BGDG -172: Gender Sensitization: Society and Culture

Tutor Marked Assignments

Course Code: BGDG 172

Assignment Code: ASST /TMA /January2020
Total Marks: 100

Section A

Answer the following in about 500 words each.

1. Explain the Concepts of Sex and Gender with the suitable examples. 20marks
2. Explain the issues of Gender and Disability in detail with an example. 20marks

Section B

Answer the following questions in about 250 words each.

3. Explain the relationship between Gender and Social Structures in the Society. 10marks
4. Describe various forms of marriages in India from gender perspective. 10marks
5. How stereotypical gender roles have had an impact on motherhood in India. 10marks

Section C

Answer the following questions in about 100 words each.

6. What is understood by work? 6marks
7. What do you mean by Reproductive Health and Rights? 6 marks
8. Explain the categories of gender based violence. 6marks
9. Examine the relationship between gender and language. 6marks
10. What do you understand by women’s representation in Media? 6 marks
 AJAY-9971313179

ASSIGNMENT SOLUTION GUIDE (2020)

BGDG–172
Gender Sensitization: Society and
Culture
Assignment Code: ASST/TMA /January 2020

9
Disclaimer/Special Note: These are just the sample of the Answers/Solutions to some of
the Questions given in the Assignments. These Sample Answers/Solutions are prepared by

17
Private Teacher/Tutors/Authors for the help and guidance of the student to get an idea of
how he/she can answer the Questions given the Assignments. We do not claim 100%
accuracy of these sample answers as these are based on the knowledge and capability of
Private Teacher/Tutor. Sample answers may be seen as the Guide/Help for the reference to

13
prepare the answers of the Questions given in the assignment. As these solutions and
answers are prepared by the private teacher/tutor so the chances of error or mistake cannot
be denied. Any Omission or Error is highly regretted though every care has been taken while
preparing these Sample Answers/Solutions. Please consult your own Teacher/Tutor before
13
you prepare a Particular Answer and for up-to-date and exact information, data and
solution. Student should must read and refer the official study material provided by the
university.
97

Section A
Answer the following in about 500 words each.
-9

Q1. Explain the Concepts of Sex and Gender with the suitable examples. 20marks
Ans. The concepts sex and gender is the biological differences between female and
AY

male, at a basic level. Human beings are either born as male or female for the most
part, although there is a very small segment of babies that present a mixed
anatomical distribution. Biological differences of female and male reflect in the
chromosomes (Male chromosomes are XY and Female Chromosomes are XX), sex
AJ

organs, hormones and other physical features. We need medical interventions in

order to change the sex. When we think of biology and biological difference we also
need to keep in mind that biology like other areas of knowledge is also not absolute
or fixed. The instance or occurrence of intersex should make us aware of the dangers
of biological essentialism.
Unlike sex, gender is socially constructed. Social structures such as family, society
and other socio-cultural practices determine differences based on the sex of the child.
The differences include clothing, behaviour, social role, position, identity and
responsibility. In this way, gender is constructed and practiced.
 AJAY-9971313179

The terms sex and gender using examples and real life stories. When a new born
baby arrives, the entire family celebrates with enthusiasm. Celebration differs based
on sex differences of the new born baby. First the family and society determine
clothes for the baby following a pattern of colour-coding. If it is a female child, they
tend to buy pink clothes and toys related to cooking and dolls. At the same time, if
the child is male, they buy blue clothes and toys like car and bike. The family and
society also creates conditioned responses which are different for female and male
children. The little girl is called a pretty little angel and the little boy is told to be
brave and strong and not cry since crying is seen as a female attribute. In this way
gender is constructed from the moment a child is born.

9
Gender is also constructed in different societies in different ways. They mainly focus
on the expected roles to be played by the female and male. For imposing these roles

17
on male and female child, the socialization process plays a significant role. The
differences include productive and reproductive roles, paid and unpaid work,
power relations and politics. We will discuss different roles (Gender roles) and
power relations in detail in the next section. Gender roles and codes are questioned

13
and existing roles and relations of men and women also challenged and changed.
Society imposes certain roles on men and women. Social challenged and changed
condition women to act only in certain ways and carry out roles i.e. productive and
13
reproductive roles. For example, society imposes reproductive roles on women like
caring and nurturing. Social condition of women to realize that they are more
suitable for reproductive roles rather than productive or community roles.
97

The following case study gives you different pictures.

