Flow in Closed Conduits

CHAPTER 6 – Flow in Closed Conduits

• INTRODUCE the flow of water under steady condition;
• DESCRIBE both laminar and turbulent flows and discusses head losses
due to friction and flow separation, in pipes flowing full;
• ANALYSE and SOLVE problem related friction loss, friction factor and
Reynold’s number for laminar and turbulent flow; Moody’s Chart.
• In closed conduit system there is energy loss due to the friction that
occurs within the flowing fluid that is affected by the kind of fluid,
velocity of flow and the nature of the surface of the stationary pipe
wall
• Friction losses can be quite significant – example
• – geothermal system for heating and cooling the home - the desire for heat
transfer leads to a design with long- and small- diameter piping
• Friction loss in this chapter is discussed due to straight circular pipes
or tubes
• Other cause of friction loss is pipe fittings, bend, changes of flow
area, valves and others.
• Characterizing the flow is the first step in calculating friction loss
• Flow can be characterized as 2 types:
• Laminar flow
• Turbulent flow
• Laminar flow – smooth and steady flow with little or no evidence of
mixing of the various parts of the stream
• Laminar – layer – because the fluid appears to be flowing in continuous layers
• Turbulent flow – appears chaotic and rough with much intermixing of
the fluid
• Application of turbulent flow: promote mixing of fluid – blending 2 or more
fluids, hastening chemical reactions, increasing heat transfer into or out of a
fluid
FIGURE 8.2 Illustration of laminar flow in a
circular pipe.
FIGURE 8.3 Dye stream in
laminar flow.
FIGURE 8.4 Dye stream mixing with turbulent
flow.
Reynold’s Number
• The behaviour of fluid is dependent on whether the flow is laminar
or turbulent
• It can be shown experimentally and verified analytically that the
character of flow in a round pipe depends on 4 variables:
• Fluid density, ρ
• Viscosity, η
• Pipe diameter, D
• Average velocity of fluid, ν

𝑣𝐷𝜌
𝑁𝑅 =
η
• Must use a consistent set of units to ensure that the Reynold’s
number is dimensionless
• The Reynold’s number is one of several dimensionless numbers useful
in the study of fluid mechanics and heat transfer
• The Reynold’s number is the ratio of the inertia force on an element
of fluid to the viscous force
• The inertia force is developed from Newton’s Second law of motion ,
F=ma,
• As discussed previously – the viscous force is related to the product
of the shear stress times area.
• Flows having large Reynolds numbers, typically because of high
velocity and/or low viscosity, tend to be turbulent.
• Those fluids having high viscosity and/or moving at low velocities will
have low Reynolds numbers and will tend to be laminar
• Reynolds number takes a different form for noncircular cross
sections, open channels and the flow of the fluid around immersed
bodies
Critical Reynolds Numbers
• For practical applications in pipe flow, if the Reynolds number for the
flow is less than 2000, the flow will be laminar
• If the Reynolds number is greater that 4000, the flow can be assumed
to be turbulent
• In the range of Reynolds numbers between 2000 and 4000, it is
impossible to predict which type of flow exists – hence – this range is
called the critical region
• Typical application involve flows that are well within the laminar flow
range or well within the turbulent flow range – hence – the existence
of this region of uncertainty does not cause great difficulty
• If the flow in a system is found to be in the critical region, the usual
practise is to change the flow rate or pipe diameter to cause the flow
to be definitely laminar or turbulent – More precise analysis is then
possible.
• By carefully minimizing external disturbances, it is possible to
maintain laminar flow for Reynolds numbers as high as 50 000.
• However, when NR is greater than about 4000, a minor disturbance
of the flow stream will cause the flow to suddenly change from
laminar to turbulent,
• For this reason, it can be assumed:
If NR is <2000, the flow is laminar
If NR is >4000, the flow is turbulent
Example 8.1
Example 8.2
Example 8.3
Video
Darcy’s Equation
• In the general energy equation
𝑝𝐴 𝑣𝐴 2 𝑝𝐵 𝑣𝐵 2
+ 𝑧𝐴 + +ℎ𝐴 − ℎ𝑅 − ℎ𝐿 = + 𝑧𝐵 +
𝛾 2𝑔 𝛾 2𝑔
• ℎ𝐴 energy added, ℎ𝑅 energy removed
• The term ℎ𝐿 is defined as the energy loss from the system
• One of the component of the energy loss is due to friction in the flowing
fluid
• Friction is proportional to the velocity head of the flow and to the ratio of
the length to the diameter the flow stream, for the case of flow in pipes
and tubes. This is expressed mathematically as Darcy’s equation
Darcy’s Equation
Darcy’s Equation
• This equation can be used to calculate the energy loss due to friction
in long straight sections of round pipe for both laminar and turbulent
flow.
• The difference between the two is in the evaluation of the
dimensionless friction factor, f.
• Note that the calculation of velocity of flow for a given volume flow
rate through a given pipe size requires the use of equation Q=Av
Friction Loss in Laminar Flow
• When laminar flow exists, the fluid seems to flow as several layers,
one on another.
• Because of the viscosity of the fluid, a shear stress is created
between the layers of fluid
• Energy is loss from the fluid by the action of overcoming the
frictional forces produced by the shear stress.
• Because laminar flow is so regular and orderly, we can derive the
relationship between the energy loss and the measurable
parameters of the flow system.
• This relationship is known as the Hagen-Poiseuille equation
Friction Loss in Laminar Flow
• Hagen-Poiseuille equation Average velocity
viscosity Length

