Geologi Teknik-2 BATU

Universitas Semarang
Fakultas Teknik
Program Studi Teknik Sipil
Engineering Geology
Rock Types
Rock Types
References:
• Engineering Geology (Bell, F.G., 2007)
• A Short Course in Geology for Civil Engineers (Mattews, M.,
Simons, N. and Menzies, B., 2008)
• Principles of Geotechnical Engineering (Das, B.M., 2010)
• Craig’s Soil Mechanics (Knappett, J.A. and Craig, R.F., 2012)
• Bahan Ajar Geologi Teknik (Fathani, T.F. and Wilopo, W., 2014)
Program Studi Teknik Sipil Geologi Teknik 2

Fakultas Teknik, Universitas Semarang Hendra Masvika, S.T., M.Eng.
Outline
o The structure of the earth
o Plate tectonics
o Rock cycle and the origin of soil
o Igneous rock
o Metamophism and metamorphic rock
o Sedimentary rock

The structure of the earth
• Earth consists of three main layers based on chemical composition: the crust,
the mantle, and the core (Figure 1).
Figure 1. Earth’s interior

Credit : USASK & NASA

▪ Crust : Oceanic 0-6 to 11 km
Continental 0-25 to 90 km
▪ Mantle : Upper 25-670 km
Lower 670-2,900 km
▪ Core : Outer 2,900-5,155 km (liquid)
Inner 5,155-6,370 km (solid)
Figure 2. Earth’s internal structure

Credit : Ayfer Ozdemir
Figure 3. The structure of the earth
Credit : Marcus Matthews
• There are two different types of crust, each with its own distinctive
physical and chemical properties.
• Oceanic crust is composed of magma that erupts on the seafloor to
create basalt lava flows or cools deeper down to create the intrusive
igneous rock gabbro.
• Continental crust is made up of many different types of igneous,
metamorphic, and sedimentary rocks. The average composition is granite,
which is much less dense than the mafic igneous rocks of the oceanic
crust.
• Because it is thick and has relatively low density, continental crust rises
higher on the mantle than oceanic crust, which sinks into the mantle to
form basins.

• The mantle is almost entirely solid rock, but it is in constant motion, flowing very
slowly. The upper mantle, which starts at the "Mohorovicic Discontinuity" (aka. the
"Moho" – the base of the crust) extends from a depth of 6 to 25 km downwards to
a depth of 400 km.
• The uppermost mantle and the overlying crust form the lithosphere, which is
relatively rigid at the top but becomes noticeably more plastic beneath (Figure 4).
• In the upper mantle, temperatures range

between 500 to 900 °C.
• Between the upper and lower mantle,
there is also what is known as the
transition zone, which ranges in depth
from 400-660 km (Figure 5).
Figure 4. The outer layers of the earth

Credit : Enchantedlearning

• The lower mantle lies between 660-2,900 km in depth with the temperatures in
this region of the planet can reach over 4,000 °C at the boundary with the core.
• The outer core, which has been

confirmed to be liquid, is 2300 km
thick, extending to a radius of
~3,400 km. The temperature of
the outer core ranges from 4,030
°C, in the outer regions 5,730 °C
closest to the inner core.
• The inner core is composed
primarily of iron and nickel and
has a radius of ~1,220 km with
the temperature estimated to be
Figure 5. Earth’s layers and internal structure about ~5,400 °C.
Credit : Ayfer Ozdemir

• The lithosphere is the outermost
layer of the Earth ~100 km thick and is
defined by its mechanical (physical)
properties. This rigid layer includes the
brittle upper portion of the mantle and
the crust (Figure 6).
• The asthenosphere is underneath the
lithosphere. The upper reaches of the
mantle are not solid; they are
considered plastic and flow very
slowly.
• The mesosphere is beneath the
Figure 6. Chemical composition and physical asthenosphere, but above the outer
properties of earth’s layers core.
Credit : IUPUI

Plate tectonics
• The first truly detailed and comprehensive
Theory of Continental Drift was proposed
in 1912 by Alfred Lothar Wagener. He
postulated that throughout most of geologic
time there was only one continent, which
he called Pangea.
• Late in the Triassic Period (which lasted
from approximately 251 million to 199.6
million years ago), the supercontinent
Pangea fragmented, and the parts began
to move away from one another as we
Figure 2. Continental drift of plates
know them today (Figure 2).
Credit : USGS

• The Seafloor Spreading hypothesis was proposed by the American geophysicist
Harry H. Hess in 1960. It is the process by which molten rock comes up through
mid-ocean ridges, cooling and creating new sea floor that moves away from the
ridge and later sinks into a deep ocean trench.
• There is a recycling
process involved with
seafloor spreading
which is, as molten
rock comes up from
inside earth there is
much older sea floor
being pushed into a
ocean trench and being
melted inside earth.
Figure 3. Mechanism of seafloor spreading

