International Journal of Educational Management

Broad-based national education in globalisation: Conceptualisation, multiple

functions and management
Yin Cheong Cheng, Timothy W.W. Yuen,
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Broad-based
Broad-based national education national
in globalisation education

Conceptualisation, multiple functions and

management 265
Yin Cheong Cheng Received 31 May 2016
Educational Policy and Leadership, Education University of Hong Kong, Accepted 1 June 2016
Hong Kong, SAR China, and
Timothy W.W. Yuen
Department of Education Policy and Administration,
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Hong Kong Institute of Education, Hong Kong, SAR China

Abstract
Purpose – The purpose of this paper is to contribute to the worldwide discussion of conceptualization,
multiple functions and management of national education in an era of globalisation by proposing a new
comprehensive framework for research, policy analysis and practical implementation.
Design/methodology/approach – Based on a review of the diversity in definitions of national education,
the controversies in policy and implementation of national education are discussed. The different
interpretations of national education stem from different assumptions and perspectives. Each of them seems
too confining in globalisation. To overcome the controversies, this paper calls for a re-conceptualisation of
national education from a broader perspective.
Findings – The conceptualisation of broad-based national education is premised on two fundamental
principles. First, national education which is meant for development is a process by which humankind moves
forward at multiple levels including the personal, local, national and global levels. Second, national education
nowadays must be understood against a globalised context, in which there are multiple, complex and dynamic
developments at play including technological, economic, social, political, cultural and learning developments of
not only individuals and local communities within the nation but also the global world beyond the nation.
In brief, broad-based education serves multiple functions at multiple levels. With national identity understood in
a broader perspective, the multiplicity and complexity of national education may be better addressed.
Identifying with one’s own nation is a dynamic and complicated process in which interaction and integration
between the different levels and different functions of civic identities are involved. The approaches to
management, implementation and pedagogy of broad-based national education are also discussed.
Research limitations/implications – The new framework of conceptualisation and the comparison
between the characteristic profiles of broad-based and narrow-based national education provide new
implications and possibilities not only for policy and implementation but also for research involving multiple
functions and multiple levels.
Originality/value – The new perspectives associated with the broad-based national education will
contribute to future research worldwide in this area.
Keywords Citizenship education, Globalisation, Education management, Education effectiveness,
Education functions, National education
Paper type Conceptual paper

Introduction
In the last two decades, many countries have witnessed the increasing challenges and
effects of globalisation, international competition, technological advances, economic
transformations and demands for social and political development (Kollmeyer, 2009;
Mok, 2016; Cheng and Berman, 2012). In such a global and local context full of uncertainties,
International Journal of
ambiguities, insecurities and crises, many countries and national leaders have started to Educational Management
rethink, review and reform their education sector with aims to ensure nations and new Vol. 31 No. 3, 2017
pp. 265-279
generations are equipped to face these global and local challenges (Hayden, 2013; Law, 2013; © Emerald Publishing Limited
0951-354X
Wang, 2013; Zajda, 2015)[1]. DOI 10.1108/IJEM-05-2016-0127
 IJEM Looking at education reforms worldwide in the last few decades, numerous
31,3 international debates, initiatives and studies have been conducted on how to equip
students with twenty-first century skills and competencies for personal survival and
development in a globalised world (Griffin et al., 2012; Cheng, 2015; Salas-Pilco, 2013;
Soulé and Warrick, 2015). There are few studies, however, that reflect on the complex and
multiple roles that national education should play to contribute to the future development
266 of their nations and citizens. In particular, what new meaning does national education
bring in an era of globalisation for individuals, societies/communities, the country and the
world? How are these meanings different from traditional concepts? And how does the
management of new and traditional education differ?
Without understanding these concerns and issues, education reform in general and
national education in particular can result in serious controversies and frustrations, if not
failure. For example, the attempt by the government of Hong Kong to introduce a
compulsory national education subject in schools in 2013 turned out to be highly
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controversial (Chong, 2013; Kan, 2012). Public resentment was aroused and this led to the
subject being withdrawn. However, the debate about national education has continued
due to the lack of comprehensive knowledge and understanding of national education in
both local and global contexts.
To meet the above challenges in education reform worldwide, this paper aims to
contribute to the discussion of the conceptualisation, the multiple functions and the
management of national education locally and globally by proposing a new comprehensive
framework for analysis and implementation. This paper hopes to provide a rational
academic discourse to foster understanding and reflection on national education by different
stakeholders in different parts of the world.

