Material Term Report

MSE 222
Material Term Report

Graphene and Its Derivatives
Submitted by
Abdelrahman Ahmed Mohamed Gaber 120190098
Abdelrahman Ahmed Omar Abdelgawad 120190104
Ahmed Mohamed Sobhey Heakl 120190044
Alaa Ahmed Ibrahim Elsetohy 120190108
Albatol Ihab Elsayed Mohamed 120190109
Ibrahim Ihab Ibrahim Abdelaziz 120190102
Mohamed Ahmed Mohamed Elsayed 120190120
Rahenda Mohamed Saad Khodier 120190006
Sama Mahmoud Mohamed Hadhoud 120190017
Sara Alaaeldin Megahed Sorour 120190068
To
Dr. Ahmed Hassanin
Table of Contents
I. Introduction ........................................................................................................................................... 5
II. History ................................................................................................................................................... 7
III. Graphene Synthesis and Processing ..................................................................................................... 9
A. Synthesis of Graphene ...................................................................................................................... 10
1. Chemical Vapor Disposition .......................................................................................................... 10
2. Dry Exfoliation .............................................................................................................................. 13
3. Liquid Phase Exfoliation (LPE) ..................................................................................................... 14
B. Processing of Graphene ................................................................................................................... 15
1. Transfer, Placement, and Shaping .................................................................................................. 15
2. Contamination and Cleaning ........................................................................................................... 17
IV. Structure and Properties of Graphene ................................................................................................ 18
A. Structure of Graphene ...................................................................................................................... 18
B. Properties of Graphene .................................................................................................................... 18
1. Physical Properties ......................................................................................................................... 18
2. Electronic Properties ...................................................................................................................... 18
3. Mechanical Properties .................................................................................................................... 19
V. Applications of Graphene.................................................................................................................... 19
A. Composites and Coatings ................................................................................................................. 19
1. Composites ..................................................................................................................................... 20
2. Coatings ......................................................................................................................................... 20
B. Electronics ........................................................................................................................................ 21
C. Biomedical ........................................................................................................................................ 21
1. Biosensing ...................................................................................................................................... 22
.2 Tissue Engineering ......................................................................................................................... 22
D. Super Conductors ............................................................................................................................. 23
E. Desalination...................................................................................................................................... 24
F. Gas Sensor ........................................................................................................................................ 25
VI. Graphene Derivatives ......................................................................................................................... 27
A. Laser Induced Graphene .................................................................................................................. 27
1. Synthesis and Processing ............................................................................................................... 27
2. Structure and Properties ................................................................................................................. 29
3. Applications of LIG ....................................................................................................................... 31
B. Graphene Oxide ................................................................................................................................ 32
3. Performance, Applications, and Economical Aspects ................................................................... 34
2
C. Reduced Graphene Oxide ................................................................................................................. 35

3. Applications of rGO ....................................................................................................................... 38
D. Carbon Nanotubes ............................................................................................................................ 39
3. Performance, Applications, and Economical Aspects ................................................................... 42
VII. Conclusion........................................................................................................................................... 44
VIII. References ........................................................................................................................................... 45
List of Figures
Figure 1: Graphene timeline ......................................................................................................................... 7
Figure 2: Graphite intercalation compounds (GICs)..................................................................................... 7
Figure 3: Andre Geim and Konstantin Novoselov........................................................................................ 9
Figure 4: Schematic illustration of CVD .................................................................................................... 10
Figure 5: Schematic of reaction chambre ................................................................................................... 11
Figure 6: Producing graphene using copper substrate. ............................................................................... 11
Figure 7: Dissolving the copper in acid ...................................................................................................... 12
Figure 8: Graphene coating with PMMA ................................................................................................... 12
Figure 9: Trapping of carbon atoms ............................................................................................................ 12
Figure 10: Holding the graphene sheet onto ............................................................................................... 12
Figure 11: Schematic of Mechanical Cleavage........................................................................................... 13
Figure 12: Schematic of anodic boding ...................................................................................................... 13
Figure 13: Schematic of LPE ...................................................................................................................... 14
Figure 14: Steps of LPE .............................................................................................................................. 14
Figure 15: Schematic for dry transfer ......................................................................................................... 15
Figure 16: Schematic for wet transfer ......................................................................................................... 16
Figure 17: Schematic for Di-electrophoresis .............................................................................................. 16
Figure 18: Molecular structure of Graphene ............................................................................................... 18
Figure 19: Rough representation of the graphene-PVA composite structure as the loading of the graphene
increases. ..................................................................................................................................................... 20
Figure 20: - Snapshots of a water droplet impacting the surface of the Teflon coated graphene foam. ..... 20
Figure 21: Fujitsu process of making graphene transistor. ......................................................................... 21
Figure 22: Scheme of a biosensor. The biosensor consists of a receptor layer, which consists of a
biomolecule (e.g., DNA or protein), and a transducer, which is a graphene-based material. ..................... 22
Figure 23: Schematic diagram of graphene 3D scaffolds in tissue engineering. ........................................ 22
3
Figure 24: - Illustration of the double layer of charge nature ..................................................................... 23

Figure 25: In this process, the salt water (left), subjected to a high pressure, is divided into two parts:
water molecules (red and white) passing through the membrane (right) and salt ions (golden spheres) that
are blocked. ................................................................................................................................................. 25
Figure 26: Basic principle of electrochemical gas sensor where the sensing material serves. ................... 26
Figure 27: : Scheme for roll-to-roll production of LIG film ....................................................................... 27
Figure 28: Schematic for a laser on polyimride .......................................................................................... 28
Figure 29: Multiple lasing ........................................................................................................................... 28
Figure 30: LIG on diverse substrate............................................................................................................ 29
Figure 31: Ablated and functionalized lines in single-layer graphene processed at different scanning
speeds and repetition rate scale bar is 10 μm .............................................................................................. 29
Figure 32: A tester wearing the LIG artificial throat; scale bar, 1 cm. ....................................................... 31
Figure 33: The response of LIG resistance toward the throat vibrations from coughs, hums, screams,
swallowing and nods. .................................................................................................................................. 31
Figure 34: Simple super capacitor .............................................................................................................. 32
Figure 35: Lerf-Klinovski's structural model of graphene oxide. ............................................................... 33
Figure 36: (a) Stalked graphene oxide water filter, (b) GO-based biological sensors ................................ 34
Figure 37: Reduction of GO to rGO ........................................................................................................... 36
Figure 38: Representative structure of rGO (not true identity) ................................................................... 37
Figure 39: A schematic of (a) arc discharge apparatus, (b) laser ablation apparatus .................................. 39
Figure 40: A representation of (a) Single-walled carbon nanotube, (b) Multiple-walled carbon nanotube 41
Figure 41: CNTs energy and environment related applications (a) battery, (b) supercapacitor, (c) water
filter ............................................................................................................................................................. 42
Figure 42: Carbon nanotubes market, revenue share (%) ........................................................................... 43
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I. Introduction
The name “carbon” has been derived from the Latin word carbo meaning charcoal.
Its unique electronic structure allows for various types of hybridization to occur and
thus build up sp3, sp2, and sp networks that form more stable allotropes than any
other element. From all these hybridization types, the sp2 carbon-based family
exhibits a great variety of allotropes, from the low-dimensional fullerenes,
nanotubes, and graphene ribbons to two-dimensional monolayer graphene, or
stacked graphene multilayers. The most important that can be considered the
building block for all these allotropes is the two-dimensional monolayer graphene
as all the other forms can be derived from it. Fullerene can be made by wrapping
graphene, representing curvatures in terms of intervening rings of five members.
Carbon nanotubes can be made by rolling segments of graphene that are different in
boundaries. Also, the three-dimensional graphite can be made by stacking these
graphene layers together with weak bonding.
Hence, by taking a step back, this two-dimensional monolayer graphene is actually

extracted from the most abundant natural allotropic form of carbon which is
graphite. Graphite consists of sp2 hybridized carbon atomic layers which are stacked
together by weak van der Waals forces. So, the single layers of these carbon atoms
tightly packed into a perfect hexagonal two-dimensional (2D) honeycomb crystal
lattice is what is called graphene. Graphite exhibits a remarkable anisotropic
behavior with respect to thermal and electrical conductivity. It is highly conductive
in the direction parallel to the graphene layers because of the in-plane metallic
character, whereas it exhibits poor conductivity in the direction perpendicular to the
layers because of the weak van der Waals interactions between them.
Thus, what explains the uniqueness of the electrical and mechanical properties of
graphene is the constitutes of the C–C interatomic bond in graphene. The first one is
the σ-bonds that are originally formed from the electron clouds aligned along or
parallel to the bond axis. The second one is the π-bonds that are originally formed
from the clouds of electrons aligned perpendicular to both the bond axis and the
graphene plane.
The σ-bonds are the ones responsible for the unique and extraordinary strength and
stiffness of graphene as it forms a rigid backbone for the hexagonal structure since
they need a huge amount of energy to be broken. However, the π-bonds are the
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responsible ones for the graphene extraordinarily high electrical conductivity as the
electrons forming these bonds are weakly bound to each other and therefore free to
move through the graphene layer with high velocity.
Moreover, each one of the carbon atoms inside the graphene layer forms three σ
bonds with neighboring carbon atoms by overlapping of sp2 orbitals. On the other
hand, the remaining pz orbitals overlap to form a band of filled π orbitals which we
can call the valence band and another band of empty π* orbitals which we can call
the conduction band. This process is responsible for the high in-plane conductivity
of graphene.
Therefore, Graphene enjoys a great number of fascinating unique properties that