• In 1963, the Canadian geophysicist John Tuzo-Wilson was initially sceptical of
the theory of plate tectonics, but eventually became one of its most famous
supporters. He proposed that plates might move over fixed hotspots in the mantle,
forming volcanic island chains like Hawaii.
• Dan McKenzie, Uk geophysicist suggested there are two layers in the mantle,
each of which are in motion, controlling the movement and behaviour of the
tectonic plates above. The viscosity of the lower mantle was published in 1966.
• The main idea of Theory of Plate Tectonics that the earth is composed of moving
tectonic plates. A plate can be oceanic crust, continental crust, and both of them.
The movement of plate caused by heat energy transfer that occurs in the
asthenospher.
• The interaction between plates at the boundaries is responsible for the following
phenomena and features : earthquake, volcanoes, mountain chains, folding,
faulting, etc.

Figure 4. Earth’s tectonic plates
Credit : USGS

Depending on the type of
relative movement, there
are three types of plate
boundary :
• Divergent (constructive)
plate boundaries, where
plates separate and move
in opposite directions,
allowing new lithosphere
to form from upwelling
magma. This either occurs
at mid-ocean ridges (the
so called seafloor
Figure 5. The life cycle of a divergent plate boundary spreading).
Credit : Thomas Telford Ltd

• Convergent (destructive) plate
boundaries, where plates move towards
each other. One plate either sinks beneath
the other along a subduction zone or plates
collide because neither can be subducted.
Figure 6. Ocean-ocean convergence

Figure 8. Continent-continent convergence

Figure 7. Ocean-continent convergence

• Transform plate boundaries, where plates move horizontally past each
other. This type of boundary is dominated by strike-slip faulting although
other types of faulting may be observed.
• This type of plate boundary is also referred to as a conservative plate
boundaries, as it involves movement but no loss or creation of material at the
surface. For example, a system of strike-slip faults makes up the transform
boundary of the San Andreas fault.
Figure 10. San Andreas

fault Figure 9. Transform plate boundaries
Credit : Britannica Credit : USGS

Figure 11. Active volcanoes-plate tectonis and ring of fire
Credit : USGS

Rock cycle and the origin of soil
• To the civil engineer, soils are formed by weathering of rocks. The
physical properties of soil are dictated primarily by the minerals that
constitute the soil particles and, hence, the rock from which it is
derived.
• The ultimate source of all rock and soil is the molten magma from
deep in the earth. The minerals are nearly all forms of silicates with
various other metallic elements. The rock cycle (Figure 12) starts with
the hardened magma, igneous rock.
• Magma or lava that erupts on the surface is called extrusive magma,
and that cools and solidifies within the crust of the earth is intrusive
magma.
• The rock mass can be changed by a combination of extreme pressure, heat,
and chemical active fluids to form metamorphic rock.
• Weathering of the surface of the

rock, whether igneous or
metamorphic, can be followed by
the transportation of the
weathered particles to a new
location and subsequent
induration into sedimentary rock.
• On the basis of their mode of
origin, rocks can be divided into
three basic types: igneous,
Figure 12. Rock cycle
sedimentary, and metamorphic.
Credit : Rifa’i

Igneous rock (batuan beku)
• Igneous rock are formed when hot molten rock material called
magma solidifies. After ejection by either fissure eruption or
volcanic eruption, some of the molten magma cools on the
surface of the earth.
• Igneous rock may be devided into intrusive and extrusive types,
according to their mode of occurence. In the former type, the
magma crystallizes within the Earth’s crust, whereas in the
latter, it solidifies at the surface, having erupted as lavas and/or
pyroclasts from a volcano.

• The intrusions have been exposed at the surface by erosion.
Some examples of intrusive (plutonic) igneous rock : granite,
diorite, syenite, etc.
Figure 13. Granite, diorite, and syenite

Credit : Geology and Sandatlas

• The examples of extrusive igneous rock : rhyolite, basalt,
andesite etc.
Figure 14. Rhyolite, basalt, andesite

Credit : Geology

• Igneous rocks are usually
massive in structure,
exfoliation joint,
columnar joint, and
pillow lava.
Figure 15. Columnar joint at Northen

Ireland (top)
and
pillow lava at Yogyakarta Indonesia
(bottom)
Credit : Linkedin and Britanica

Figure 16. Exfoliation joint
at California USA (top)
and
obsidian cliff (massive) at
Wyoming USA (bottom)
Credit : MST and NPS

Metamorphism and metamorphic rock
(batuan metamorf)
• Metamorphism is the process of changing the composition

and texture of existing rocks (without melting) by heat,
pressure, and/ or chemical active fluids.
• During metamorphism, new minerals are formed, and
mineral grains are sheared to give a foliated-texture to
metamorphic rock.
• Under extreme heat and pressure, metamorphic rocks
may melt to form magma, and the cycle is repeated.