Conceptualisation of national education

To different people, the definition and function of national education can vary. There is
often great diversity in the conceptualisation of national education by various stakeholders
in public policy debates or in academic discourse. The following are just some common
examples of the diversity in discussions:
(1) National education is perceived as education for the development of national identity
such that young people would have a clear and common identity and affiliation with
their nation or country particularly when they are facing the ambiguities, confusions
and uncertainties from internal and external challenges and changes (Splitter, 2011;
The Future of American Democracy Foundation, n.d.). This national identity may
often refer to their political identity, social identity or cultural identity.
(2) Assuming that a nation should be a civic society, national education is taken as civic
education or citizenship education with emphasis on preparing young citizens to
behave with appropriate civics in a civic society (Osler, 2011; Camicia and Zhu,
2011). It usually includes the development of necessary horizons, attitudes, skills and
cognitive understanding related to a civic society.
(3) A nation itself is inevitably a political entity. National education is assumed to be a
kind of political education to serve the political development and stability of the
nation in a fast changing context of international or regional politics accelerated by
globalisation and international competition (Osler and Lybaek, 2014).
(4) In line with the third one, national education is further considered as education
necessary to equip young people with the necessary awareness, attitudes and
skills for national defence in facing external challenges to national security
(Wenweipo, 2016).
 (5) Given that a nation often has long cultural roots and traditions that need to be Broad-based
continued, national education becomes necessary to prepare young people to national
understand, embrace and further grow these cultural assets and build up their education
cultural identity and that of the nation (Tonge et al., 2012).
Given the diversity in definitions of national education, it is not surprising that there are
controversies in policy debate, in formulation and in the implementation of national
education in Hong Kong and other parts of the world (Ngai et al., 2014). The different 267
interpretations of national education stem from different assumptions and perspectives
which can prove too confining in an era of globalisation. The differences in
conceptualisation also render reconciliation and consensus difficult and further cause
political controversies. To overcome such problems, this paper calls for a
re-conceptualisation of national education from a boarder perspective for the sake of
advancing academic discourse and professional practice.
The conceptualisation of national education in a broader perspective is premised on two
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fundamental principles. First, education, including national education, is meant for

development. It is a process by which humankind moves forward at multiple levels
including the personal, local, national and global levels. Second, national education
nowadays must be understood against a globalised context, in which there are multiple,
complex and dynamic developments at play including technological, economic, social,
political, cultural and learning developments of not only individuals and local communities
within the nation but also the global world beyond the nation (Osler, 2011; Buckner and
Russell, 2013; Cheng, 1996, Chapter 1, 2005b, Chapter 14).
If national education is meant for multiple developments according to our premise, it is
emphasised that a national (hereafter used to stand for a member of a nation) has multiple
functions within these multiple developments. Accordingly, we can use a multiple
development model to conceptualise a national as a technological national, an economic
national, a social national, a political national, a cultural national; and even a learning
national. Each function represents an area where development can be sought from active
contributions of the national concerned (Table I).
From the above discussion, national education can be conceptualised with a “broad-based”
approach which includes multi-levels and multi-functions (or roles). The multiple development
model can be applied not only to nationals but also to local societies, the nation and the world.
For example, we can have a multiple society/nation that includes: a technological society/
nation, an economic society/nation, a social society/nation, a political society/nation, a cultural
society/nation; and a learning society/nation (Table I).
We believe that a comprehensive notion of broad-based national education can more likely
lead to multiple developments, not just of the nation, but also of humankind at all other levels
(global, local and personal). The conceptualisation of broad-based national education in terms
of multi-levels and multi-functions with examples is summarised in Table I.