make it the material of the 21st century that attract a great number of both theoretical
and experimental scientists worldwide. These properties can also include zero
bandgap, remarkable electron mobility at room temperature, high thermal
conductivity and stiffness, large surface area, impermeability to gases, the
observation of integer quantum Hall effect even at room temperature, breakdown of
adiabatic Born–Oppenheimer approximation, realization of Klein paradox,
possibilities of high Tc superconductivity, metal-free magnetism, ballistic electronic
propagation, charge-carrier doping, and many others.
Graphene obviously has significantly contributed to many industrial applications as

the graphene-based materials have gained a great attention for using them in energy
storage systems and supercapacitors, electronics, chemical sensors, optoelectronics,
nanocomposites, lithium-ion batteries, gas detection, conducting electrodes, and
health-related applications such as osteogenic. Moreover, adding graphene to
composites inhibits nano-sized fabrication of active material, improves non-faradaic
capacitive behavior, increases conductivity, and prevents disintegration. Graphene
also provides a physical barrier between the electrolyte and the active material, thus
increasing the stability of the cycling, specific capacitance, and rate capability.
Graphene has also made it possible to understand properties in low dimension. It has
opened up tremendous possibilities in the fabrication of electronic devices and has
also shown a great deal of potential in replacing electronics based on silicon.
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II. History
Figure 1: Graphene timeline
The history of graphene, as shown in Fig.1, will be incomplete if there are no

mentions of graphene oxide (GO), graphite intercalation compounds (GICs), and a
material called reduced graphene oxide (r-GO).
Earlier, we can find reports related to graphene

oxide (GO), and graphite intercalation
compounds (GICs) published in the 1840s
when the German scientist Schafhaeutl did
experiments on intercalation which is the
insertion of an acid or alkali metal small-sized
molecule species in the spaces between the
graphite sheets as shown in Fig.2. In addition to Figure 2: Graphite intercalation compounds
the mechanical exfoliation of graphite using (GICs)
nitric and sulfuric acid.
The story of graphene starts in 1859 when the English chemist Benjamin Collins
Brodie did researches on the lamellar reduced graphite oxide and reported the atomic
weight of graphite in the Royal Society of London. He added some modifications to
the methods proposed by Schafhaeutl hoping to identify the molecular weight of
graphite using strong acids in addition to oxidants. These attempts resulted in
oxidation of the graphite surface giving graphene oxide besides the intercalation of
graphite and helped to prepare the single reduced graphene oxide (r-GO) and the use
of graphene oxide as oxidant material. Furthermore, those intercalation and
oxidation experiments are the first examples of transforming graphite into its laminar
constituents.
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In 1916, graphite structure was discovered for the first time. In 1947, Philip R.
Wallace predicted the existence of graphene as he described the linear dispersion
relation and the electronic structure relation. He did not use the term graphene, he
referred to it as “single hexagonal layer”. The invention of the electron microscope,
in 1948, helped us see the image of few-layers graphite which paved the road to see
the single-layered graphite.
In 1961, Boehm and his colleagues did researches on graphite flakes and could
synthesize single-layered graphite using transmission electron microscopy (TEM)
and X-ray diffraction. They reported a carbon material of thickness 4.6 Å which
slightly deviated from the results published later which is 4.0 Å their research was
published the following year in 1962.
In a separate study, Morgan, and Somorjai used low-energy electron diffraction
(LEED) to test the absorption of various gases using a platinum surface these gases
were CO, C2H4, and C2H2. Based on their results, in 1969, May deduced that the top
graphite monolayer reduces its placement energy on each of the platinum faces of
the study. this deduction helped the establishment of the graphene IUPAC definition.
In the 1970s, scientists succeeded in depositing graphite monolayers epitaxially onto
other materials under high temperature with an ultrahigh vacuum.
The term “graphene” was first used in 1987 to describe the single layer of graphite,
carbon nanotubes, polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons, and epitaxial graphene.
Starting from 1990 till 2004, many attempts were made to synthesis thin layers of
graphene by mechanical exfoliation. However, the thinnest film layer obtained
consisted of 50-100 layers.
Later in 1999, a micromechanical method was used to obtain thin lamellae consisting
of compressed multiple layers of graphene. This method did not succeed to obtain
fully exfoliated lamellae, however, it eased the way for combining Highly oriented
pyrolytic graphite (HOPG) with oxygen-plasma etching to create pillars from which
thin lamellae were obtained by rubbing.
8
In October 2004, Andre Geim, Konstantin

Novoselov, and their colleagues from other
institutes published their results in a paper
describing the structure of graphene, ways of
fabrications, and characterization of Atomic
Force Microscopy (AFM) of graphene. They got
full use of the micromechanical approach Figure 3: Andre Geim and Konstantin Novoselov
mentioned before, by pressing the HOPG
against a silicon-wafer layer and removing it, thin layers of graphene can be located
by optical microscope. Moreover, they depended on scotch tape to extract a thin
layer of graphene from a graphite crystal then transfer it to a silicon substrate which
is a very simple mechanical exfoliation method. This new material is the thinnest
and strongest heat conductor among other materials. Thanks to quantum effects,
graphene has extraordinary properties.
Many controversies encountered them to be awarded the Noble Prize. Nevertheless,
they were awarded later in 2010, based on the groundbreaking experiments, not the
discovery of graphene itself. Issues regarding their work did not stop even after being
awarded the prize. In Geim’s lecture about Nobel Prize, he mentioned that their work
marked the first time to separate a single carbon atomic layer in a completely clear
way as it was thought before that a single separate layer of graphene would be
unstable. He added this thought was the reason that delayed graphene isolation.
Another scientist called Boehm who is involved in the graphene research said that
the Nobel Prize committee did not study their decision very well, however, he
believes that the award can be justified for their effort in the electronic measurements
of graphene. Boehm stated that their results were new and unexpected.
III. Graphene Synthesis and Processing

Graphene is an allotrope of carbon that exists as a two-dimensional planar sheet. One
way to think of graphene is as a single atomic graphite layer. Graphene is technically
a non-metal but is often referred to as a quasi-metal due to its properties being like
that of a semi-conducting metal. As such, it has many unique properties that cannot
be found with other non-metallic materials.
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A. Synthesis of Graphene
There are many types of graphene, of which the truest one is only one atom thick
(monolayer) and typically exists as film. There are, however, other several types
such as graphene oxides, graphene nano plates, graphene quantum dots, and
graphene nanoribbons.
An early method of creating graphene was invented in 2004 by Andre Geim and
Konstantin Novoselov. They exploited the fact that graphite is a stacked layers of
carbon sheets and used a simple scotch tape to exfoliate graphene sheets. The
repeated exfoliation on a substrate surface enabled to derive a very thin sheet
consisting of few-layers graphene. The unique physical properties of the exfoliated
2D graphene sheet led to several outstanding innovations in graphene deriving and
synthesis process. Mechanical exfoliated graphene has been widely studied to
investigate physical properties of graphene and electronic device fabrication.
Nonetheless, the scotch tape technique produces only a few microns sheet, which
has only limited application prospective; the technique was time consuming and
basically depends on trial-and-error approach with difficulties to locate with
repeatability. Hence, there are three main commercial methods of synthesizing
graphene:
1. Chemical Vapor Disposition:

It is one of the most common methods to produce
graphene sheets. It works via combining and
depositing volatile gas molecules onto a substrate. The
process takes place in a reaction chamber, where the
material is formed on the surface of the substrate, and Figure 4: Schematic illustration of CVD
the waste gases are pumped out.
Temperature dependence plays a vital role and can affect the type of reaction that
occurs. CVD produces graphene films of high quality and purity, but the by-products
produced during the reaction can be toxic due to the volatile nature of the precursor
gases. The graphene film is created by CVD in two steps:
➢ The first involves the pyrolysis (decomposition by high temperature) of a precursor

material to form carbon atoms on a substrate material. By pyrolyzing the material
10
on the substrate, carbon clusters are

prevented from forming. Due to the
amount of energy required to break
the carbon bonds (C-C = 347
kj.mol-1, C=C = 614 kj.mol-1, C≡C
= 839 kj.mol-1, C-H = 413), a high
heat is required, and therefore a
metal catalyst is required during
Figure 5: Schematic of reaction chambre
the process.
➢ The second step is a heat intensive step, which assembles the dissociated carbon
atoms onto a substrate (in the presence of a catalyst) forming a single layer
structure.
CVD graphene films are predicted to have strong chemical, electronic, mechanical,
and magnetic properties depending on the arrangement of the atoms in the film. Due
to the five-order-of-magnitude difference between the grains and atoms at grain
boundaries, only a few experiments have been produced to study these interactions.
Figure 6: Producing graphene using copper substrate.
One substrate that is known to produce high-quality graphene is copper. Copper acts
as both a catalyst and the substrate. The copper bonds to the carbon atoms, which
provides strong carbon-substrate interactions, allowing for a single graphene layer to
be easily formed on the surface. Copper oxide can also be inserted between layers of
graphene, making it an easy process to remove a single layer.
11
As shown in figure 8, the synthesis process

starts with a wafer copper placed into the
reaction chambre. It is immersed in
methane gas (CH4) and heated to a very
high temperature. It is known that methane
consists of a single carbon atom
surrounded by four hydrogen atoms. When
the molecules of methane hit the copper,
Figure 9: Trapping of carbon atoms
the carbon atoms get trapped while the
remaining hydrogen atoms keep moving around as shown in figure 8. This effectively
Figure 8: Graphene coating with PMMA Figure 7:

Figure 9: Dissolving
Dissolving the
the copper
copper in
in acid
acid
creates a single layer of carbon atoms that can be several centimeters long. However,
since carbon is too tightly bonded to the copper, it is hard to do anything with it.
Afterwards, to transport the graphene around, it is firstly covered with an organic
polymer (PMMA) that acts as a protective layer using a technique called Spin-
coating. After that, the copper wafer is deposited on acid that dissolves that copper,
but does nothing to the graphene, until all copper has been removed.
Finally, the graphene (+ PMMA) is washed

with water to remove any residues from the
acid. It is then picked from the water with
another wafer usually made out of Si/SiO2.
When the graphene is ready to be used in a
Figure 10: Holding the graphene sheet onto
device, or an experiment, the PMMA is
removed using acetone or other solvents.
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2. Dry Exfoliation:
Dry exfoliation is the splitting of layered materials (LM) into atomically thin sheets
via mechanical, electrostatic, or electromagnetic forces in air, vacuum, or inert
environments. It can be done using multiple techniques:
➢ Mechanical Cleavage:
Micromechanical cleavage (MC), also known as micromechanical exfoliation, has
been used for decades by crystal growers and crystallographers. In 1999, it was
reported a controlled method of cleaving graphite, yielding films consisting of
several layers of graphene. It was also suggested that “more extensive rubbing of the
graphite surface against other flat surfaces
might be a way to get multiple or even single
atomic layers of graphite plates.” This was then
firstly demonstrated, achieving single layer
graphene (SLG) using an adhesive tape,
Micromechanical cleavage is now optimized to
yield high quality layers, with size limited by
the single crystal grains in the starting graphite,
Figure 11: Schematic of Mechanical Cleavage
of the order of millimeters.
The number of layers can be readily identified by elastic and inelastic light
scattering. Although MC is impractical for large scale applications, it is still the
method of choice for fundamental studies.
➢ Anodic Bonding:
Anodic bonding is widely used in the microelectronics industry to bond Si wafers to
glass, to protect them from humidity or contaminations. When employing this
technique to produce SLG, graphite is first pressed onto a glass substrate, a high
voltage of few kVs (0.5 – 2 kV) is applied between
the graphite and a metal back contact (figure 12),
and the glass substrate is then heated (~200 °C for
~10 – 20 mins). If a positive voltage is applied to
the top contact, a negative charge accumulates in
the glass side facing the positive electrode,
causing the decomposition of Na2O impurities in
the glass into Na+ and O2- ions. Na+ moves Figure 12: Schematic of anodic boding
13
towards the back contact, while O2- remains at the graphite-glass interface,
establishing a high electric field at the interface. A few layers of graphite, including
SLGs, stick to the glass by electrostatic interaction and can then be cleaved off;
temperature (T) or an applied voltage can be used to control the number of layers
and their size. Anodic bonding has been reported to produce flakes up to about a
millimeter in width.
3. Liquid Phase Exfoliation (LPE):

Graphite can also be exfoliated in liquid
environments exploiting ultrasounds to extract
individual layers, Fig.13. The liquid-phase
exfoliation process generally involves three steps:
1) dispersion of graphite in a solvent; 2)
exfoliation; 3) “purification”. The third step is
necessary to separate exfoliated from
unexfoliated flakes and is usually carried out via
ultracentrifugation. Energy in the form of
Figure 13: Schematic of LPE
sonication or shear is used to overcome the van
der Waals attraction in bulk LM. If this is done in a suitable liquid (solvents with
matching solubility parameters, or additives that act as electrostatic and/or steric
stabilizers), reaggregation is prevented. The resulting flakes can have low defect
densities and can be further solution processed by a range of techniques.
Graphene flakes are produced via injecting a liquid solvent into the layers of the
graphite. We do so by dispersing the graphite molecules into the solvent, the solvent
molecules will accumulate amongst the graphite layers. Afterwards, we sonicate the
graphite using ultrasonic waves in the liquid. The sonication creates a pressure
difference, which will in turn creates
cavitation bubbles growth, as the
time goes, in negative pressures. The
bubble will then implode and result
in shearing forces breaking and
separating the layers of graphite into
the desired graphene. However, not
all the graphite layers will be Figure 14: Steps of LPE
14
exfoliated, which will have a higher mass than the exfoliated layers. Hence, we
centrifuge it at high rpm so that the unexfoliated layer will precipitate, and the
exfoliated will float on top.
B. Processing of Graphene:
1. Transfer, Placement, and Shaping
The placement of graphene on arbitrary substrates is key for applications and
characterization. The ideal approach would be to directly grow graphene where
required. However, as discussed above, we are still far from this goal, especially in
the case of non-metallic substrates. Alternatively, a transfer procedure is necessary.
This also allows the assembly of novel devices and heterostructures, with different
stacked 2d crystals.
➢ Transfer of Individual Layers:

Several transfer processes have been developed so far and can be classified as ”wet”
or ”dry”. The first includes all procedures where graphene is in contact, at some
stage of the process, with a liquid. In the second, one face of graphene is protected
from contacting any liquid, while the other is typically in contact with a polymer,
eventually removed by solvents.
➢ Dry Transfer of Exfoliated Flakes:

To fabricate heterostructures with clean interfaces (i.e.,
without trapped adsorbates), dry transfer methods have
been developed. The most common is a mechanical
transfer technique based on stacking two polymer layers,
the bottom being water dissolvable and the top being
PMMA. Graphite was exfoliated onto this polymer stack
and the sample floated on the surface of deionized (DI)
water, resulting in the detachment of the PMMA +
graphene film from the substrate. The upper graphene
face is not in contact with water, thus minimizing
contamination.
Figure 15: Schematic for dry transfer
The polymer + graphene film is then collected, and the

alignment achieved using a micromanipulator. Even dry transfer may not result in
perfectly clean interfaces, as some adsorbates may get trapped.
15
➢ Wet Transfer of Exfoliated Flakes:

Various nanostructures of graphene such as single wall
nanotubes can be transferred by means of a poly (methyl
methacrylate) (PMMA)-mediated process. The process
is based on a PMMA sacrificial layer spin-coated on
graphene. The polymer-coated sample is then immersed
in a NaOH solution, which partially etches the SiO2
surface-releasing the polymer. Graphene sticks to the
polymer and can then be transferred. PMMA is
eventually dissolved by acetone, thus releasing the
graphene sample.
➢ Di-electrophoresis:
Electrophoresis is a technique used for separating
particles according to their size and electrical charge. A
uniform electric current is passed through a medium that
contains the particles. These travel through a medium at
Figure 16: Schematic for wet
a different rate, depending on their electrical charge and transfer
size. Separation occurs based on these differences. Di-
electrophoresis (DEP) is the migration of uncharged particles towards the position
of maximum field strength in a non-uniform electric field. The force in DEP depends
on the electrical properties of the particle and surrounding fluid, the particle
geometry, and electric field frequency. Particles move toward the regions of high
electric field strength (positive DEP) if their polarizability is greater than the
suspending medium, and vice versa. This allows fields of a particular frequency to
manipulate particles, at the same
time assembling them on pre-
defined locations. DEP is used for
the manipulation of graphene oxide
soot, and single and few-layer
graphene oxide flakes. It also has
been used to place individual few
layer graphene between pre-
patterned electrodes via DEP. Once
trapped, the higher polarizability of
Figure 17: Schematic for Di-electrophoresis
16
graphene compared to the surrounding medium limited the deposition to one flake
per device4. This self-limiting nature is one of the advantages of this method,
together with the direct assembly of individual flakes at predetermined locations.
2. Contamination and Cleaning:

It is usually performed after patterning and etch processes to remove residues. Wet
chemical etches are also performed to remove damage from surfaces. Most
applications require graphene on a dielectric surface. When graphene is grown
directly on a dielectric, as in the case of graphene on SiC, or when graphene or
graphene oxide is deposited on the dielectric substrate directly, cleaning is required
only after patterning and etch processes as devices are fabricated. Because every
atom is a surface atom, graphene is very sensitive to contaminants left by production,
transfer or fabrication processes. To remove them, several methods have been
developed.
➢ Cleaning of Graphene Produced by Mechanical Cleavage:

The amount of contamination can be assessed optically: organic contamination
arising from the diffusion of tape glue used in micromechanical cleavage changes
the contrast. TEM and scanning probe microscopies (e.g. AFM, STM), are used to
detect contaminants on graphene films or flakes. MC samples can be cleaned from
resist residuals by thermal annealing (at 400 °C, in Ar/H2), assessing the quality of
the cleaning process via scanning probe techniques. Also, it could be cleaned via
thermal annealing (at 280 °C) in ultra-high vacuum (<1.5 × 10−10 Torr), to remove
resist residues and other contaminants.
➢ Removal of Solvents/Surfactants in LPE Graphene