Specific weight diameter

Friction Loss in Laminar Flow
• Hagen-Poiseuille equation
• This equation is valid only for laminar flow (NR<2000)
• As stated before, Darcy’s equation can be used to calculate the
friction loss for laminar flow.
• Hence, if hL is set equal for Darcy’s and Hagen-Poiseuille:
Friction Loss in Laminar Flow
• In summary, the energy loss due to friction in laminar flow can be
calculated either from the Hagen-poiseuille or Darcy’s equation
provided that friction factor, f:
64
𝑓=
𝑁𝑅
Example 8.4
Friction Loss in Turbulent Flow
• For turbulent flow of fluids in circular pipes, it is most convenient to
use Darcy’s equation to calculate the energy loss due to friction.
• Turbulent flow is rather chaotic and is constantly varying
• For this reasons, we must rely on experimental data to determine
value of f.
• Tests have shown that the dimensionless number f is dependent on 2
other dimensionless numbers, the Reynolds number and the relative
roughness of the pipe
• The relative roughness is the ratio of the pipe diameter D to the
average pipe wall roughness ε
• Figure 8.6
• The condition of the pipe surface is very much dependent on the pipe
material and the method of manufacture
• Because the roughness is somewhat irregular, averaging technique
are used to measure the overall roughness value.
• For commercially available pipe and tubing, the design value for the
average wall roughness ε has been determined:
• Table 8.2
Refer table 8.2
• Glass tubing has an inside surface that is virtually hydraulically
smooth, indicating a very small value of roughness ε – hence –
relative roughness, D/ε, approaches infinity
• Galvanized iron has a metallurgically bonded zinc coating for
corrosion resistance.
• Ductile iron pipe is typically coated on the inside with a cement
mortar for corrosion protection and to improve surface roughness.
• Variable data can be obtained from manufacturer
The Moody’s Diagram
• One of the most widely used methods – for evaluating the friction
factor
Moody’s Diagram
• The diagram shows the friction factor f plotted versus the Reynolds
number NR, with a series of parametric curves related to the relative
roughness D/ε These curves were generated from experimental data
by L.F. Moody
• Both f and NR are plotted on logarithmic scales because of the broad
range of values encountered
• At the left end of the chart, for Reynolds numbers less than 2000, the
straight line shows the relationship f=64/NR for laminar flow.
• For 2000<NR<4000, no curves are drawn because this is the critical
zone between laminar and turbulent flow and it is not possible to
predict the type of flow.
• The change from laminar to turbulent flow results in values for
friction factors within the shaded band.
• Beyond NR=4000, the family of curves for different values of D/ε is
plotted
• Several important observations can be made from these
curves:
• For a given Reynolds number of flow, as the relative roughness
D/ε is increased, the friction factor f decreases.
• For a given relative roughness D/ε , the friction factor f decreases
with increasing Reynolds number until the zone of complete
turbulence is reached
• Within the zone of complete turbulence, the Reynolds number
has no effect on the friction factor.
• As the relative roughness D/ε increases, the value of the Reynolds
number at which the zone of complete turbulence begins also
increases
Simplified sketch of moody’s diagram
• At the right of the dashed line downward across diagram is the zone
of complete turbulence
• The lowest possible friction factor for a given Reynolds number in
turbulent flow is indicated by the smooth pipe lines
• Between the smooth pipes line and the line marking the start of the
complete turbulence zone is the transition zone
• Here, the various D/ε lines are curved, and care must be exercised to
evaluate the friction factor properly
• For example, the value of the friction factor for a relative roughness
of 500 decreases from 0.0420 at NR = 4000 to 0.0240 at NR = 6.0 x
105, where the zone of complete turbulence starts.
Exercise
• Calculate the Reynolds numbers of the followings:
NR D/ε f
6.7 x 103 150
1.6 x 104 2000
1.6 x 106 2000
2.5 x 105 733
• Critical zone between the Reynolds numbers of 2000 and 4000 is to
be avoided if possible because within this range the type of flow
cannot be predicted.
• The shaded band shows how the friction factor could change
according to the value of the relative roughness.
• For low values of D/ ε (indicating large pipe wall roughness), the
increases in friction factor is great as the flow changes from laminar
to turbulent
• For example, for flow in a pipe with D/ ε = 20, the friction factor
would increase from 0.032 for NR = 2000 at the end of the laminar
range to approximately 0.077 at NR = 4000 at the beginning of the
turbulent range, an increase of 240%.
• Moreover, the value of the Reynolds number where this would occur
cannot be predicted.
• Because the energy loss is directly proportional to the friction factor,
changes of such magnitude are significant.
• It should be noted that because relative roughness is defined as D/ ε,
a high relative roughness indicates a low value of ε, that is a
smoother pipe
• In fact, the curve labelled smooth pipes is used for materials such as
glass that have such a low roughness that D/ ε would be an extremely
large number, approaching infinity.
Use of Moody Diagram
• The diagram is used to help determine the value of the friction factor
f for turbulent flow
• The value of the Reynolds number and the relative roughness must
be known
• Hence, the basic data required are:
• the pipe inside diameter (ID),
• the pipe material,
• the flow velocity,
• and the kind of fluid and its temperature, from which the viscosity can be
found
Example 8.5
Example 8.6
Example 8.7
Example 8.8
Equations for the friction factor
• The moody diagram is a convenient and sufficiently accurate means
of determining the value of the friction factor when solving problems
by manual calculations.
• However, if the calculations are to be automated for solution on a
computer or a programmable calculator, we need equations for the
friction factor.
• The equations used in the work by Moody, form the basis of the
computational approach.
• But those equations were cumbersome, requiring iterative approach.
Two equations that allow direct solution for
the friction factor
• In the laminar flow zone, for values below 2000, f can be found from:
64
𝑓=
𝑁𝑅
• This relationship plots in Moody diagram as straight line on the left
side of the chart
• For Reynolds numbers from 2000 to 4000, the flow is in critical range
and it is impossible to predict the value of f.
• Another equation was developed by P.K. Swamee and A.K. Jain can be
used to calculate friction factor for turbulent flow:

0.25
𝑓=
1 5.74 2
[log( 𝐷 + 𝑁𝑅0.9 ]
3.7
𝜀

• This equation produce values for f that are within ±1.0 percent within
the range of relative roughness D/ε from 100 to 1 x 106 and for
Reynolds numbers from 5 x 103 to 1 x 108
• This is virtually the entire turbulent zone of the Moody diagram.
Example 8.10
Hazen-Williams Formula for Water Flow
• The Darcy equation presented previously for calculating energy loss
due to friction is applicable for any Newtonian fluid
• An alternate approach is convenient for the special case of the flow
of water in pipelines systems.
• The Hazen-Williams formula is one of the most popular formulas for
the design and analysis of water systems
Hazen-Williams Formula for Water Flow
𝑣 = 0.85𝐶ℎ 𝑅0.63 𝑠 0.54
Average velocity of Ratio hL/L:
flow (m/s) energy loss/ length of conduit
(m/m)
Hazen-Williams coefficient
(dimensionless) Hydraulic radius of
flow conduit (m)
Limitation
• its use is limited to the flow of water in pipes larger than 2.0 in and
smaller than 6.0 ft in diameter.
• The velocity of flow should not exceed 10.0 ft/s.
• Also, it has been developed for water at 60oF
• Use at temperatures much lower or higher would results in some
error
• The use of hydraulic radius in the formula allows its application to
the noncircular sections as well as circular pipes.
• Use R=D/4 for circular pipes
• The coefficient of Ch is dependent only on the condition of the
surface of the pipe or conduit. (Table 8.3)
• Note that some values are described for the pipe in new clean
condition, whereas the design value accounts for the accumulation
of deposits that develop on the inside surfaces of the pipe after a
time, even when clean water flows through them.
• Smoother pipes have higher values of Ch than rougher pipes
Table 8.3
Example 8.11
Other forms of the Hazen-Williams Formula
• Equation of Hazen-Williams shown previously allow direct
computation of the velocity for a given type and size of flow conduit
when the energy loss per unit length is known or specified.
• The volume flow rate can be simply calculated by using Q=Av.
• Other types of calculations that are often desired are:
• To determine the required size of pipe to carry a given flow rate while
limiting the energy loss to some specified value
• To determine the energy loss for a given flow rate through a given type and
size of pipe of a known length.
Other form HWE – Table 8.4
Nomograph for solving the Hazen-Williams
Formula
• The nomograph allows the solution of Hazen-Williams formula to be
done by simply aligning known quantities with a straight edge and
reading the designed unknowns at the intersection of the straight
edge with the appropriate vertical axis.
Nomograph
(Figure 8.10)
• The dashed line on the chart shows the use of the nomograph using
data from example 8.11 for the case of Ch = 100.
• One frequent use of a nomograph like that in Fig 8.10 is to determine
the required size of pipe to carry a given flow rate while limiting the
energy loss to some specified value – thus – it is a convenient design
tool.
• Note that this nomograph is constructed for the value of the Hazen-
Williams coefficient of Ch=100.
• The subscript ‘’c’’ refers to the value for the given Ch
• For other Ch value, convert:
𝐶ℎ
• 𝑣𝑐 = 𝑣100 - velocity
100
𝐶ℎ
• 𝑄𝑐 = 𝑄100 - volume flow rate
100
• 𝐷𝑐 = 𝐷100 (100/𝐶ℎ )0.38 - pipe diameter
• 𝑠𝑐 = 𝑠100 (100/𝐶ℎ )1.85 - head loss/length
Example 8.12