Broad-based national identity

As shown in Table I, civic identity is inherent in this broad-based national education
paradigm and is both multi-functional and multi-levelled. In terms of level, the identity starts
from the level of self (an individual); thence to social (a member of a city/locality/metropolis),
thence to national (a member of the nation); and finally to the world (a member of the global
village). In terms of functions, identity may affiliate to a range of functions from technological,
economic and social functions (as technological, economic and social identities) to political,
cultural and learning functions (as political, cultural and learning identities).
Whilst these identities within the multi-levels and the multi-functions coexist and are
intertwined, which identity is emphasised depends on the local culture, tradition and context
 IJEM Technological Learning
31,3 functions Economic functions Social functions Political functions Cultural functions functions

Nurturing multi-functions of a national

Technological national Economic national Social national Political national Cultural national Learning
Apply technologies Be competitive Serve the Have civic Have cultural national
Pursue rationality Create and add society attitudes beliefs Pursue life-
268 … value … Care for Respect rights Embrace long learning
others … and duties … cultural values Be adaptive
and norms … and flexible
…

Developing multi-functions of a society

Technological society Economic society Social society Political society Cultural society Learning
Construct Develop quality Facilitate Support Embrace society
technology infra- human resources social political cultural beliefs Build up
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structures Promote integration development and values knowledge-

Apply advanced economic Enhance and identity Continue and based society
technologies … development and social equality Promote expand cultural Life-long
growth … and mobility democracy and roots … learning
… unity … society …

Contributing to multi-functions of a nation

Technological nation Economic nation Social nation Political nation Cultural nation Learning nation
Technological Economic Peaceful Rule of law and Cultural Knowledge-
competitiveness competitiveness coexistence civility transmission based nation
Technological Industry Humanistic Democracy and Linking the Life-long
advancement … restructuring … orientation … equality … heritages for the learning
future … nation …

Contributing to multi-functions of the world

Technological world Economic world Social world Political world Cultural world Learning world
Technological Economic Formation of a Global political Multiculturalism Knowledge-
Table I. globalisation globalisation global village alliance and Intercultural based world
Conceptualization
Pervasive Global industrial International development world … Globalisation
of broad-based
application of alliances … friendship … International of learning …
national education in
terms of multi-levels knowledge and peace and
and multi-functions technologies … cooperation …
(by examples) Source: Adapted from Cheng (1996, Chapter 1)

in which national education is being discussed and implemented. It is difficult to have one
simple answer. For instance, in the West, social and national identities may not be more
important than the individual identity while collective identities can be more important in
the East (Fung et al., 2016). It is also difficult to say whether political identity is more
important than cultural or economic identity without taking the context into consideration.
In general, each type of identity has its own features and importance.
With national identity understood in a broader perspective, the multiplicity and
complexity of national education may be better addressed. Identifying with one’s own
nation is a dynamic and complicated process in which interaction and integration between
the different levels and different functions of civic identities is involved. Convergence and
even contradictions between global, national and local values and attributes may also be
confronted in the process. Notwithstanding this, nationals should still posit themselves to
positively contribute within the different functions: technological, economic, social, political,
cultural and learning. Such contributions in return will advance the well-being of
humankind at all levels. This conception of national identity and national education are in
 line with the Confucian tenets of improvement that starts from the self and move up to the Broad-based
levels of society, the nation and the world (The Academy of Chinese Studies, n.d.). It also fits national
well with the first premise explained earlier, i.e. that education, including national education, education
is meant for development.

Differences between broad-based and narrow-based education

From the above conceptualisation, traditional national education, which is often narrow-based 269
in terms of applying partly selected functions and levels, is substantially different from
broad-based national education.
Narrow-based national education often works with a parochial conception. For example,
nurturing national identity is often deliberately simplified to be a form of political identification
or norm socialisation, whilst other important functions like cultural, economic, learning and
technological functions are ignored if not deliberately played down. It is not surprising then
that the biases displayed in traditional national education functions raise a lot of controversies
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among various public stakeholders in some countries or societies. Given its narrow
instrumental purposes, a pluralistic and heuristic approach in delivery is often forsaken for a
didactic approach, which are often top-down and authoritative in nature (Ngai et al., 2014).
In contrast, broad-based national education is seen as part of basic education for all
nationals with the aim to help their own positioning, identification and contribution within
the multiple developments of globalisation such as the technological, economic, social,
political, cultural and learning developments. Such identification and contribution is also
more comprehensively considered for the different levels: personal, societal, national and
global. The wide spectrum of development dovetails with the Confucian notion of
development, namely the “cultivation of the self, harmony in the family, well-being of the
nation and universal peace”. According to Confucian beliefs, such development is not
possible if there is no enhancement of the self at the beginning. But, starting at the
individual level, the development will not be complete if it does not transcend and move up
to the next higher levels, i.e. that of family, nation and the world.
Indeed, the comprehensive understanding of identities has also often been emphasised
by researchers of civic education. Heater (2004) recognised civic identities as comprising the
local, regional, national and global levels. As another example, Camicia and Zhu (2011)
highlighted nationalism, globalisation and cosmopolitanism as important to the present
civic education discourse.
Table II summarises some of the salient differences between the nature of broad-based
and narrow-based national education.