For graphene and graphene oxide produced via LPE, the cleaning, removal of
solvents and/or surfactants, mainly depends on the target applications. The reduced
graphene oxide films are first rinsed with water to wash out the surfactants and then
transferred from the membrane to the target substrate. The membrane is then usually
dissolved in acetone and methanol. For freestanding films, the deposited flakes are
peeled off from the membrane. The films are then annealed at T > 250°C in Ar/N2
or air. The latter process could help remove residual surfactant molecules.
17
IV. Structure and Properties of Graphene

A. Structure of Graphene
Graphene is a one-atom-thick layer of carbon that are arranged in hexagonal lattice.
And they are the building unit and for the Graphite. Graphene is considered a
remarkable material on its on for its various fascinating properties.
Graphene is the thinnest material known with its one-

atom-thick structure. Yet, it is incredibly strong as well.
For a reference, Graphene is 200 times stronger than
steel. Graphene is also a great is also a great conductor
of heat and electricity along with some light absorption
abilities. These factors allow Graphene to have a great
potential towards changing the world and possess Figure 18: Molecular structure of
unlimited potential into integration with various Graphene
industries.
B. Properties of Graphene
1. Physical Properties
Graphene is one of the thinnest materials in the world with its one-atom-thick
dimension of approximately (0.34mm). Graphene weighs only 0.77 milligrams per
square meter.
2. Electronic Properties
Graphene has an extremely high electric current density which means that the
amount of electric current flowing through a unit cross-section area of it is very high,
that value is estimated to be a million times of that of Copper. It also has intrinsic
mobility that is very high, which means that the mobility of the electrons in Graphene
is very high, estimated to be 100 times of Silicon. This makes Graphene the fastest
and most efficient conductor.
This is majorly one of the reasons that nanotechnology researchers that work on
molecular electronics are excited and focused on Graphene. This is all due to the
Graphene’s atomic arrangement which allows the electronics to flow easily and with
very high velocity. It was also found that Graphene can conduct electricity at the
zero-carrier concentration because electrons do not slow down.
18
3. Mechanical Properties
Graphene has impressive mechanical properties, its stiffness, strength and
toughness. These properties allow it to become remarkable material-wise and as a
reinforcing agent in composites.
o Stiffness: Even though Graphene is very thin, it is stiffer than steel and even diamond
in the same dimensions. Graphene’s breaking force from simulations and experiments
were identical, the values obtained corresponds to 1.0 ± 0.1 TPa.
o Strength: Graphene is considered to be the strongest material ever tested with
strength which is equal to 130 GPa.
o Toughness: Fracture Toughness which is a very important factor when studying
a material was measured to equal 4.0 ± 0.6 MPa.
There is one material known to mankind at the moment that may be stronger than
Graphene known as Carbyne which is basically a one-atom-wide string of graphene.
Carbyne is less used because it is difficult to synthesize. Therefore, these properties
have research groups worldwide working on industrially manufactural graphene
sheet with high strength in all sheet directions maintaining its highly beneficial
properties.
V. Applications of Graphene
As a result of its unusual combination of outstanding properties, Graphene has
emerged among the most promising nanomaterials: it is not just one of the thinnest,
yet toughest materials known; it conducts heat better than all other materials; it is a
perfect electrical conductor; it is optically transparent, but so thick that it is
impermeable to gases-not even helium, the smallest gas atom, would be able to pass
through it. Some of the most popular numerous applications of graphene are
discussed below in this section.
A. Composites and Coatings

Graphene is the world’s strongest material known till now. This is remarked due to
its unparalleled mechanical abilities. It is therefore used in enhancing other
materials, in composites know as graphene-enhanced composites, to give the same
or better performance with less weight. Some of the properties that is enhanced by
the presence of graphene are: conductivity, strength, heat, and pressure resistance.
19
1. Composites:
Unlike other doping materials used in composites, graphene only needs to be added
in very small quantities, often down to 0.1% of composite weight. One example of
such composites is the graphene-PVA [poly (vinyl alcohol)] composite. PVA is used
in a wide range of industries like textile, paper, and food packaging industries
because of its high chemical and thermal stability, and low manufacturing cost
besides also being biodegradable. Adding graphene to the PVA represents the
needed fix to make the material perfect for usage in many industries as it gives the
PVA all the required mechanical properties that it lacks. A significant improvement
in the mechanical properties of the graphene-PVA composites is achieved at low
graphene loading. A 150% improvement of tensile strength and nearly 10 times
increase of Young’s modulus
are obtained at a graphene
loading of 1.8 vol % (Figure
19). This is not the only
composite that uses graphene to
enhance mechanical properties
as many more do the same such
as in Fig.19. Figure 19: Rough representation of the graphene-PVA composite
structure as the loading of the graphene increases.
2. Coatings:
Coating plays a dynamic role in achieving better surface quality and providing
protection for the substrate. Materials are coated with graphene for several purposes
such as: wettability, corrosion resistance, scratch protection, conductivity, and
adhesion. Sometimes graphene is used to make a better coating composite instead
of being used a coating all by itself. Corrosion of engineering alloys and its control
Figure 20: - Snapshots of a water droplet impacting the surface of the Teflon coated graphene foam.
20
measures continue to cost dearly (~4% of GDP of any developed economy which
translates to ~$8b annually to Australia and ~$250 billion to USA). (Figure 20)
B. Electronics
Scientists are starting to face the physical limits of silicon transistor technology
which made them search for a better alternative. Currently, graphene is the best
candidate to be that alternative. it has the potential to become the basis of next
generation electronics devices. These properties are mechanical flexibility, high
electrical conductivity, and chemical stability. It also has a superb electron mobility
(100 more than silicon) which makes it perfectly suited to atomic scale, high speed
operation. Several research papers were published regarding the possibility of
Figure 21: Fujitsu process of making graphene transistor.
fabricating graphene-based electronics using inkjet printing strategies. This requires

preparing inkjet-printable ink made of graphene. Graphene based ink can be
manufactured using liquid phase exfoliation of graphite in N-methyl pyrrolidone.
One application for this method is the making of thin-film transistors with mobilities
up to ~95 𝑐𝑚2 𝑉 −1 𝑠 −1 , as well as transparent and conductive patterns, with ~80%
transmittance and ~30 𝑘𝛺/𝑠𝑞𝑢𝑎𝑟𝑒 sheet resistance, shown in Figure 21.
C. Biomedical
Graphene is revolutionary step in the field of biomedicine as it is a zero-gap
semiconductor material, which is electroactive and transparent. It is researched
21
heavily as its properties make it seem are promising in the proliferation and
differentiation/maturation of cells, drug delivery, cancer therapy, biosensing, and
tissue engineering. Many viability tests were made in vitro on human cells and in
vivo on mice cells. These tests revealed very promising results, which make
graphene suitable for real-life applications.
1. Biosensing:
Biosensors are devices that are used to analyze the bio-
composition, structure, and function of target analytes by
biological reactions. The biosensor mainly consists of a
recognition layer and electronics components. The
recognition layer is responsible for determining the
biological response that is then converted into an electrical
signal by the transducer. The signal is then amplified and
processed by an external electromechanical system. The
Figure 22: Scheme of a
graphene is used as a transducer in the previous system due biosensor. The biosensor consists
of a receptor layer, which
to its semiconductive properties, biocompatible, cheap, consists of a biomolecule (e.g.,
DNA or protein), and a
safe, and relatively easy to fabricate. (Figure 22) transducer, which is a graphene-
based material.
2. Tissue Engineering:
Tissue Engineering aims to recreate and replace defective body organs using advanced
biomedical techniques. Graphene
satisfies all design criteria of an ideal
scaffold component. Graphene has
been used to make a scaffold for a range
of organs, starting from the skin
through to the brain. A scaffold is a
material that causes desirable cellular
interactions which contributes to the
formation of new functional tissues for
medical purposes (one can simplify it
as proper synthetic environment).
(Figure 23). Figure 23: Schematic diagram of graphene 3D scaffolds in tissue
engineering.
22
D. Super Conductors
It is an emerging energy storage technology that far surpasses the chemical batteries
in many aspects. Some of which are listed below:
o High specific power (6 KW/Kg) o Rapid discharge-discharge
o Almost unlimited cycle life (one o Poor self-discharging
million cycle) o Simple to measure its capacity
o High energy efficiency (95%)
However, it is lacking behind in terms of low specific energy (6KWh/Kg), low
maximum voltage (2-3 V) and high cost. To increase the maximum voltage, it has
been put in a series configuration. However, a DC-DC power converter is needed
due to the supercapacitor’s discharge voltage drop.
These remarkable properties are due to its unique working principle. It has a similar
one to the regular capacitors but 1. The plates have much a bigger surface area 2.
The distances between them are extremely small.
In the electric double layer type, both plates are
immersed in an electrolyte and separated by a
thin insulator. As the plates are charged, an
opposite charge accumulates at both sides
creating an electric dipole layer as shown in
Figure 24. This enabled the very thin distance
compared to the thick dielectric material of the
regular capacitor.
𝐴 1
Since 𝐶 = 𝜖0 and 𝐸 = 𝐶𝑉 2
𝑑 2
Figure 24: - Illustration of the double layer of
where ‘c’ is the capacitance, ‘𝜖0 ’ is the charge nature
electrostatic constant, ‘A’ is the surface area of

the plate, ‘d’ is the distance between the plates, ‘E’ is the energy stored and ‘V’ is
the voltage.
then it is clear how the supercapacitor has much higher energy storage than the
regular capacitor. In a matter of fact, it is of magnitude of 100 times or more. The
capacitance of super capacitors reaches up to 3000 farads. This occurs while keeping
the advantages of the regular capacitor for example, the charge-discharge time.
23
The Use of Graphene