Late Kalpana Chawla wanted to be an Astronaut/ space scientist after completing
her engineering degree in India. Due to her insistence, her parents allowed her to go
to the United States (US) to become an Astronaut. Like her, Ms. Pavithra wants to be
-9

a pilot after completing her 12TH Standard. She comes from lower income strata. Her
father works as a bus conductor in the State Transport Corporation. She has to fight
AY

at two levels. She needs to find necessary financial resources to pursue her passion
to become a pilot. Secondly, she has to convince her parents that she can also operate
a flight like men. She does not want to study female centric profession.
The above real life case studies demonstrate how gender is constructed and how
AJ

women can reverse their productive roles. Both the women struggled at multiple
levels to convince family and other social structures to pursue their passion. They
proved that productive roles are gender neutral. Both men and women can do all
types of work. The expectations adhere to gender related behavior, roles, identity
and professions are called gender stereotyping.
The differences between male and female sexes are anatomical and physiological.
“Sex” tends to relate to biological differences. For instance, male and female
genitalia, both internal and external are different. Similarly, the levels and types of
hormones present in male and female bodies are different.
 AJAY-9971313179

Genetic factors define the sex of an individual. Women have 46 chromosomes

including two Xs and men have 46 including an X and a Y. The Y chromosome is
dominant and carries the signal for the embryo to begin growing testes. Both men
and women have testosterone, estrogen, and progesterone. However, women have
higher levels of estrogen and progesterone, and men have higher levels of
testosterone.
The male/female split is often seen as binary, but this is not entirely true. For
instance, some men are born with two or three X chromosomes, just as some women
are born with a Y chromosome.
In some cases, a child is born with a mix between female and male genitalia. They

9
are sometimes termed intersex, and the parents may decide which gender to assign

17
to the child. Intersex individuals account for around 1 in 1,500 births.
Some people believe that sex should be considered a continuum rather than two
mutually exclusive categories.

13
Gender tends to denote the social and cultural role of each sex within a given
society. Rather than being purely assigned by genetics, as sex differences generally
are, people often develop their gender roles in response to their environment,
including family interactions, the media, peers, and education.
13
The World Health Organization (WHO) defines gender as: “Gender refers to the
socially constructed characteristics of women and men, such as norms, roles, and
relationships of and between groups of women and men. It varies from society to
97

society and can be changed.”

Gender roles in some societies are more rigid than those in others: The degree of
decision-making and financial responsibility expected of each gender and the time
-9

that women or men are expected to spend on homemaking and rearing children
varies between cultures. Within the wider culture, families too have their norms.
AY

Gender roles are not set in stone: In many societies, men are increasingly taking on
roles traditionally seen as belonging to women, and women are playing the parts
previously assigned mostly to men.
Gender roles and gender stereotypes are highly fluid and can shift substantially over
AJ

time.
Who wears the high heels?
For instance, high-heeled shoes, now considered feminine throughout much of the
world, were initially designed for upper-class men to use when hunting on
horseback.
As women began wearing high heels, male heels slowly became shorter and fatter as
female heels grew taller and thinner.
Over time, the perception of the high heel gradually became seen as feminine. There
is nothing intrinsically feminine about the high heel. Social norms have made it so.
 AJAY-9971313179

Pink for a girl and blue for a boy?

In many countries, pink is seen as a suitable color for a girl to wear, while boys ar
dressed in blue.
However, infants were dressed in white until colored garments for babies were
introduced in the middle of the 19th century.

Q2. Explain the issues of Gender and Disability in detail with an example.
20marks
Ans. Simply put, disability is a state or condition of mind or body that affects an
individual’s functioning and interferes with their ability to participate in the

9
activities of day to day life. As we have mentioned above, disability is not just an

17
individual, medical problem, but a social one. For instance, a person may have lost
her ability to see. That is her ‘impairment’. But because the environment around her
makes it difficult and dangerous for blind people to function, she becomes ‘disabled’