Multi-systematic functions
Through broad-based national education, nationals have multiple identities and play
multiple functions or roles to develop themselves comprehensively and to contribute to the
multiple developments of the society, the nation and the world. It is important to note
that the functions national education serves are not compartmentalised. Sound development
of the economy, particularly when grounded in learning and technological developments,
can bring with it material resources, and this may affect the social and political functioning
of the nation, of local communities and of nationals. Furthermore, favourable social
conditions can be the foundation upon which economic and political functions work.
For instance, in ancient China, there were such sayings as: “People know honour and shame
upon having enough food and clothing”; and “Peace in a family brings flourishing”.
Sociologists of the Functionalist school believe that what is vital for societies and nations to
survive and flourish in an environment of change and uncertainties is the ability to fulfil four
systematic functions: pattern maintenance, integration, goal achievement and adaptation
(Parson, 1966). It should be noted that such a state of constant change and uncertainties are
 IJEM Broad-based national education
31,3
Fundamental concepts
Multiple developments at all levels: developments at
individual, social, national and world levels are
multiple and interactive. e.g. A nation is multiple with
technological, economic, political, social, cultural and
270 learning developments
Multi-functional national identity: national identity
is multi-functional comprising: technological, social,
economic, cultural, science, political and learning
identities. These identities are intertwined at
different levels
Development through active engagement: national
identification is a complex dynamic process. Its
formation involves multi-functions and multi-levels
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Narrow-based national education
Single development mainly at individual level. e.g.:
promote political identification, norms socialisation,
or ideological indoctrination, etc.
Uni-functional national identity: national identity is
limited to mainly one function (say, political identity)
at individual level. Whether it relates to other
functions is not a concern
Didactic socialisation: national identification is a
process of delivering knowledge, attitudes, beliefs and
skills to socialise individuals in given specific
functions. It requires clear and specific objectives and
methods to achieve the targets of delivery and
socialisation

and requires active engagement, interaction, and
integration of views in organising and implementing
the content of national education
It is inappropriate to use a mechanical and static
perspective with focus only on single level and
single function
Nature of national education
Basic education to nationals so that they can posit
themselves in globalisation with multiple
developments. Through national education, they
acquire national identity and contribute to
humankind at local, national, and even global levels
This reflects the Confucian ideal as “cultivation of the
self, harmony in the family, well-being of the nation,
and universal peace”
Functions of national education
Comprehensive functions: serving a full range of
functions (technological, social, economic, political,
cultural and learning) at multi-levels (individual, local,
national, and global)
Serving all crucial systematic functions
Table II. 1. Pattern maintenance
Differences between 2. Integration
the two paradigms of 3. Goal Achievement
national education 4. Adaptation
It is not necessary to adopt a too complicated and
dynamic perspective involving multi-functions and
multi-levels
Specific education given for nationals to ensure their
identification with the nation and their acceptance of
certain national values, civic attitudes, social norms
and beliefs etc. in order to meet the needs of the
society or nation
Examples: specifically designed political education,
civic education, ethnical education or religious
education with targets at some narrowly
selected functions
Restricted functions: serving some narrowly selected
political and social functions
Serving only such systematic functions as
1. Pattern maintenance
2. Integration

particularly evident in the era of globalisation (Kubow and Fossum, 2007; Lauder et al., 2006),
the very context in which we are living nowadays. This makes the Functionalist paradigm
(Sadovnik, 2007; Feinberg and Soltis, 2004) of reference value by which we will frame the
present discussion.