Graphene is a promising substituent material for the plates due to its superb
characteristics. As being composed of single layered sheet makes it of the highest
surface area among the other rival materials. This comes along with its high
electrical conductivity and chemical stability. It even outperforms other
nanomaterials such as carbon nanotubes.
The extra benefit of choosing graphene for a plate material is its effective surface
area characteristics. That it is not affected by the distribution of pores at solid state.
It is a unique property that is missing from other plate-made materials like activated
carbons material.
E. Desalination
Right now, the world is having a water crisis. Over 1.2 billion people around the
globe are suffering from water shortage. This gigantic problem is even getting bigger
because of population growth, industrial expansion and the accompanying need for
energy production. Several technologies arouse to purify the water by using
membrane processes. They include microfiltration (MF), ultrafiltration (UF),
nanofiltration (NF), reverse osmosis (RO), membrane distillation (MD), ion
exchange membranes, and forward osmosis (FO).
Reverse osmosis is considered the optimal solution in terms of efficiency and cost.
It is a process in which salt water is forced-by external pressure- through a semi-
permeable membrane to be filtered. However, its drawbacks are in the high capital
cost and low desalination capacity. Thus, improvements in the semi-permeable
membrane are a must. This membrane sole purpose is to be a selective barrier
between two homogeneous phases. Increasing its permeability by 3 times will lower
the required pressure for seawater and brackish water by 44% and 63% respectively.
Till now, the used membrane is still polyamide which was the same during the last
3 decades.
The Use of Graphene
Thanks to the sp2 bonds, graphene is considered the ideal membrane for the reverse
osmosis filtration. This bond acquired it extreme mechanical ductility, reactivity
towards polar and non-polar water pollutants.
24
Given that the thickness of graphene is one atom thick, it has extraordinarily high
surface area and nanosized pores. The following law shows the relation between
Dw ∗KL
w ∗Cw0 ∗Vw
the thickness and the permeability of water: Jw = ∗ (∆p − ∆π)
L∗R∗T
where ‘Jw’ is metric water flux through porous and non-porous membranes. ‘ΔP’ is
the hydraulic pressure drop. ‘Δπ’ is the osmotic pressure gradient across the active
layer. ‘A’ is proportionality factor of the water permeability. ‘D’ is the diffusion
coefficient. ‘K’ is the medium coefficient. ‘c0’ is the initial concentration of the bulk.
‘v’ is the molar volume. ‘l’ is the membrane thickness. ‘R’ is the gas constant. ‘T’ is
the temperature.
The relation, then, shows that by
decreasing the thickness of the filter, the
metric water flux increases. The pore
size, density, and functionality can be
controlled. This enables full control
over what passes by the filter just by Figure 25: In this process, the salt water (left), subjected to a
high pressure, is divided into two parts: water molecules (red
size selectivity as shown in Figure 25. and white) passing through the membrane (right) and salt ions
(golden spheres) that are blocked.
This minute control can rise the
permeability and selectivity by orders of magnitude. It has also biofouling resistance.
That means that there will not be any accumulation of microorganisms on the filter.
Thus, its permeability will not be affected by time. The manufacturing process itself
is straightforward and the material can be easily toned for the purpose. For instance,
the process of pores making is to expose it to oxygen plasma etching and just by
increasing the interval of exposure time, larger and higher density of pores are
created.
F. Gas Sensor
According to World Health Organization (Who), around 4.2 people die every year
due to direct exposure to toxic air. The pollutants are mostly NO 2, SO2, NH3, CO2,
CO, CH4. This clarifies the need for gas detection sensors with fast response.
The parameters for choosing the appropriate gas sensor are:
o Sensitivity o Response time
o Selectivity o Response recovery
o Detection limit o stability
25
Electrochemical sensors are more advantageous over the other types. This is due to
its wide range tunability, sensitivity and cost. Its working principle is that it permits
an analyte gas (the target gas) to pass through
the electrode membrane.
As a result, the electrode is either oxidized or
reduced. Then, this process is transformed to
an electric signal that can be measured. By
this method low concentrations are measured Figure 26: Basic principle of electrochemical gas
easily. sensor where the sensing material serves.
The Use of Graphene

The large specific area of graphene enables it to have many possible paths for the
analyte to be detected. Since its π electrons are directly exposed to the environment,
the graphene becomes ultra-sensitive. So that any small concentration of adsorbed
gas will make a great electric response. In addition, graphene atoms interact with the
target gas via a variety of chemical and physical bonding. These include:
o van der Waals interaction.
o hydrogen bonding
o charge transfer
o strong covalent bonding
Therefore, graphene membrane is the best material to adhere to the target gas making
it the most efficient. In fact, the graphene sensor can detect as small as a single
molecule!
As for the response rate, graphene has ultra-fast electron transport that reaches
around 200,000 cm2/Vs. for these incredible properties, graphene is considered the
ideal material for electrochemical gas sensor membrane. The uses for such sensor
are in the detection of organic vapors, toxic gases, and even chemical warfare agents.
26
VI. Graphene Derivatives

A. Laser Induced Graphene
1. Synthesis and Processing:
Laser‐induced graphene (LIG) is a 3D porous material prepared by direct laser
writing with a CO2 laser on commercial polymers, natural materials, or carbon
materials in ambient atmosphere. This technique combines 3D graphene preparation
and patterning into a single step without the need for wet chemical steps. where the
polymer is pyrolyzed due to induced localized heat, and therefore transformed into
porous graphene structure.
Laser direct writing (LDW) technique provides a powerful processing method for
the broad application of laser-induced graphene (LIG) which does not rely on either
high temperature or toxic chemicals. LIG formation is more likely to be caused by
photothermal effects. There are two sub-processes, namely the direct conversion
from sp3 to sp2 carbon and removal of oxygen functional groups coexist during the
laser reduction process. The extremely high localized temperatures (>2500 °C)
induced by laser irradiation could easily break the bonds including C − O, C O and
C − N bonds. Simultaneously, the aromatic compounds are then rearranged to form
graphitic structures. The mechanism of laser reduction largely depends on the
wavelength of lasers, which determines the photochemical effect and photothermal
effect involved in the reduction process induced by laser where diverse laser with
varied wavelength, such as CO2 laser (10.6 μm), semiconductor laser (405 nm), and
near-infrared (NIR) laser (1064 nm) were used to fabricate LIG. As shown in Figure
27, LIG is formed and then developed in a catalyst bath to form hybrid material.
Figure 27: : Scheme for roll-to-roll production of LIG film
27
Various methods have been developed to

tune or improve the physical and
chemical properties of LIG by varying
the laser parameters such as :
• Controlling the reduction
atmosphere.
• Surface modification of LIG,
including surface morphologies,
carbonization, and wettability by
Figure 28: Schematic for a laser on polyimride
adjusting laser powers.
• Scanning speeds
• Pulse repetition frequencies
Controlling the laser reduction atmosphere can modulate the water contact angle of
LIG. Also, the structure of polyimide (PI) derived LIG can be modified from its
original macro-porous foam to an intermediate concave corrugated tile structure and
to a final carbon nanotube structure by repeated laser irradiations.
Multiple Lasing:
It was initially thought that the LIG process
could only be performed on polyimide (PI), it
was later shown that a host of other polymeric
substrates, non-polymers, metal/plastic
composites, and biodegradable and naturally
occurring materials and foods could be used for
generating LIG. A simple and facile method for
obtaining patterned graphene under ambient
conditions on the surface of diverse materials Figure 29: Multiple lasing
ranging from renewable precursors such as