13
and thus her quality of life suffers. Thus, there is both a medical as well as social
dimension to the issue of disability. Disabled persons represent the largest minority
group in society after women. Disability can affect a person anytime in the life-span;
as health care improves and persons live longer, the chances of developing an age-
13
related disability increase as one grows older.
Furthermore, accidents and injuries are a major source of injury and disability. It is
rightly said that we are all ‘temporarily able-bodied’. Thus, disability is not a unique
97

experience of particular individuals labelled as disabled but of each one of us at

some point in our lives.
Disabled persons differ from one another in terms of the type and degree of
-9

disability. Moreover, gender, class, caste, race, ethnicity, sexuality, residence, and
other such social, economic, political and cultural factors determine how disability is
AY

experienced and understood. For instance, in a rural, agricultural community, the

loss of a limb may be seen as a severe disability because it affects the ability to work
in the fields and earn a living. A person with intellectual disability who can do farm
work may not be considered disabled at all, but may be teased for being a simpleton.
AJ

But in an urban society, having an intellectual disability or mental retardation as it is

still known in India, may be more of a problem because so much importance is given
to academic performance and getting into a profession.
Recently, autism and learning disabilities like dyslexia have also become more
familiar. In legal documents and policy statements, disability is defined in terms of
what Gender and Disability qualifies for public assistance. In India, the Rights of
Persons with Disabilities Act (2016) identifies 21 disabilities as compared to the
earlier Persons with Disabilities Act (1995) which identified only seven categories.
Persons with disabilities are the most neglected and disempowered section of the
population. Due to their marginalised status, they are denied the fundamental civil,
 AJAY-9971313179

political, social and economic rights that are guaranteed to all citizens in a
democracy. The plight of women with disabilities is even worse, since they have to
face the double oppression of gender and disability. Indeed not only are they a
socially invisible category but their plight is worse than both men with disabilities
and other non-disabled women. A disabled girl child is considered as a curse upon
the family and often ill-treated and abused.
In India, the dominant attitude towards persons with disability is that of pity. This
reflects in social policies which are based upon charity and welfare. Medical
rehabilitation including distribution of assistive aids and appliances such as braces,
crutches, hearing aids etc., special schools, vocational training in low-end

9
occupations and sheltered employment have been the pillars of state policy for the
disabled right from the colonial period. Furthermore, they have never been regarded

17
as a politically significant group and hence their issues and concerns have not been
taken up seriously by the political class. As many of them are hidden away from
public view and denied access to education and social experiences, they have not

13
been able to come together in a big way and make their presence felt in public life.
Things began to change marginally after 1981 (International Year of Disabled
Persons) when the issue of disability was opened up at the national level. The
13
changing international climate focussing on human rights and empowerment of
marginal groups impelled the government to make some policy changes such as
reservations in educational institutions and employment. But real progress in the
form of concrete legislation to deliver the promise of equality of opportunity and
97

social justice only came in 1995 with the passage of the Persons with Disabilities
(Equal Opportunities and full Participation) Act. Other legislation soon followed.
One of the historic international policy documents in recent times was the United
-9

Nations Convention for the Rights of Persons with Disability (2006) which was also
signed by India in 2007. This signalled the introduction of a view of disability as a
human right and development issue rather than simply a matter of charity and
AY

welfare. The Rights of Persons with Disabilities Act (2016) which has now replaced
the 1995 Act, is in line with this view. Several disability rights groups and NGOs
have emerged in recent times and disability related issues are being increasingly
included in the curricula of educational institutions.
AJ

The plight of women with disabilities as earlier mentioned is far worse than that of
men, as they suffer on account of being a woman in a male-dominated society, and
disabled in a world which considers the healthy, able body as ‘ideal’. How a person
with a disability experiences the condition and is perceived by others is largely
dependent on whether s/he is male or female. For instance, Michelle Fine and
Adrienne Asch point out that women with disabilities experience ‘sexism without
the pedestal’ (1988, p.1), i.e. they are doubly disadvantaged. Not only do they
experience disability- linked discrimination but they experience sexism and are
denied the consideration and social status that non-disabled women may claim as
wives and mothers. Men with disabilities also experience a similar assault on their
 AJAY-9971313179

masculinity and may be shamed or bullied as ‘not being man enough’ or dependents
and burdens upon the family. This can be very bruising and damaging to their self-
respect, as traditionally, men are expected to be the providers and decision makers
of the family. The 2011 Census estimates that there are over eleven million women
with disabilities in India constituting about 4% of the population. Some researchers
estimate that there are over 35 million women with disabilities in India. (Bacquer
and Sharma, 1997). Others put the figure at 20 million. 98% of the disabled are
illiterate: less than 1% can avail healthcare and rehabilitation services (ActionAid,
2003, p. 15). But these statistics are only the tip of the iceberg when it comes to
gauging the level of neglect, isolation, stigma and deprivation that characterise their

9
lives. The majority of women with disabilities in India suffer the triple
discrimination of being female, being disabled and being poor.