Pattern maintenance
In the Functionalist paradigm, societies and nations operate with rules and regulations. National
education can help to promote respect for such rules and regulations by nurturing among young
people the relevant knowledge and proper attitudes and behaviour to adopt. As a result, young
people can participate and help maintain the order and norms required in the course of social and
national development. Rule of law, procedural/bureaucratic rationality, the identification with
 common cultural roots, social norms, etc., are often emphasised. The Citizenship Foundation Broad-based
(2003) argues that teachers in schools should teach students the common values that are upheld national
in the civic community to which students belong as a matter of civic citizenship. This in return education
will help provide the common basis upon which individuals, organisations and institutions can
operate and collaborate with common standards. The system maintenance function of national
education can help minimise the risk of social and political confusion and help enhance the
stability and maintenance of society and the nation. This pattern maintenance function is 271
emphasised worldwide. To a great extent, the national education’s political, social and cultural
socialisation functions contribute to the pattern maintenance of society and the nation.

Integration
The integration that Functionalists have in mind refers to effectively considering and
integrating the differences that will inevitably surface in both society and the nation as a
result of the coexistence of different stakeholders with diverse interests, which may
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comprise: ethnic groups, interest groups, economic classes, industries and occupations.
Integrating diverse interests is crucial as failure to do so can lead to conflicts, and can even
result in social struggle and civil war in the most extreme cases. National education
therefore should have the role of promoting social and political integration and should aim
to promote cooperation, harmony and unity, and avoiding internal dissipation through
friction. To do so, it has to give young people with different backgrounds and views,
the appropriate attitudes, knowledge and abilities to handle these differences and reconcile
conflicts. The social and cultural functions of national education can play an important role
in supporting the integration of the nation and society.

Goal achievement
Countries worldwide have to work hard to stay ahead or else they will be easily outcompeted.
This implies that societies and nations have to devote energy towards development, and be able
to improve their approach and achieve their objectives in innovative ways. This is particularly
the case in this globalised era as globalisation has brought with it global challenges and
international competition. Efforts are needed to improve the present and future role of national
education with the aim to help youth to have both the confidence and the abilities to bring
society and the nation forward to a higher stage of development. Important attributes that need
to be developed amongst the younger generation comprise instrumental rationality,
effectiveness in goal achievement and willingness to make contributions to bring forth
economic and technological developments. The economic and technological functions of national
education can therefore contribute to the goal achievement of the nation and society.

Adaptation
The rapid changes that the world is now seeing are bringing about both challenges and
opportunities. They affect us on all levels – personal, social and national. At each of these
levels, there needs to be changes in the status quo to cater for the emergence of new internal
and external environments and to create a more favourable environment for survival and
development. National education should aim to develop this adaptive rationality amongst
youth. Such adaptive rationality must be built on a willingness to take up life-long learning,
a dedication to proactive improvement and creativity. The learning function of national
education can support the adaptation of individuals, society and the nation to changes.
Narrow-based national education often aims merely at promoting certain identities and
the imbuing of supportive values and attitudes related to such identification. When its
functions are restricted to only pattern maintenance and integration, it easily becomes both
retrospective and excessively conservative. As discussed above, this does not suffice in this
 IJEM globalised era. Broad-based national education, however, offers a different paradigm. On the
31,3 one hand, it promotes system maintenance and integration by respecting achievement made
in the past and the operational modes and cultural values that come along with tradition.
On the other hand, it is forward-looking and emphasises striving for advancement at
different levels through goal achievement and adaptation achievable through the respect of
new ideas, changes and innovation in an era of globalisation.
272
Management and implementation
The management and implementation of broad-based national education will need to be
considered against a number of factors.