food, cloth, paper, and cardboard to high-performance polymers like Kevlar or even
on natural coal would be highly desirable. This is a method of using multiple pulsed-
laser scribing to convert a wide range of substrates into laser-induced graphene
(LIG). With the increased versatility of the multiple lase process, highly conductive
patterns can be achieved on the surface of a diverse number of substrates in ambient
atmosphere. The use of a defocus method results in multiple lases in a single pass of
28
the laser, further simplifying the procedure. This method can be implemented
without increasing processing times when compared with laser induction of
graphene on polyimide. In fact, any carbon precursor that can be converted into
amorphous carbon can be converted into graphene using this multiple lase method.
zWhere (a) Picture of LIG patterned into an R on a
coconut (2 cm tall), (b) Raman spectrum of coconut
derived LIG lased two times at 10% speed and 5%
power, (c) Low-resolution TEM of coconut LIG after
5 lases. The scale bar is 50 nm, d) High-resolution
TEM coconut LIG (10% speed, 5% power, 5) showing
the characteristic 0.34 nm d-spacing of graphene. The
scale bar is 5 nm, (e) LIG on cork in the shape of an
owl (height 30 mm). (f) Potato scribed with the laser to
form LIG in the R pattern (2 cm tall).
Figure 30: LIG on diverse substrate
2. Structure and Properties
Structure:
It has been shown that graphene structure can be modified
using low power density CO2 laser radiation from 2 to 60 W
cm -2. When the density of power was minimal, crystalline
graphene was disassembled into structure of nano-
crystalline, but when the power density increased above a
certain threshold hydrogenated amorphous carbon
accumulated on the surface. Laser-induced causes damage
to graphene relies on continuous wave lasers, average
irradiance and time of exposure and thermal effect plays an
important rule during laser irradiation. For ultrafast laser,
laser-induced damages were localized without disturbing
the surrounding graphene regions.
The experimental results prove that because of the rise in
graphene layers obtained, the induction threshold decreased Figure 31: Ablated and
significantly. It is worth noting that there is a broad variety functionalized lines in single-layer
graphene processed at different
of photoinduced reactions can be conducted on large scanning speeds and repetition rate
scale bar is 10 μm
submicron resolution surfaces. Bobrinetskiy et al.
29
demonstrated the use of picosecond laser pulses for one-step induction. Figure 31
displays the ablated and functionalized lines of varying scanning velocities and the
number of unchanged pulses per am.
Properties:
➢ Properties of LDW process:
In recent years, the process methods for graphene micro/nano structure including
mask lithography, transfer printing, laser processing. Compared with traditional
processing methods, Laser Direct Writing (LDW) approach has many advantages
such as mask less, catalyst free, non-toxicity, controllability, and non-contact. Also,
it is a rapid and efficient method to process arbitrary complex structures for laser
macro, micro, and nano manufacturing. Even more important is the flexibility of
LDW for the easy preparation and functionalization of various applications at low
cost. Therefore, laser technique would be more competitive in the synthesis and
functionalization of graphene films and the fabrication of functional devices with
enhanced properties. The carbon-containing precursors irradiated by laser can
directly synthesize graphene on selected areas. As mentioned, before the structural
morphology and properties of laser induced graphene can be controlled by changing
the laser parameters.
➢ Properties of material processed:

LIG is characterized by some properties as flexibility, porosity, chemical resistance,
relatively high electrical conductivity, high thermal conductivity, low heat capacity,
easy to pattern and high surface area. "You can bend it and flex it, but you can't rub
your hand across it. It will shear off. If you do what is called a Scotch tape test on it,
lots of it gets removed. But when you put it into a composite structure, it really
toughens up." said Tour, who co-authored an overview of laser-induced graphene
developments in the Accounts of Chemical Research journal last year.
30
3. Applications of LIG
Laser-induced graphene (LIG) is a newly developed method for the fabrication of
advanced graphene-based devices.
a. Sensors:
Different sensing devices based on LIG or modified
LIG materials have been produced by worldwide
research efforts. The manufacture of LIG sensors is
easy and cost-effective. The applications of LIG in
sensors covers large areas such as acoustic instruments,
chemical sensors, and photon-based systems.
An artificial throat has been developed that depends on
LIG that can act as a thermoacoustic sound source and Figure 32: A tester wearing the LIG
artificial throat; scale bar, 1 cm.
detector, benefiting from its high thermal conductivity,
low heat power and high electrical conductivity. The working theory of LIG as a
sound detector is based on minor improvements in graphene resistance as it reacts
to weak vibration. A LIG sheet was attached to a sound source such as loudspeakers
or the throat as shown Figure 32. The LIG sheet vibrates with an identical frequency
when in contact with vibration, resulting in a synchronous shift in resistance, the
resistance of LIG changes makes two consecutive coughs, hums, and screams. The
resistance variations of various sounds are characteristics of the vibration of vocal
cords of different frequencies and magnitudes. Muscle contraction triggered by
swallowing and nodding of the head often creates distinctive signals.
The artificial throat creates highly reproducible resistance responses to the same
tone, which provides the potential of database and machine learning sound
recognition. The researchers have observed that the same word pronounced by
Figure 33: The response of LIG resistance toward the throat

vibrations from coughs, hums, screams, swallowing and nods.
31
multiple individuals produces different responses to resistance, which can

theoretically be used for identity authentication.
b. Laser- Induced Graphene Supercapacitors from Polyimide (Kapton) Tape:
In this part a very simple way can be used
to make super capacitor due to the large
surface area of the laser induced graphene
which will help in the reaction with
electrolyte. It can be made using 405-nm
laser, a 3D-printer or CNC router, and a
roll of Kapton taped (polyimide). The
laser energy converts the polyimide film
Figure 34: Simple super capacitor
used as the base material of Kapton into
a sort of graphene foam. This foam does not have all the usual properties of
monolayer graphene, but it has interesting properties of its own, like extremely high
surface area and moderate conductivity. Some Kapton tape are stuck to glass slides
and etched a pattern into with the laser. The pattern has closely spaced interdigitated
electrodes, which when covered with a weak sulfuric acid electrolyte shows
remarkably high capacitance.
B. Graphene Oxide
A further derivative of graphene is graphene oxide (GO) which is a chemical-
modified form of graphene. It is a two-dimensional single layer of GO with special
properties that are different from graphene. Being inexpensive, it is used in mass
production of graphene by reduction.
1. Synthesis and Processing
There are several methods for making GO have been developed since B.C. Brodie
first made it in 1859. These techniques are based on the intercalation ability of
layered graphite. This facilitates the penetration of the atoms of active metals and
oxidizing agents between its carbon layers resulting in increasing the interlayer
distance and introducing some functional groups on the layers surfaces. It eventually
causes the graphite to be completely disassembled into separated monolayers.
GO can be synthesized by four different methods attributed to Brodie, Staudenmaier,
Hofmann, and Hummers. They differ in preparation time, acids used, and the
processes of washing and drying. However, due to the safer nature of Hummers’
32
method, it is mostly used to produce GO. It is done by reacting graphitic powder

with sodium nitrate (NaNO3) in concentrated sulfuric acid (H2SO4). Potassium
permanganate is then added slowly to prevent overheating and the mixture is treated
with H2O2 to remove the metal ion from the oxidizer. Finally, a yellow-brown
aqueous suspension of GO particles is produced that is treated with diluted
hydrochloric acid (HCl) to remove any other metal species. To obtain the dry form
of GO, the suspension is washed and centrifuged.
Structure
GO can be viewed as a single-layered material having a structure of hexagonal
carbon lattice, similar to graphene, except for it being bonded to oxygen-based
functional groups like hydroxyl (—OH), carbonyl (—CO), and carboxylic acid (—
COOH). These groups make graphene oxide have advantages over graphene.
Many models for the structure of GO
have been proposed but the most
popular one, proposed by Lerf-
Klinovski, represent the graphene oxide
by a basal plane of sp3 hybridized
carbon atoms, with hydroxyl and epoxy
groups bonded to it on both plane’s
sides, as shown in Figure 35.
Properties Figure 35: Lerf-Klinovski's structural model of graphene
oxide.
Due to the domination of sp3 bonding
and the presence of oxygen functional groups distributed randomly over the surface,
GO has different properties from that of graphene; when comparing their values,
those of GO are considered low. Yet, they can be tuned by changing the degree of
the oxidation.
It was determined that a monolayer of GO, with a thickness of 0.7nm, has a Young’s
modulus of 207.6 ± 23.4 GPa. The strength was also determined to be 120 MPa,
while the stiffness is up to 40GPa. In terms of electrical and thermal properties, it
acts as an electrical insulator with electrical resistivity of 1.64 × 104 Ω.m and has a
low thermal conductivity.
33
3. Performance, Applications, and Economical Aspects

Performance
GO can simply disperse in water and other organic solvents as well as in various
matrixes. This happens as a result of the presence of oxygen functionality. Besides,
GO combines easily with multiple polymers, creating nanocomposites, which
significantly improves the properties of the original polymer: tensile strength,
electrical conductivity, and thermal stability. In its solid state, GO flakes appear to
be bound to each other, forming thin, extremely stable paper-like structures that can
be bent, wrinkled, and stretched. Multilayer GO films are optically clear and
impermeable under dry conditions. When they are exposed to water or water vapor,
they allow the passage of molecules smaller than a certain size.
Applications
According to the GO properties and performance, there are several ways in which
GO can be functionalized based on the desired application. There is a wide range of
application areas, Such as energy, medicine, sensors and so much more. Some of
these applications are discussed below.
➢ Water Purification
GO membranes could be used for seawater filtration. GO film is extremely thin (only
one atom thick), so the water actually pops into the extremely small holes in the
graphene and leaves the salt behind. Figure 36(a) shows stacked GO layer membrane
in which water molecules permeate through the developed nanochannels between
each GO layer, while hydrated salt ions are blocked.
(b)
Figure 36: (a) Stalked graphene oxide water filter, (b) GO-based biological sensors
34
➢ Electronics
One of the main fields in which GO can be expected to be used is the production of
transparent conductive films after being deposited on some substrate. These coatings
could be used in flexible electronics, solar panels, liquid crystal devices, chemical
sensors, and touch screen devices. It could also be used as a transparent electrode
for light-emitting diodes (LEDs) and solar cell devices.
➢ Medicine
GO is a fluorescent material that may be used for biosensing, early disease
identification, and also to aid in the discovery of cancer treatments and the detection
of biologically related molecules. GO has been successfully used in fluorescent-
based biosensors for DNA and protein detection with the promise of improved HIV
diagnosis. Some of. GO-based biological sensors are shown in figure 36(b). GO is
also used in the delivery of drug Systems; it is expected to be preferable to many
other anticancer drugs since It does not target healthy cells, only tumors, and has
low toxicity.
➢ Energy
GO has recently been used as components for electron transport layers in newly
produced organic solar cells based on perovskites. GO results in a significant
increase in its quantum efficiency and durability. GO production can be effectively
scaled up relative to other graphene materials and can thus soon be used for energy-
related applications. Its ability to store hydrogen can actually be useful in the future
for the storage of hydrogen fuel in electric cars. GO nanocomposites are also used
for high-capacity energy storage in lithium-ion batteries.
Economical Aspects
Currently, the GO market accounts for 41% share of the global graphene market.
According to a study, over the next five years, the Graphene Oxide market will
register a 38.7% CAGR in terms of revenue, the global market size will grow from
6 million US$ in 2019 to 45 million US$ by 2024.
C. Reduced Graphene Oxide

