrate and pump head, FT = 1.00.
𝐶𝑃 = 𝐹𝑇 𝐹𝑀 𝐶𝐵
𝐶𝑃 = (1.00)(2.00)(3874.1197)
𝑪𝑷 = $ 𝟕, 𝟕𝟒𝟖. 𝟐𝟒
c) Motor Base Cost, CB
𝐶𝐵 = exp{ 5.8259 + 0.13141 (ln 𝑃𝐶 ) + 0.053255 (ln 𝑃𝐶 )2 +

0.028628 (ln 𝑃𝐶 )3 − 0.0035549 (ln 𝑃𝐶 )4 }
𝐶𝐵 = exp{ 5.8259 + 0.13141 (ln 21.7368) + 0.053255 (ln 21.7368)2 +
0.028628 (ln 21.7368)3 − 0.0035549 (ln 21.7368)4 }
𝐶𝐵 = exp(6.2305 + 0.5049 + 0.8356 − 0.3195)
𝑪𝑩 = $ 𝟏, 𝟒𝟏𝟎. 𝟐𝟐
340
d) Motor Purchase Cost, CP
𝐶𝑃 = 𝐹𝑇 𝐶𝐵
𝐶𝑃 = (1.8)(1410.2186)
𝑪𝑷 = $ 𝟐, 𝟓𝟑𝟖. 𝟑𝟗
e) Total Purchase Cost, CP(TOTAL)
CP(TOTAL) = $7748.2394 + $2538.39

𝐂𝐏(𝐓𝐎𝐓𝐀𝐋) = $ 𝟏𝟎, 𝟐𝟖𝟔. 𝟔𝟑
f) Bare Module Cost, CBM
𝐼
𝐶𝐵𝑀 = 𝐶𝑃 𝐹𝑀
𝐼𝐵𝐴𝑆𝐸
541.7
𝐶𝐵𝑀 = (10286.6294) ( ) (3.30)
500
𝑪𝑩𝑴 = $ 𝟑𝟔, 𝟕𝟕𝟔. 𝟗𝟔 = 𝑹𝑴 𝟏𝟔𝟑, 𝟔𝟓𝟕. 𝟒𝟗
Pump 2
i. Centrifugal pump
ii. FM = 1 (Cast iron)
iii. FT = 1.8 (Explosion proof enclosure for electric motor)
iv. FBM = 3.30 (Pump and drivers)
341
From Aspen data:
Pressure inlet = 1 atm = 14.6959 psig

Pressure outlet = 4 atm = 58.7838 psig
Density of water = 1 g/cm3
Volumetric flow rate of water = 46.4900 m3/hr = 204.6893 gpm
Pump Sizing
a) Pressure Drop
∆𝑃 = 58.7838 − 14.6959
∆𝑷 = 𝟒𝟒. 𝟎𝟖𝟕𝟗 𝒑𝒔𝒊𝒈
b) Pump Head, H
∆𝑃 44.0879 𝑝𝑠𝑖 6.8948 ×103 𝑁⁄𝑚2 1 𝑘𝑔

𝐻= = × ×
𝜌 1000 𝑘𝑔⁄𝑚3 1 𝑝𝑠𝑖 9.81 𝑁
𝑯 = 𝟑𝟎. 𝟗𝟖𝟔𝟓 𝒎 = 𝟏𝟎𝟏. 𝟔𝟔 𝒇𝒕
c) Size Factor, S
𝑆 = 𝑄(𝐻)0.5 = 204.6893 (101.6617)0.5

𝑺 = 𝟐𝟎𝟔𝟑. 𝟖𝟐𝟗𝟓 𝒈𝒂𝒍𝒍𝒐𝒏 . 𝒇𝒕𝟎.𝟓 ⁄𝒎𝒊𝒏
Electric Motor Sizing
a) Theoretical horsepower, PT
𝑔𝑎𝑙 𝑙𝑏𝑓
𝑄. 𝐻. 𝜌 204.6893 ×101.6617 𝑓𝑡 ×8.3454
𝑚𝑖𝑛 𝑔𝑎𝑙
𝑃𝑇 = =
33000 33000
342
𝑷𝑻 = 𝟓. 𝟐𝟔𝟐𝟒 𝑯𝒑
b) Fraction efficiency of pump, 𝜂𝑝
𝜂𝑝 = −0.316 + 0.24015 (ln 𝑄) − 0.01199 (ln 𝑄)2

