Professional Documents
Culture Documents
The Effects of Block Size and Form in North American
The Effects of Block Size and Form in North American
The Effects of Block Size and Form in North American
Abstract. The paper describes a comparative study of block size and form
in twelve North American and Australian city centres. The purpose of the
study was to analyse the effect of different initial block sizes and forms on
the nature of subsequent urban development, in terms of land parcelling ,
building forms, circulation patterns , and partly also of land use. The study
considered the evolution of the block and layout pattern since the initial
layout was established , and its present form and performance. The findings
demonstrate that certain block forms and dimensions perform better than
others , in particular aspects and circumstances , and that the choice of initial
block forms arid sizes leads to predictable consequences and processes in
subsequent development. The method used offers a systematic basis for other
comparative studies of the influence of differing block forms and sizes in
both historical and contemporary urban fabrics.
The city block is a fundamental element of types, shapes, sizes and arrangements of
the physical structure of urban areas. blocks employed in different periods and
Throughout history , towns and cities have places, and about their relative performance
generally been laid out in relatively simple in meeting different urban purposes. Recent
patterns of streets and blocks, both in planned research (Siksna, 1990) has attempted to
and unplanned settlements. Therefore, it provide such comparative information by
might be expected that the properties of examining first, the block forms and sizes
different sizes, shapes and arrangements of used in the main historical periods of new
blocks would be well known and town foundation - Greek , Roman , medieval ,
documented . Surprisingly , this is not the case. and , in America and Australia, seventeenth to
Though some aspects have been studied , nineteenth century ; and secondly , by
there is little consolidated knowledge about examining the relative performance
the properties and performance characteristics characteristics of selected North American
of different block sizes, shapes and and Australian city centres that have different
arrangements in terms of circulation, land block forms and sizes . This paper describes
use, building forms and other aspects. the methods and findings of the second part
It would seem essential to have of the study .
comparative factual information about the
Nature and scope of study it is possible that cities having certain block
forms and sizes may have adapted more
A wide variety of layout patterns has been easily , and may perform better today, than
used for urban areas having a similar others. Two hypotheses were advanced . First,
purpose. For example, the Central Business that given their similar urban purposes and
Districts ( CBDs) of American and Australian processes, layouts initially having different
cities are broadly similar in land use, built lot and block sizes and forms will tend, over
form and circulation requirements, yet they time, towards similar patterns of land
have very different block forms and sizes. Do parcelling, building forms, and circulation
they all work equally well ? Do different routes. Secondly , that certain forms, sizes and
block forms and sizes affect the subdivision arrangements of lots, blocks and streets have
or amalgamation of land parcels, the been more adaptable, and have performed
functioning of circulation patterns and the better for past and present development
development of buildings? Do particular requirements .
blocks forms and sizes create favourable or The block forms of ten of the twelve cities
optimum conditions for one or more of these studied are shown in Figure 1 . Three criteria
aspects? Are there any desirable or were used in their selection . First, there
undesirable consequences which flow from should be equal numbers of North American
the choice of certain block forms or sizes ? and Australian cases. Secondly, a wide range
Although some of these aspects have been of block sizes and forms should be covered ,
addressed in studies of specific cities, there is using at least two cases of each distinct
no substantial comparative study which deals block size and form ; block sizes were
with the relative performance characteristics classified as small ( under 10 000m 2 ), medium
of different block forms and sizes in city ( 10 000 20 000 m 2 ), and large ( over
centres. 20 000m ). Thirdly , each case should have
2
To answer these questions more fully , a unique traits, but also share some features
study of selected North American and with other cases.