17
Section-B
Answer the following questions in about 250 words each.

13
Q3. Explain the relationship between Gender and Social Structures in the Society.
10marks
13
Ans. Every day we observe various objects, experience several events and related
with various social interactions. These entire phenomena that are experienced
individually help to develop an image of society or the world. Indeed, we filter
everything that happens to us every day through the lens or screen of our
97

understanding of our world and society. This everyday sense of the world or things
forms the basis of social reality or construction of social reality. In this sense, social
construction is a social process in which both individuals and other social
-9

institutions and practices are intrinsically related. Social construction is also

influenced, shaped and dominated by the interests of a particular group or class of
people. In this sense, the culture, norms, ideologies, and values of the dominant
AY

group are used to justify and sustain a particular form of social construction. Hence
social constructions through which we understand everyday life try to classify
people on the basis of caste, class, religion, community, kinship, gender and so on.
The classification of people is the consequence of social construction.
AJ

Let us read about the relationship between social construction and gender. As we
explore social construction of gender, we will focus on aspects such as the distinction
between sex and gender as well as cultural construction of gender.
• Sex and Gender: Understanding of the social construction of gender starts
with explaining two concepts, i.e., gender and sex. These two terms bear
different meanings as concepts. Gender refers to differences, hierarchies,
rankings which exist between female and male. It explains cultural
constructions associated with various roles that are played by women and
men in the society. Further, gender analyzes the aspect of shaping women’s
behaviour according to the normative order of the society. Gender as a
 AJAY-9971313179

conceptual tool is used to analyze the structural relationships of inequality

existing between women and men. This inequality gets reflected in family and
household, religion, caste, labour market, education, ecology, scientific
establishments and political institutions. Sex, on the other hand, refers to the
biological differences between female and male which remain same across
time and place. Gender can, therefore, be defined as a notion that offers a set
of frameworks within which the social and ideological construction and
representation of differences between the sexes are explained. Gender
socialisation is a process through which children come to acquire the position
of a social being by identifying themselves with definite gender roles and

9
confirm to socially appropriate behaviours and attributes as females and
males (Stanley and Wise, 2002). Women’s identification with universally

17
accepted mothering role, their subjective experiences as embodiment of love,
care, support, and men’s proximity with public domain characterised by
impersonal and professional nature are the products of socio-cultural
constructions feminity and masculinity. Social expectations from women as

13
natural mothers, wives, daughters, and homemakers not only exist at the
patriarchal constructions, but also operate in the material environment of the
society. Some feminist geographers have argued that space and gender are
13
socially constructed and women’s bodies, their activities, and mobility are
limited to certain physical territories and structures. For instance, home is
thought to be constructed through women’s gender roles at the same time
97

restricts women’ access to freedom and mobility. For instance, middle-class

women who work outside the household and travel at night to work in call
centers often meet with sexual harassment, rape, and murder. This is a
different discourse in the theory of feminisation of labour which shows how
-9

time-space of call center industries are also gendered in nature (Patel 2010).
Sex connects the individual with her/his sex categorization and eventually
AY

restricts the individual with the social notion of femininity and masculinity.
This process of gender socialisation is enabling the person to maintain her/his
sex categorization at the societal level.
• Cultural Construction of Gender: Gender is a complex phenomenon which is
socially constructed and culturally determined. Culture can be described as a
AJ

network of relationships that attaches meaning to the pattern of living of a

particular community and group. Culture covers almost every facets of life
including organization of production, structure of family and other
institutions, ideologies and normative patterns of the society and nature of
interactions or relations. Cultural construction of gender talks about the
construction of masculinity and femininity in the context of socialization, i.e.,
the individual acquires the gendered bodies of being feminine or masculine in
the course of social development. The construction of femininity and
masculinity is also shaped by the institutions of family, economic, political,
 AJAY-9971313179

and religious organizations. Gender construction in relation to culture can be

explained through the following points:
i. Gender construction supports the system of dominance: Gender
categories are never neutral nor are they equal. Gender as a system of
unequal relations between women and men gets manifested in spheres
of work, production processes, access to resources and power,
accepting the specific gender roles, and sex segregation in the labour
market.
ii. Gender construction vis-a-vis individual expression of gender:
Feminist psycho-analysts assess that gender cannot be seen as an