Another derivative from graphene is the reduced graphene oxide (rGO) which comes
from the reduction of GO to obtain graphene-like properties. rGO is a very good
compromise between GO and graphene. We cover some information about rGO
below.
35

Reduction of GO can be reached by three types of reduction: thermal, chemical, and
electrochemical reduction. The thermal reduction includes two methods: reduction
by heating and micro and photoreduction. The chemical reduction includes three
methods: reduction with chemical agents, reduction by photocatalysis, and reduction
by multiple steps.
Figure 37: Reduction of GO to rGO
Chemical reduction is an easy and cheap way to produce rGO as it does not require
special equipment and it can be done at ambient temperature conditions or under
average heating conditions. Some chemical liquid reagents such as hydrazine,
hydrazine hydrate, and dimethylhydrazine are used to reduce GO to rGO by using
hydrophobicity by adding them to a GO aqueous dispersion. Another more effective
reagent in reducing the C O groups is boron sodium hydride and it also gives better
quality (conductivity) to the GO compared to the other reagents. sodium borohydride
and concentrated sulfuric acid combined can create a good reagent with the addition
of dehydration processes to improve the reduction. The GO-electrode electron
exchange can be used to produce rGO instead of the chemical reagents in the
electrochemical reduction and the process is done inside an electrochemical cell with
an aqueous buffer solution present. Electrochemical reduction of GO produces very
high-quality rGO that is almost identical to pristine graphene in terms of structure.
Thermal reduction depends on heat treatment of GO as it uses rapid annealing at
high temperatures. This process induces exfoliation of GO as CO and CO2 gases
expand because of the removal of oxygen functional groups during the heating. For
higher rGO quality it is better to use high temperatures (as high as 1100 °C).
36
Microwave-and photo-assisted techniques are more beneficial as they provide fast

and uniform heating of substances by using microwave ovens and photo-irradiation
with separate lasers.

Structure
Just like the previous discussed materials, rGO is a monolayer material and it has
nearly the same structure as the GO. It has a heterogeneous structure comprised of a
graphene-like basal plane with additional structural defects and areas that contain
oxidized chemical groups. The most observed difference between GO and rGO is in
the number of oxygen atoms present in the structure and thus the ratio of oxygen
atoms to carbon atoms. rGO can be found in a powder form with a black color. rGO
has four main elements which are:
• Carbon (77-87%)
• Oxygen (13-22%)
• Nitrogen (0-1%)
• Hydrogen (0-1%)
Unfortunately, despite performing many spectroscopic and microscopic studies
rGO, the detailed atomic structure is not yet determined because of its partial
amorphous character. However, some tests such as transmission electron
microscopy (TEM) are used to observe the atomic structure of rGO.
Figure 38: Representative structure of rGO (not true identity)
37
Properties
rGO has similar mechanical, optoelectronic, and conductive properties to pure
graphene, but it is not defect-free like the graphene. The rGO is an odourless material
with a density of 1.91g/cm3. It is insoluble in nature and has a humidity in range 3.7-
4.2%. The electrical conductivity of rGO can be ranging from (0.1 S m−1) to
(2.98 × 104 S m−1). rGO exhibits very good absorption properties over the whole
spectrum (a single layer of rGO can absorb a significant amount of light in the visible
and near infrared range).
3. Applications of rGO
rGO is an outstanding material for many applications because it has attractive costs
and manufacturing processes compared to the pure graphene. It is preferred in
applications that need large amounts of material.
➢ Electronics
rGO is a great material to be used in electronics applications. It can be used as a field
effect transistor in chemical sensors and biosensors. In biosensors, it is used to detect
hormonal catecholamine molecules, avidin and DNA. rGO can also be used in solar
cell devices and light emitting diodes (LEDs). rGO is suitable for these applications
as it has transparent electrode.
➢ Energy Storage
rGO nanocomposites are used for lithium-ion batteries. In these batteries, rGO
absorbs the nanoparticles of insulating metal oxide and this improves the
performance of these materials in lithium-ion batteries.
rGO is also widely used for composite materials as it improves their properties and
performance such as TiO2/rGO which is used as a photocatalyst for hydrogen
production and copper/reduced graphene oxide composites (Cu/rGO) that
increases the electrical conductivity of copper.
38
D. Carbon Nanotubes
Carbon nanotubes (CNTs) are nanostructured carbon allotropes that can have a
length-to-diameter ratio that is greater than 1,000,000. It is a graphene derivative
with a wide range of crucial applications, so this section will be a review of CNTs.
Synthesis:
A variety of techniques have been produced for the synthesis of CNTs with various
structures and morphology. Three approaches are widely used: arc discharge, laser
ablation, and chemical vapor deposition. The general feature of these techniques is
the addition of energy to a carbon source to create fragments that can be recombined
to generate carbon nanotubes. These techniques will be discussed below.
➢ Arc Discharge Technique:

It uses higher temperatures (above 1,700°C) which normally cause the expansion of
CNTs with fewer structural defects compared to other methods. A schematic of the
apparatus is shown in Figure 39(a). In this technique, a high current electric arc goes
through graphite electrodes in the presence of catalytic particles to form CNTs and
soot. The applied current creates tiny carbon particles by disrupting graphite carbon
networks in the anode and depositing these fragments simultaneously on the cathode.
➢ Laser Ablation Technique:

The unique advantage of this technique is the use of a light source that is not present
in the arc discharge technique. This is done using the pulsed ND: YAG (neodymium-
doped yttrium aluminum garnet) laser source. A schematic of the apparatus is shown
in Figure 39(b). In this technique, the laser is located to aim precisely in the middle
(a) (b)
Figure 39: A schematic of (a) arc discharge apparatus, (b) laser ablation apparatus
39
of the target rod. The laser power evaporated the target rod and created a variety of
scattered carbon species.
➢ Chemical Vapor Deposition Technique:
Its general idea is that the thermal decomposition of hydrocarbon vapor is
accomplished in the presence of a metal catalyst. In this technique, a hydrocarbon,
such as acetylene, is heated and decomposed to the substrate. Since the carbon is in
contact with the metal particles implanted in the holes, it initiates the creation of
nanotubes that are a template in the shape of the tunnel. It is the most promising
technique to synthesize CNTs for industrial scale-up due to its many advantages over
the other two techniques.
Processing
As synthesized CNTs are prepared, they invariably produce carbonaceous impurities
and metal catalyst fragments. The basic problems that remain are how to eliminate
impurities and to achieve uniform dispersion of carbon nanotubes in dispersing
media or polymer solutions.
There are several common purification approaches, and all of them have the
following main steps: separation of large graphite particles and filtration
aggregations, dissolution in suitable solvents for the reduction of catalytic particles
and fullerenes, and microfiltration and chromatography to isolate sizes and remove
amorphous carbon clusters. CNTs are mostly entangled according to the
manufacturing process and have a high propensity to quickly re-aggregate. Several
means can be used to obtain well-quality CNT dispersions. Such as covalent
functionalization, consisting of the addition of a chemical group, normally of a
hydrophilic character. And an alternative soft-chemical path based on an electron
transfer between the alkali metal and the CNTs. This method prevents any flaws in
the walls of the CNT because only their electrical configuration is changed.