Cross-curricular approach
Broad-based national education involves the nurturing of students in areas of cognitive
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thinking, knowledge, attitudes and competencies. It aims to help the younger generation to
perform different roles. Such roles can be technological, economic, social, political, cultural
and learning. The four key functions of system maintenance, integration, goal achievement
and adaptation can thus be fulfilled by the new generation. Members of the new generation
can understand their civic roles comprehensively and are able to transcend the local,
national and global levels to form their vision, aspiration and mission. They thus both
inherit the nation’s past values and lead the way to its future.
To implement this new and broader framework of national education, the cross-curricular
infiltration approach needs to be adopted for the sake of maximising learning opportunities.
All pertinent opportunities that can be provided in basic education can be involved. These
include, inter alia, formal curriculum, informal curriculum, cross-subject learning, learning
beyond the classroom and learning within and outside school. For instance, to help understand
how democracy works, democratic theories that are taught in class can be augmented by
students experiencing democracy within their school where schools adopt a more open
administrative system that is transparent, accountable and ready to enlist students as
stakeholders in the decision-making process (Yuen and Leung, 2010; Leung and Yuen, 2009).
Similarly, willingness to serve and altruism can be best learnt through engaging in
voluntary services. This comprehensive infiltration approach requires efforts in planning,
adjustment and coordination to be successful. A school-based approach is most suitable
because we can cater to school differences such as differences in goals, material conditions,
teacher profiles, student characteristics and community resources available. Successful
management and implementation of broad-based national education aims to encourage
students to actively participate and interact; to learn from a wide and multi-dimensional
context with plenty of experience; to develop complex thinking; and to attain self-aspiration,
a social mission and emotional attachment to the nation while also embracing world views
and values. The students must be active learners in the process so that top-down teaching
and indoctrination is avoided.

Development of multiple thinking skills

Broad-based national education is concerned with thoughts, attitudes and behaviour driven
by rationality. Students should be able to develop in a rational way so that they can apply
their cognitive competence in different domains such as science and technology, economics,
social development, politics, culture and learning. This process allows them to explore and
reflect on their multiple identities and possible contributions to the individual, local, national
and global levels.
Figure 1 depicts the different levels of learning related to this ability of multiple
thinking: data, information, knowledge and thinking ability (Cheng, 2005a, 2013a).
 Broad-based
Downstream thinking Upstream thinking
national
education
Multiple
thinking
Providing action with explanation competence Transforming knowledge to
through theorization cognition through
conceptualization and synthesis
273
Multiple knowledge
Making prediction and
Refining information to
explaining causal
consistent understanding
relationship in action
Multiple information
Making a detailed plan Refining data
for action to information
through classification and
Multiple data examination of details etc.
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(technological, economic, social, political, cultural and learning)

Implementation
and explanation
Observation, Figure 1.
monitoring Learning process of
Learning Cycle evaluation
broad-based national
education
Sources: Adapted from Cheng (2005a, 2013a)

Learning involves a cycle of observation, monitoring and evaluation. Students first obtain
data of the multiple domains through observation and experience. The data then need to
be categorised, described and compared to become meaningful information. With this, the
students make associations and carry out analyses to arrive at their own understanding in
a more consistent and reliable way. The students’ understanding in turn becomes their
own multiple knowledge. Then, through further processes such as conceptualisation,
integration and internalisation, mega-cognition can arise. This leads to the important skill
of multiple thinking developed from broad-based national education. The active role of the
learner and the use of judgment based on rationality and objective evidence
are strongly emphasised allowing students to become members of society, the nation
and the world.
As illustrated in Figure 1, on the left side of the learning process, students can apply
mega-cognition to different issues related to the individual, to society, to the nation and to
the world. In the process, they apply the concepts and theories they have in mind to
formulate action plans, to predict and to explain the causal relationships encountered.
But these need to be verified by the data they collect through observation and experience in
the real contexts of application. If the data encountered falsify their concepts and theories,
the students need to start from this reality to another round of learning that will then lead to
new mega-cognition that can accommodate the discrepancies. It is emphasised here that the
competency of multiple thinking must not come from indoctrination or any top-down
instruction that would eliminate all vigour and meaningfulness of the process. The process
must be student-centred in which the students actively engage with the learning
environment through their experience and examination and internalise through their own
thinking capacity. Progressive educators have put a lot of emphasis on this mode of
student-oriented learning (Ornstein and Levine, 2006; Wingra School, n.d.).