Australian city centres was chosen for a The layout characteristics of the city
number of reasons. First, the cities were centres are outlined below, with the year of
founded at about the same time and the initial plan and 1980-81 metropolitan
developed major city centres of a similar population stated in brackets.
nature in a similar time scale. Secondly , they Savannah ( 1733; 142 000 ) stnall
have similar, rectilinear layouts but the rectangular blocks - was included primarily
forms, dimensions and geometric arrangement as a point of reference, because it has much
of their lots, blocks and streets vary smaller blocks than are generally found in
considerably . Thirdly , their greatly changing North American and Australian towns of this
requirements and rapid growth , allow the period , and offers a rare example of two
properties and relative performance types of blocks designed for different
characteristics of different block sizes and purposes - one for residential , the other for
forms to be adequately revealed and tested . public uses. Its layout contains a number of
Finally , they enable cultural comparisons, yet central squares and the circulation pattern is
are not so different that cultural differences hierarchical .
cloud other factors. Portland ( 1845 ; 1 242 000 ) and Seattle
The city centres of North American and ( 1853 ; 1 607 000 ) small square and
Australian cities offer examples of initial rectangular blocks - allow comparison with
layouts being subjected to immense and rapid cities having larger square blocks.
changes in land use, building forms and Individually , they can highlight differences
transportation modes in a relatively short caused by the slightly different sizes, forms
period of time. Although they have all and internal structures of their respective
managed to adapt to different requirements, blocks.
J J I I L
n i—i r
c PORTLAND
c
c
n r 1[ in r
SAVANNAH SEATTLE
*
J l J L
n f 1 r
CHICAGO
INDIANAPOLIS
J l 1 L J J L
n f l r
~
i f r
MELBOURNE BRISBANE
Jl J L Jl J L
1f i r n f l r
PERTH
TORONTO
J L
SYDNEY AND HOBART
—
NOT SHOWN IRREGULAR
BLOCK FORMS AND SIZES
n l r
ADELAIDE o 100 200 m
60-70 m
100 m
SECONDARY NETWORK
OF ROUTES & NODES
In intensive areas
200 m
n
Large blocks-About 200
r
m square Small blocks-About 100 m square
Have sufficient depth to allow outward May have sufficient depth only for
facing street frontage as well as inward inward frontage to internal malls, thus
frontage to internal malls creating blank exterior walls.
0 100 200 m
The study sought to examine the effect of sources. The present form and performance
different block sizes and forms on the nature of the block and town pattern were studied
of urban development in terms of land by using contemporary maps showing streets,
parcelling, building forms, circulation blocks, lots and buildings ; reports or articles
patterns, and partly also land - use patterns describing past and present operation ,
within the block . Both evolution and aspects performance and trends ; and personal field
of present form and performance were observations, photographs and other
analysed . The four evolutionary aspects illustrations of the study areas.
considered were: ( I ) addition or deletion of Qualitative and quantitative analyses of the
streets and public spaces,'and the creation of individual and relative performance of the
sub- blocks or amalgamated blocks; ( 2) selected cities were undertaken to reveal
insertion or deletion of such features as com mon traits , ' cause - and - effect
alleys, arcades, and public spaces within relationships, and recurrent features and
blocks, and their effect on overall circulation processes that demonstrate some general
patterns ; ( 3) subdivision or amalgamation of validity. It must be emphasized that the
lots, and their effect on block structure; and performance assessments are comparative and
( 4 ) compatibility of lot sizes and shapes with relative, rather than absolute. Wherever
changing building forms, and the process of possible, firm theoretical criteria were
their mutual adjustment . —
used for example, the desirable pedestrian
The four aspects of present form and mesh sizes stated in Figure 2 were used as
performance that were considered were: ( 1 ) yardsticks in evaluating performance as
mesh size of the circulation networks for follows:
pedestrians and vehicles, as produced by the
spacing of routes and their method of 60-70 m: very fine meshed - optimal for
operation ; ( 2) lot sizes and forms, and their pedestrians
suitability for development ; ( 3) patterns of c. lOOm: fine meshed - very convenient for
land use and activity within blocks; and ( 4 ) pedestrians
building forms and their collective effect on c.200m : very coarse meshed - inconvenient
the block fabric and urban fabric. for pedestrians.
All aspects were examined only in so far
as they are affected by block form and size.