𝜂𝑝 = −0.316 + 0.24015 (ln 204.6893) − 0.01199 (ln 204.6893)2
𝜼𝒑 = 𝟎. 𝟔𝟐𝟐𝟒
c) Pump Brake Horsepower, PB
𝑃𝑇 5.2624 𝐻𝑝
P𝐵 = =
𝜂𝑝 0.6224
𝐏𝑩 = 𝟖. 𝟒𝟓𝟓𝟎 𝑩𝑯𝒑
d) Fractional Efficiency of motor, 𝜂𝑀
𝜂𝑀 = 0.80 + 0.0319 (ln P𝐵 ) − 0.00182 (ln P𝐵 ) 2

𝜂𝑀 = 0.80 + 0.0319 (ln 8.4550) − 0.00182 (ln 8.4550)2
𝜼𝑴 = 0.8598
e) Power Consumption, Pc
𝑃𝑇 5.2624
P𝑐 = =
𝜂𝑃 𝜂𝑀 (0.6224)(0.8598)
𝐏𝒄 = 𝟗. 𝟖𝟑𝟑𝟕 𝑯𝒑
343
Costing
a) Pump Base Cost, CB
𝐶𝐵 = exp{ 9.7171 − 0.6019 [ln(𝑆)] + 0.0519 [ln(𝑆)]2

𝐶𝐵 = exp{ 9.7171 − 0.6019 [ln 2063.8295] + 0.0519 [ln 2063.8295]2 }
𝑪𝑩 = $ 𝟑, 𝟒𝟓𝟏. 𝟐𝟖
b) Pump Purchase Cost, CP
Based on the information on flowrate and pump head, FT = 1.70.
𝐶𝑃 = 𝐹𝑇 𝐹𝑀 𝐶𝐵
𝐶𝑃 = (1.70)(1.00)(3451.2823)
𝑪𝑷 = $ 𝟓, 𝟖𝟔𝟕. 𝟏𝟖
c) Motor Base Cost, CB
𝐶𝐵 = exp{ 5.8259 + 0.13141 (ln 𝑃𝐶 ) + 0.053255 (ln 𝑃𝐶 )2 +

0.028628 (ln 𝑃𝐶 )3 − 0.0035549 (ln 𝑃𝐶 )4 }
𝐶𝐵 = exp{ 5.8259 + 0.13141 (ln 9.8337) + 0.053255 (ln 9.8337)2 +
0.028628 (ln 9.8337)3 − 0.0035549 (ln 9.8337)4 }
𝐶𝐵 = exp(6.1263 + 0.2783 + 0.3419 − 0.0970)
𝑪𝑩 = $ 𝟕𝟕𝟐. 𝟒𝟎
d) Motor Purchase Cost, CP
𝐶𝑃 = 𝐹𝑇 𝐶𝐵
𝐶𝑃 = (1.8)(772.3980)
𝑪𝑷 = $ 𝟏, 𝟑𝟗𝟎. 𝟑𝟐
344
e) Total Purchase Cost, CP(TOTAL)
CP(TOTAL) = $5867.18 + $1390.32

𝐂𝐏(𝐓𝐎𝐓𝐀𝐋) = $ 𝟕, 𝟐𝟓𝟕. 𝟓𝟎
f) Bare Module Cost, CBM
𝐼
541.7
𝐶𝐵𝑀 = (7257.50) ( ) (3.30)
500
𝑪𝑩𝑴 = $ 𝟐𝟓, 𝟗𝟒𝟕. 𝟏𝟔 = 𝑹𝑴 𝟏𝟏𝟓, 𝟒𝟔𝟒. 𝟖𝟔
Compressors
Compressor 1
i. Reciprocating compressor
ii. Material factor, FM = 1.00 (Assume cast iron)
iii. Drive factor, FD = 1.00 (Assume electric motor drive)
From Aspen data:
Net work required, PC = 166.321 Hp

345
Costing
a) Compressor Base Cost, CB
Reciprocating compressor (PC = 100 to 20, 000 Hp)

Efficiency = (80-90 %)
𝐶𝐵 = exp{ 7.9661 + 0.80 [ln(𝑃𝐶 )]}

𝐶𝐵 = exp{ 7.9661 + 0.8 [ln 166.321]}
𝑪𝑩 = $ 𝟏𝟕𝟐, 𝟑𝟒𝟏. 𝟗𝟑
b) Compressor Purchase Cost, CP
𝐶𝑃 = 𝐹𝐷 𝐹𝑀 𝐶𝐵
𝐶𝑃 = (1.0)(1.0)(172341.9261)
𝑪𝑷 = $ 𝟏𝟕𝟐, 𝟑𝟒𝟏. 𝟗𝟑
c) Bare Module Cost, CBM
𝐼
541.7
𝐶𝐵𝑀 = (172341.9261) ( ) (2.15)
500
𝑪𝑩𝑴 = $ 𝟒𝟎𝟏, 𝟒𝟑𝟕. 𝟕𝟕 = 𝑹𝑴 𝟏, 𝟕𝟖𝟔 𝟑𝟗𝟖. 𝟎𝟖
Compressor 2
i. Reciprocating compressor
ii. Material factor, FM = 1.00 (Assume cast iron)
346
iii. Drive factor, FD = 1.00 (Assume electric motor drive)
From Aspen data:
Net work required, PC = 166.53 Hp
Costing
a) Compressor Base Cost, CB
Reciprocating compressor (PC = 100 to 20, 000 Hp)