Figure 17. Principal of type of metamorphism

Type of metamorphism based on dominance factor (Figure 17) :
• Thermal or contact metamophism occurs when magma comes

into contact cooler rocks.
• Dynamic or cataclastic metamorphism is metamorphism
associated with fault zones where rocks are subjected to high
differential pressures, and produce rocks called mylonites.
• Regional metamorphism occurs in deeper levels of the crust
along convergent plate boundaries, particularly continental-
continental boundaries where active mountain building is taking
place.

• Burial metamorphism occurs when sedimentary rocks are
buried to depths of several hundreds of metres with significant
pressures (>10MPa) and relatively high temperatures (>300°C)
may develop in the absence of differential stress.
• Hydrothermal metamorphism is the result of chemical
decomposition of principally igneous rocks by chemically active
fluids.

• Metamorphic rocks are derived from pre-existing rock types and
have undergone mineralogical, textural and structural changes. These
changes have been brought about by changes that have taken place
in the physical and chemical environments in which the rocks existed.
• Gneiss is a metamorphic rock derived from high-grade regional
metamorphism of igneous rocks, such as granite, gabbro, and diorite.
Figure 18. Granite to gneiss (left) and gabbro to gneiss (right)

Credit : Quora and Dathan

• Low-grade metamorphism of shales and mudstones results in slate.
• Schist is a type of metamorphic rock derived from several igneous,
sedimentary, and low-grade metamorphic rocks with a well-foliated
texture and visible flakes of platy and micaceous minerals.
Figure 20. Shale (sedmentary rock) to slate

Credit : Dathan
Figure 19. Basalt (igneous rock) to schists

Credit : Dathan
• Marble is formed from calcite and dolomite in the limestone by
recrystallization.
Figure 21. Pink marble

Credit : Geology
Figure 22. Missisipian marble in Big Cottonwod Canyon

Credit : Mark Wilson

Sedimentary rock (batuan endapan)
o Sedimentary rock derived from the deposits of gravel, sand, silt,
and clay formed by weathering may become compacted by
overburden pressure and cementation process.
o Sedimentary rocks are the product of several overlapping
processes : weathering (parent rocks decomposed and/or
fragmented), erosion (carries particles away), transportation (moves
particles to new locations), deposition (particles settle, minerals are
precipitated), burial (layers of sediment accumulate), and diagenesis
(physical and chemical changes that transform a sediment into a
rock).

There are three basic types of sedimentary rocks :
• Clastic sedimentary rocks such as breccia, conglomerate, sandstone,
siltstone, and shale are formed from mechanical weathering debris.
• Chemical sedimentary rocks, such as rock salt, ironore, chert, flint, some
dolomite, and some limestone form when dissolved materials precipitate
from solution.
• Organic sedimentary rocks such as coal, formed from the accumulation of
plant or animal debris.
Figure 23. Currents sort sediments into different size groups


The following are some examples of sedimentary rock :
• Limestone is formed mostly of calcium carbonate deposited either by
organisms or by an inorganic process.
• Dolomite is formed either by chemical deposition of mixed carbonates or by
the reaction of magnesium in water with limestone.
Figure 24. Breccia-conglomerate (top)

and
limestone-dolomite (bottom)
Credit : Geology

Figure 25. The largest exposures of dolomite rock on earth, Northeastern Italy
Credit : Geology

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Universitas Semarang

Program Studi Teknik Sipil Geologi Teknik 2

Program Studi Teknik Sipil Geologi Teknik 3

Figure 1. Earth’s interior

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Figure 2. Earth’s internal structure

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• In the upper mantle, temperatures range

Figure 4. The outer layers of the earth

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• The outer core, which has been

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Figure 6. Ocean-ocean convergence

Figure 8. Continent-continent convergence

Figure 7. Ocean-continent convergence

Figure 10. San Andreas

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• Weathering of the surface of the

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Figure 13. Granite, diorite, and syenite

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Figure 14. Rhyolite, basalt, andesite

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Figure 15. Columnar joint at Northen

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• Metamorphism is the process of changing the composition

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• Thermal or contact metamophism occurs when magma comes

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Figure 18. Granite to gneiss (left) and gabbro to gneiss (right)

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Figure 20. Shale (sedmentary rock) to slate

Figure 19. Basalt (igneous rock) to schists

Figure 21. Pink marble

Figure 22. Missisipian marble in Big Cottonwod Canyon

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Figure 23. Currents sort sediments into different size groups

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Figure 24. Breccia-conglomerate (top)

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