Indicators of good performance often only
Thus the analysis of circulation patterns is
emerged from the case studies themselves,
confined to the layout and spacing of the
with some cases then serving as benchmarks
route network , and does not cover such
for comparative observations. The use of the
matters as traffic volumes, capacities, and
term ‘optimum also has relative rather than
*
MORRISON ST
MFTRO
l IOHT RAIL
*
lOOP
YAMMI1 I ST
SQUARE
CHAPMAN
SQUARE
SCHRUNK
PI.AZA
•FFTERSON SI
KFLLFR
PARK
*
'
PORTLAND HARRISON ST
STREETS CLOSED BUT MOST REPLACED - T
PORT1 AND STATE IJNIV. BY PEDESTRIAN SPACES PORTLAND CENTER
/
BUS TRANSIT MAI L
ELEVATED
RAILROAD
lOOP
*i1 '
\ f
/
WACKER DR
i
1 •••!
"
XX
"
x I
rz co
1
»
- rb •
CIVIC
CENTER
S
•
»
UJ
>
<
rr
UJ
X
•••
i H9
< 7L
a<
uj
.i
u 35
3-1 . u
S
•••• •*•
!i 1
X
<
5 i #« *• ••••••• Q 5
*
n
MADISON STf l
H
—
u
i
1I. ii
a
u
0
* . ih
I
i
|i
iL
: 0
N
nca
i
:
CHICAGO
I JACKSON BlAD
0 ion 500 m
jL
'
fiiiPT
—
I r? J
1
LONSDALE ST
T
i LI LE
mirnu ii — MAUL
Ip |
I
ui k_
ST
1
L1J
LUt . 3TT| pTniilT
**
M
i s jdl
/
T
^
:
*•*
CITY
SQUARE r-
j Ji 2
i ••**
•••••
**
•
I S
£
2
hJLlk Trj m
—
/
?ft
I
•
FUNDERS ST
T PD
£4
I RAILWAY STATION |
“
I * RAILWAY LINE
MELBOURNE
I
RAILWAY LINE AND STATION I
• NORTH TCE
1 I
5
H £ J
i luniiiilmliir
RUNDLE
MALL
•M *!* *
4
HHiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiMiiii njnriiiimniiiiiiiiiiiH £
CURRIE ST
3' h - !
J
r
GRENFELL ST
I liJ
jRl
1
2
7
n:
0HO r JJ
a ±11 GROTE ST
HI 11 [
|SQUARE f
"
WAKEFIELD ST
§
/K
ADELAIDE
0 100 500 m
*
T T
i- 4 4 -
+ 4-
) I
1h
~ 1
i- . + 4-
\ ;
/
800 m
Table 1. Comparison of street spacing in original and modified circulation mesh sizes.
Dimensions are in metres between centre lines
and high - rise buildings. Circulation meshes street forms and configurations can assist, or
with a spacing of about 80-110 m constitute prevent , certain types of development of
an optimum network for both pedestrian and block and layout patterns.
vehicular needs, and finer- mesh networks, The study has also confirmed and refined
with a spacing of about 50-70 m , are the the findings and theories of previous research
optimum in areas of intensive pedestrian studies . The findings of Moudon ( 1986) for
activity. residential blocks - for example, that small
The study has identified certain factors and lots produce more predictable building forms
processes which enable layouts of lots, blocks and fine-grain block fabrics, and that large,
and streets to be modified over time. First , deep blocks are intensified by inserting alleys
the intensification of development within and subdividing the block interior - have
large blocks, and the creation of optimum been shown to be generally valid also for
blocks and circulation meshes, occurs by the city centre blocks.
insertion of streets, alleys and arcades. The expectation of Brown and Johnson
Secondly, large lots are subdivided into ( 1985) that certain patterns of land division
orderly patterns of fractional lots, but the produce similar urban forms, and that for this
subsequent amalgamation of lots occurs in reason different cultures might generate
less orderly patterns. Thirdly , lot location and similar urban forms, was also confirmed . For
topographical conditions can create example, similar block and lot forms have
differentiated land - use patterns within the evolved in similar ways in Toronto, Canada
block . Fourthly , particular lot , block and and Adelaide, Australia.