Efficiency = (80-90 %)
𝐶𝐵 = exp{ 7.9661 + 0.80 [ln(𝑃𝐶 )]}

𝐶𝐵 = exp{ 7.9661 + 0.8 [ln 166.53]}
𝑪𝑩 = $ 𝟏𝟕𝟐, 𝟓𝟏𝟓. 𝟏𝟔
b) Compressor Purchase Cost, CP
𝐶𝑃 = 𝐹𝐷 𝐹𝑀 𝐶𝐵
𝐶𝑃 = (1.0)(1.0)(172515.1571)
𝑪𝑷 = $ 𝟏𝟕𝟐, 𝟓𝟏𝟓. 𝟏𝟔
c) Bare Module Cost, CBM
𝐼
541.7
𝐶𝐵𝑀 = (172515.1571) ( ) (2.15)
500
𝑪𝑩𝑴 = $ 𝟒𝟎𝟏, 𝟖𝟒𝟏. 𝟐𝟖 = 𝑹𝑴 𝟏, 𝟕𝟖𝟖 𝟏𝟗𝟑. 𝟕𝟎
APPENDIX D
MATERIAL SAFETY DATA SHEETS OF SODA ASH
There are total of three MSDSs included as this section as described below:
1. MSDS by American Natural Soda Ash Corporation (ANSAC)

2. MSDS by FMC Wyoming Corporation
3. MSDS by General Chemical Industrial Products

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Y CHEMICAL SDN. BHD.

DESIGN PROJECT TITLE

DESIGN TEAM MEMBERS MATRIC NO.

Besides, equipment optimization, heat exchanger network and wastewater

CHAPTER TITLE PAGE

EXECUTIVE SUMMARY iii

LIST OF TABLES xiv

LIST OF FIGURES xviii

LIST OF SYMBOLS xxi

LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS xxiv

LIST OF APPENDICES xxvi

1 CHEMICAL PRODUCT BACKGROUND 1

1.1 Soda Ash as Chemical Product 1

1.2 Application of The Chemical Product 3

Industrial Chemical Uses 4

Soap and Detergent Production 5

Pulping and Bleaching Operation 6

1.3 Physical and Chemical Properties 6

1.4 Market Survey 8

1.5 List of Suppliers and Competitors 16

1.6 Current Market Price 16

1.7 Design Plant Capacity and Justification 17

1.8 Site Analysis 18

Factors in Deciding the Site Location 18

Land (Site Considerations) 18

Availability of Utilities: Water, Fuel and Power 19

Environmental Impact and Effluent Disposal 20

Local Community Considerations 20

Political and Strategic Considerations 21

Overall of Several Strategic Locations 22

Teluk Kalong Kemaman, Terengganu 23

Gebeng Phase (IV) Industrial Area, Pahang 23

Tanjung Langsat Industrial Area, Johor 24

Kota Kinabalu Industrial Park, Sabah 25

Tanjung Kidurong, Sarawak 25

Site Screening and Selection 26

Proposed Site and Plant Layout 38

1.9 Process Selection 42

Reaction Path 1: Leblanc Process 42

Reaction Path 2: Solvay Process 43

Reaction Path 3: Dual Process 43

Reaction Path 4: Carbonating Caustic Soda 44

Reaction Path 5: Monohydrate Process (Natural

Economic Potential Analysis 45

Advantages and Disadvantages of Each Route 49

2 PROCESS CREATION AND SYNTHESIS 53

2.1 Source of Raw Materials 53

2.2 Specification of Raw Materials 55

2.3 Physical and Chemical Properties of Reactants and Products 56

Soda Ash (Sodium Carbonate) 63

Toxicity Data of All Materials 64

2.4 5 Key Synthesis Steps of Soda Ash 66

Step 1: Eliminate Differences in Molecular Type 66

Step 2: Distribute the Chemicals 69

Step 3: Eliminating Differences in Composition 71

Step 4: Eliminate Differences in Temperature,

Step 5: Task Integration 77