Difficulties in management and implementation

Broad-based national education represents a new paradigm that can meet the challenges of
a globalised era. However, the difficulties of its management and implementation should not
be underestimated.
 IJEM To begin with, as implementation involves many subjects and a wide range of learning
31,3 activities in schools, coordination will not be easy if the substance of the learning is to be
delivered through the infiltration approach discussed above. There can be easy loss of focus if
sound coordination is not achieved. Buck passing is of course possible too. Learning and
teaching can easily become fragmented particularly because this new national education
involves multiple functions and levels. There is always the risk of becoming excessively
274 teacher centred, teaching content centred and examination oriented. If conducted improperly,
particularly if a top-down approach is applied, students may become victims of indoctrination
instead of the active learners with independent judgment that this paradigm emphasises.
Support of the various stakeholders is crucial but it might be difficult to ensure their
understanding of both the nature and the importance of this new national education
paradigm. Besides, implementation can easily become fragmented or lopsided as this new
system involves civic identities at different levels (local, national and world level)
and different functions (social, political, economic, cultural, etc.). Its possible collaboration
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with subjects of a similar nature like Liberal Studies and General Study in the school
curriculum should be further explored to bring out the best effects in the learning process.
Investment, both of time and resources, will be enormous if this new national education
system is adopted against the present school context, particularly considering the tight
timetable schools have. The implementation of the new national education approach implies
not just a change in teachers’ preparedness in terms of professional skills but also the
moving away from a teacher-centred to a student-centred approach to learning. This will be
a new culture for many schools and such acculturation will take time. Teachers may want to
see the actual benefits from such a shift before they are willing to commit themselves.

Managing facilitating factors

The successful implementation of broad-based national education depends on managing the
facilitating factors effectively, which is illustrated as follows:
(1) understanding and support from different stakeholders of not just the meaning and
importance, but also of the difficulties that may arise from such an education
system;
(2) gradual implementation across multiple levels and multiple functions, which should
be spread over a prolonged period;
(3) readiness in the quality of resources for learning, teaching and leadership capacity
in line with the implementation plan;
(4) training of teachers to support the implementation of the curriculum, particularly on
how to make classroom learning student centred and how to ensure the content
covers different functions and levels comprehensively; and
(5) coordination between central and school-based mechanisms in the planning, fine
tuning and implementation of the broad-based national education approach at the
school level.

Pedagogy for broad-based national education

As explained above, broad-based national education is characterised by freeing and not
indoctrinating the minds of learners. It allows students to be active learners who can arrive
at their own conclusions on matters in multi-functional areas and to be able to posit
themselves to help humankind improve at multiple levels. In the process, students will
encounter many issues where controversies are inevitable. Such issues can concern almost
all key functions, including politics, economics, culture and even science and technology,
 and all levels; namely, individual, local, national and global. The advancement of Broad-based
humankind at all levels and functions, in this paradigm, is premised on freedom of thinking, national
on learning through exchange of views and on the application of rationality. A number education
of pedagogical tasks to empower students in this way are important for the merits of
broad-based national education.

To make judgment informed by knowledge 275

Many local, national and global issues are inevitably contentious. For instance, Chong (2015)
explained that global citizenship will expose students to controversies like injustice and
inequality. Certainly controversies will equally abound in social and national issues. In view
of this, an important task for teachers is to ensure that students can make informed
judgments and that there is room for independent thinking.
First, teachers can help students acquire the fundamental knowledge that is required for
them to make their own judgment with sense. Knowing both sides of an argument seems
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cliché but is definitely important. Understanding an issue comprehensively must be

emphasised. Globalisation, for instance, should not be assessed only in terms of the
economic benefits or hardships it can bring, but should also be evaluated in terms of its
effects on culture and identities. Conversely, political development should be considered not
only against the merits and demerits of specific policies or reforms, but also against such
things as global development trends, and the constitutional framework of the polity in
concern. Besides, knowledge should not be confined to conceptual knowledge of an idealistic
nature but should also include knowledge about how consensus can be forged in reality,
which often involves balancing different interests, negotiation and forming agreements
(Gautier, 2013; Gutmann and Thompson, 2013).
Second, teachers may need to help students to counteract possible biases in mass media
reporting. Correct information is required to support making reasonable judgment whilst
mass media can be an important source of such information. However, possible biases in
mass media reporting has always been a concern. The importance of media education has
been well noted (Bazalgette et al., 1990; Cheung, 2005; Babad et al., 2012). This may need to
be addressed in discussions about national education. Indeed, Cheung (2009) argued that in
the Hong Kong context, media education should be integrated into Liberal Studies, a subject
in which controversial issues are often encountered. Students have to learn to discern
possible bias in mass media reporting. Apart from showing students reports of the same
issue by different media sources, teachers should also help students detect exaggeration,
over-generalisation, populism and false accounts in media reports. Furthermore, teachers
shall need to extend the same attention to social media given its increasing role in the daily
life of youth. Indeed, the echo chamber effect of social media in Hong Kong has already been
highlighted (Lo, 2012). Helping students to see through a wider perspective and encouraging
them to listen to more than just those with a like mind can help students make sound
judgments. It is also necessary for the virtue of civility discussed below.