TAYLOR ST
SALMON ST
LOWNSDALE
SQUARE
MAIN ST
w
UJ > LU
> < CHAPMAN >
< X SQUARE
<
o
I oI.
oS
i u E
MADISON ST
TERRY
SCHRUNK
PLAZA
JEFFERSON ST
PORTLAND
MADISON ST
1 ADAMS ST
CHICAGO
0 100 200 m
FLINDERS LANE
FLINDERS ST
MELBOURNE
RUNDLE MALL
GRENFELL ST
PIRIE ST
ADELAIDE
0 100 200 m
The compatibility with the findings of with similar or different block sizes and
Maitland ( 1984, 1985) on pedestrian route forms, particular city centres in more depth
mesh , and his theory of ‘ minimal urban (cf . Moudon , 1986 ) , and centres with
structure’ , is more problematic. While several different layout, cultural and performance
American and Australian city centres characteristics - for example, centres planned
( Savannah , Seattle, Brisbane, and Melbourne) on a super- block pattern , or primarily used by
conform to the 200 m spacing of primary pedestrians and cyclists. Another related line
pedestrian routes and the 100m spacing of of investigation would be the simulation of
secondary routes postulated by Maitland the future evolution of block sizes and forms
( Figure 2 ), others ( Chicago, Indianapolis, in centres. The identification of optimum
Adelaide, Perth , and Toronto ) significantly forms also suggests that they might be used
depart from these dimensions. However, as ‘models’ for the laying out of new centres
Maitland’ s suggestion that, in areas of high - and for improving existing centres. If certain
density development , pedestrian routes and block forms have worked well , or have
nodes should be closer than 100m , was produced particular effects in the past, there
confirmed and refined by the study ’s finding is a reasonable expectation that they will
that some city centre retail cores had perform similarly in other cases in the future.
pedestrian networks at average spacings of
50-70 m.
The study findings support the initial References
hypotheses. Given similar urban purposes and
processes, layouts initially having different Brown , F. E. ( 1985 ) ‘Medieval London : the
lot and block sizes and forms have tended , growth of a city ’ , Journal of Architectural and
over time, towards similar patterns of land Planning Research 2, 77-97.
parcelling, building forms, and circulation Brown , F. E. and Johnson , J . H. ( 1985) ‘ An
routes. Furthermore, certain forms, sizes and interactive computer model of urban
arrangements of lots, blocks and streets have development: the rules governing the
morphology of medieval London ’ ,
been more adaptable, and have performed
Environment and Planning B 12, 377-400.
better for both past and present development
Maitland , B. ( 1984) ‘Towards a minimal theory of
requirements. The tendency towards similar urban structure’ , in Gosling, D. and Maitland ,
patterns is more marked in cities which share B . Concepts of urban design ( Academy
some aspect of initial block form , size or Editions, London ) 153-5.
structure. For example, the presence of Maitland , B. ( 1985) Shopping malls: planning and
through - lots in Melbourne and Perth produces design (Construction Press, London ).
similar arcade patterns. Some tendencies are Moudon , A .V. ( 1986 ) Built for change:
apparent in several cities - those with large or neighborhood architecture in San Francisco
medium blocks have all developed finer ( MIT Press, Cambridge, Mass ).
pedestrian circulation meshes, approximating Panerai , P. , Depaule, J .-C., Demorgon , M . and
those initially provided in cities with smaller Veyrenche, M. ( 1980) Elements d ' analyse
blocks. Others are found in all cities - for urbaine ( Editions Archives d ’ Architecture
example, the amalgamation of land parcels, Moderne, Bruxelles ).
Siksna, A. ( 1990) ‘A comparative study of block
and the coarsening of vehicular circulation
size and form ( in selected new towns in the
mesh due to one- way traffic systems.
history of Western civilization and in selected
The main value of this study is its North American and Australian city centres)’ ,
comparative nature. It could pave the way for unpublished PhD thesis, University of
similar investigations covering city centres Queensland .