Structure
Diamond and graphite are the two natural crystalline forms of pure carbon. Carbon
is a chemical element that has six electrons occupying 1s2, 2s2, and 2p2. It may
hybridize into sp, sp2, or sp3 forms. In graphite, sp2 hybridization occurs, in which
each atom is bound equally to three carbons (120°) in the XY plane, and a weak 𝜋
40
bond is present in the z-axis. The sp2 set shapes the hexagonal (honeycomb) lattice
typical of the graphite sheet. CNTs are classified into two main types: SWCNTs—
Single-walled CNTs and MWCNTs—Multiple-walled CNTs.
(a) (b)
Figure 40: A representation of (a) Single-walled carbon nanotube, (b) Multiple-walled carbon nanotube
SWCNTs’ structure can be visualized as a rolled-up tubular shell of graphene sheet

which is made up of hexagonal rings of carbon atoms, as shown in Figure 40(a). The
thickness of the tube is just one atom thick. Nanotubes typically have a large length-
to-diameter ratio, so they can be called almost one-dimensional structures.
MECNTs mainly consists of many SWCNTs packed one inside the other, as shown
in Figure 40(b). Each nanotube is a single molecule made up of millions of atoms,
and the length of this molecule can be tens of micrometers long with a diameter as
tiny as 0.7 nm. In addition to the two different fundamental structures, there are three
different types of carbon nanotubes: armchair carbon nanotubes, zigzag carbon
nanotubes, and chiral carbon nanotubes. The variation between them is based on
how the graphite is rolled up during the formation. This means the choice of the
rolling axis relative to the hexagonal grid of the graphite sheet and the radius of the
closing cylinder makes the difference.
Properties
Carbon nanotubes have some superior properties in many areas: mechanical,
electrical, and thermal. As all carbon nanotubes have sp2 bonds between individual
carbon atoms, they have a higher tensile strength than steel and Kevlar. The density
can be as low as 1.3 g/cm3 which is one-sixth of that of stainless steel. Carbon
nanotubes Young's modules are superior to all carbon fibers with values greater than
1TPa, which is nearly 5 times higher than steel. The bonding also results in the
conducting of carbon nanotubes; CNTs can tolerate strong electrical currents due to
the strong structure of the bonds. Besides, they are capable of withstanding high
temperatures, acting as very good thermal conductors.
41
3. Performance, Applications, and Economical Aspects

Performance:
As a result of CNTs' superior properties, they have a great performance under
different conditions. When the force is applied, the nanotube will bend and return to
its original form when the force is withdrawn. However, its elasticity has a limit, and
under extremely strong pressures it is possible to permanently alter the structure of
the nanotube. Single-walled nanotubes can route electrical signals at speeds of up to
10 GHz when used as interconnectors on semiconductor devices. The temperature
stability of carbon nanotubes is projected to be up to 28000℃ and about 750°C in
the air.
Applications:
According to its extraordinary properties and performance, there are many uses of
carbon nanotubes. They can be used in energy, biotechnology, textile, and much
more. Some of these applications will be discussed below.
➢ Energy and Environment
MWNTs are commonly used in lithium-ion batteries. Small concentrations of
MWNT powder are combined with active materials and silicone binders, as shown
in Figure 41(a). CNTs have improved their electrical connectivity and mechanical
stability, which increases the rate and life cycle.
Also, remarkable performance has been obtained for supercapacitors deploying
forest-grown SWNTs, as shown in Figure 41(b); an energy density of 16 Wh kg-1
and a power density of 10 kW kg-1 was obtained for a 40-F supercapacitor with a
maximum voltage of 3.5 V. Based on accelerated tests at up to 105°C, a 16-year
lifetime was forecast.
Figure 41: CNTs energy and environment related applications (a) battery, (b) supercapacitor, (c) water filter
42
The next application area is water purification. Tangled CNT sheets can provide
mechanically and electrochemically nanoscale-controlled porosity networks. They
have been used to electrochemically oxidize organic contaminants, bacteria, and
viruses. Portable filters containing CNT mesh have been commercialized for the
purification of polluted drinking water, as shown in Figure 41 (b).
➢ Biotechnology
To help with post-administration pain-rejecting implants and to prevent this
rejection, the attachment of nanotubes to proteins and amino acids have been
encouraging. A carbon nanotube can be used as an implant in the shape of artificial
joints and other implants without a host rejection reaction. Besides, due to unique
properties such as high tensile strength, CNTs can serve as bone replacements and
implants if they are packed with calcium and shaped in the bone structure.
➢ Textile
CNTs may be used via a dip-coating technique to turn a cotton cloth surface into a
superhydrophobic one. The fabrics developed by this technique have high stability
and chemical durability since the CNTs are covalently bonded to the surface.
Economical Aspects:
The carbon nanotubes market is estimated to grow from USD 3.95 billion in 2017
to USD 9.84 billion by 2023, at a CAGR of 16.70% during the forecast period. Major
factors driving the market studied are the growing adoption of carbon nanotubes and
their technological advances. The carbon nanotubes industries' market share is
illustrated in figure 42.
Figure 42: Carbon nanotubes market, revenue share (%)
43
VII. Conclusion
Thanks to quantum mechanics, unexpected phenomena rise to reveal the unique
characteristics of graphene. It has a high current capacity, which is based on the
behavior of carriers being massless; a unique electronic structure as it has conical
valence and conduction bands that meet at a single point in momentum space leading
to zero bandgaps and making it almost a semi-metal. The hybridization of graphene
atoms is sp2, where the bond gathering these layers together is van der Waals bonds
making the force among layers weak, whereas atoms are tightly packed forming a
perfect hexagonal two-dimensional (2D) crystal lattice. Graphene has passed
through many chapters starting from the 1840s till October 2004, during this period
it has got a great reputation for its characteristics. Not surprisingly, it grasped the
attention of scientists for its important role in the next generation of electronic
applications as it is thought that one day it will be a better option compared to silicon.
The synthesis of graphene has evolved along its history starting with Boehm and his
colleagues when they could produce single-layered graphite using transmission
electron microscopy (TEM), then the mechanical exfoliation of graphene using
scotch tape which was introduced by Andre Geim, Konstantin Novoselov.
Nowadays, we use some advanced technics such as chemical vapor disposition,
which depends on combining and depositing volatile gas molecules onto a substrate
and getting rid of waste gases produced. Dry exfoliation is another example, in which
the process takes place in an inactive environment like a vacuum space using
mechanical, electrostatic, or electromagnetic force to separate layers from each
other. Moreover, liquid exfoliation can also be used to synthesis graphene which
depends on ultrasounds to split graphene layers.
Graphene is very beneficial in many fields including energy storage applications like
the improvement of supercapacitors and conductors. In biomedical, it has many
applications such as biosensors and tissue engineering. In water treatment
applications, it is very beneficial as an ideal membrane for reverse osmosis filtration
thanks to the sp2 bonds.
Despite the positive side that graphene occupies, graphene and graphene oxide (GO)
might be threatening to living organisms. The data present about its toxicity is not
enough to point out its extent of danger that it might have, however, the capability
of doing many processes on it can help us avoid these threats through optimization.
44
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Material Term Report

C. Reduced Graphene Oxide ................................................................................................................. 35

Figure 24: - Illustration of the double layer of charge nature ..................................................................... 23

Hence, by taking a step back, this two-dimensional monolayer graphene is actually

Therefore, Graphene enjoys a great number of fascinating unique properties that

Graphene obviously has significantly contributed to many industrial applications as

Figure 1: Graphene timeline

The history of graphene, as shown in Fig.1, will be incomplete if there are no

Earlier, we can find reports related to graphene

nitric and sulfuric acid.

In October 2004, Andre Geim, Konstantin

III. Graphene Synthesis and Processing

1. Chemical Vapor Disposition:

➢ The first involves the pyrolysis (decomposition by high temperature) of a precursor

on the substrate, carbon clusters are

Figure 6: Producing graphene using copper substrate.

As shown in figure 8, the synthesis process

Figure 8: Graphene coating with PMMA Figure 7:

Finally, the graphene (+ PMMA) is washed

3. Liquid Phase Exfoliation (LPE):

➢ Transfer of Individual Layers:

➢ Dry Transfer of Exfoliated Flakes:

The polymer + graphene film is then collected, and the

➢ Wet Transfer of Exfoliated Flakes:

2. Contamination and Cleaning:

➢ Cleaning of Graphene Produced by Mechanical Cleavage:

➢ Removal of Solvents/Surfactants in LPE Graphene

IV. Structure and Properties of Graphene

Graphene is the thinnest material known with its one-

A. Composites and Coatings

Figure 21: Fujitsu process of making graphene transistor.

fabricating graphene-based electronics using inkjet printing strategies. This requires

electrostatic constant, ‘A’ is the surface area of

The Use of Graphene

The Use of Graphene

VI. Graphene Derivatives

Figure 27: : Scheme for roll-to-roll production of LIG film

Various methods have been developed to

ranging from renewable precursors such as

➢ Properties of material processed:

Figure 33: The response of LIG resistance toward the throat

multiple individuals produces different responses to resistance, which can

method, it is mostly used to produce GO. It is done by reacting graphitic powder

3. Performance, Applications, and Economical Aspects

C. Reduced Graphene Oxide

1. Synthesis and Processing

Figure 37: Reduction of GO to rGO

Microwave-and photo-assisted techniques are more beneficial as they provide fast

2. Structure and Properties

Figure 38: Representative structure of rGO (not true identity)

➢ Arc Discharge Technique:

➢ Laser Ablation Technique:

2. Structure and Properties

SWCNTs’ structure can be visualized as a rolled-up tubular shell of graphene sheet

3. Performance, Applications, and Economical Aspects

Figure 42: Carbon nanotubes market, revenue share (%)

2. Basu, S., & Bhattacharyya, P. (2012, July 31). Recent developments on

12.Geetha Bai, R., Muthoosamy, K., Manickam, S., & Hilal-Alnaqbi, A.