To appreciate civility as part of civic qualities

Shils (1992) explains the concept of civility as respect for the dignity of other people who
think differently in a democratic society. Lack of civility can manifest in ways such as: being
rude, harsh, condescending, resorting to loud appeals, smearing and hurling of invectives.
Indeed, civility as a necessary element of a successful democratic society has always been
emphasised (Boyd, 2006; Moore, 2012; DFEE and QCA, 1998). It should be clear from such
discussions that the call to civility is not just based on mannerism but rather on the nature
of the democratic system itself, namely the need for tolerance of differences, the recognition
of common civic membership, containing social discord, etc.
 IJEM Yuen et al. (2016) call for embracing civility in discussions and participating as
31,3 “civic virtues in support of democratic discussion” and argue that it is crucial for the support
of a truly democratic society based on participation. It was argued that teachers should have
an obligation to model such civility and that when teaching about issues of a divisive nature,
teachers must remind students that they have to remain calm and civil and abstain from
targeting a person. Furthermore, Shiveley (2014) states that students working on
276 controversial social and political issues should be able to compromise, be open-minded,
and be able to appreciate differences. We can indeed find similar reminders in Oxfam’s
(2006) ground rules for debating controversial issues.

To engage in controversial issues in a fair class context

Confronting issues of a controversial nature, be it political or social, or even in matters about
science and technology, teachers may have views or even a mission of their own. However,
it is important that teachers maintain neutrality in the classroom so that students can come
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to their own conclusions after different views have been presented. This is particularly
important in broad-based national education which, as previously explained, emphasises
the student-oriented learning process and the discovery of truth from facts. Therefore,
the pertinent question is how a teacher can maintain neutrality.
The Citizenship Foundation (2003, pp. 4-8) argues that the teacher’s task implies:
• giving equal importance to conflicting views and opinions;
• presenting all information and opinions as open to interpretation, qualification and
contradiction;
• establishing a classroom climate in which all pupils are free to express sincerely held
views without fear; and
• trying not to show their own opinion of the views of others or reveal their own
preferences in an unconscious way.
On top of this, if students cannot, whether due to limited knowledge of their own or
over-indulgence in their own views, see that there is another side to an argument, it may
require that the teacher present to the students consideration and supporting facts for the
contrary view. This technique, known as devil’s advocate (Stephens, 2016; Gerety, 1999)
can be useful in breaking down immature judgment. It can be helpful when we construe
national education in a broad perspective that requires student to be active learners and to
conclude from evidence in a fair way. In fact, this is emphasised in the learning cycle, which
relates to the competency of multiple thinking elaborated above.

Conclusion
National education should be understood in a broader perspective. Given the tremendous
effects of globalisation, its meaning, conceptualisation and practice must be considered and
analysed against a globalised context. Broad-based national education is meant for
development through which humankind can move forward at all levels: personal, local,
national and global. Such progress should be made in terms of multiple developments,
including technological, economic, social, cultural, political and learning developments.
Broad-based national education, unlike traditional or narrow-based national education,
emphasises that students as nationals have multiple functions or roles to play and that they
contribute to the multiple developments of themselves, society, the nation and the world.
In terms of its implementation, student-oriented learning is crucial to encourage students’
active engagement and the development of their own multiple civic identities within society,
the nation and the world in multi-functional areas. The ultimate aim is to allow students as
 nationals to advance the well-being of humankind at multiple levels and with multiple Broad-based
functions in a positive way. A whole school infiltration approach is called for to match with national
the breadth of the curriculum, while teacher-centred pedagogy and indoctrination is to be education
considered inappropriate.
It is hoped that the proposed conceptualisation of broad-based national education and
the suggested approaches to managing issues of its implementation and pedagogy in this
paper can provide a new framework for research, policy making and implementation in an 277
era of globalisation.

Note
1. Some parts of this paper were re-developed from the first author’s Chinese article Cheng (2013b).

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Corresponding author
Yin Cheong Cheng can be contacted at: yccheng@eduhk.hk

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