9
exclusively cultural, linguistic, and political construction. Therefore,
we need to make a distinction between prescriptive construction of

17
gender and individual reflections of these constructions. Prescriptive
construction of gender refers to those images which are socially,
historically, culturally determined. For example, socializing a girl child
to become a homemaker in future is deep rooted attitude in the society

13
and manifested through dress code, appropriate conduct, and women’s
engagement in care giving or nurturing activities. Individual
inflections are made by the interaction of an individual psyche with
13
socio-political or cultural or historical norms. For example, if a boy/girl
undergoes sex reassignment surgery, there may be couple of questions
that need analysis such as: How do societies respond to variations in
97

an individual’s expression of gender identity? To what extent do

members of societies internalize various gender roles and behaviours?
This point brings us to the discussion of ‘’doing gender’’ as a concept.
Doing gender involves a complex set of socially governed perceptual,
-9

interactional and micro-political activities that cast a particular action

as an expression of masculine or feminine nature (West and
AY

Zimmerman 2002). Therefore, gender is inherent to social situations,

i.e., it is both ‘product of’ and ‘produced by’ social arrangements. The
newborn only carries the sex identity that is imposed upon the
individual by the society. Eventually, through continuous interaction
with the parents or primary caretaker, the infant accomplishes gender
AJ

identity. Doing gender is a process that legitimizes this fundamental

gender division in the society.
• Gender Socialization: Socialization is the process by which the child
transforms into a social being by adhering to social values, norms, and
socially desired behaviour. Sex role socialization is a means to women’s
oppression in the larger context. Stanley and Wise argue that sex role is often
understood as gender role, i.e., expressing attributes of femininity or
masculinity. Family as an institution supports in internalizing gender
socialization and gender roles across cultures. Mother or primary caretaker
responds differently to the child on the basis of sex categorization. The
 AJAY-9971313179

differential attitude includes touching, caring, and ideas about autonomy of

boys and absence of autonomy of girls. The more parents display differential
behaviour like exposing children to specific types of toys, exposing to various
books where pictures identify the role of mother in kitchen, projection of
gender roles and behaviour in televisions more the child will express gender
stereotypes in daily life. Family and parents are seen primary agencies
through which gender stereotypes are communicated to the children (Stanley
and Sue Wise).

Q4. Describe various forms of marriages in India from gender perspective.

9
10marks
Ans. Marriage has taken various forms in different societies. The two broad

17
commonly accepted subdivisions in forms of marriage based on number of partners
are monogamy and polygamy. Monogamy refers to the marriage found across
modern contemporary societies.

13
One man marrying one woman is monogamy. Polygamy is the term for plural
marriage. It can in turn be subdivided into polyandry or the union of one woman
with several men; polygyny, or the union of one man with several women. Group
13
marriage, involves several emn living with several women. Within polygamy
polygyny is more common than polyandry.
Based on rules of marriage, marriage takes palce in two broad forms- endogamy and
97

exogamy. Endogamy ensures that partnes in the marriage belong to the same social
group. i.e the same caste, tribe, religion, class and others.
In India Hindu social order through its caste system strictly followed and continues
-9

to follow caste endogamy. Any violation of it entailed punishment including what is

known as honour killing. Endogamy and Violent enforcement of it continues rather
rigidly even in contemporary times.
AY

Such honour killings are largely perpetrated when caste endogamous rules of
marriage are challenged by young couples i.e. when couples belonging to different
castes especially the girl belonging to higher caste marries a boy belonging to lower
caste.
AJ

Further, marriage between individuals belonging to different castes is called

hypergamous marriage, if the woman belonged to a lower caste and the man to a
higher caste. The marriage of a higher caste woman to a lower caste man is called
hypogamy. In Indian society hypergamous marriage is relatively easily accepted as
compared to hypogamous marriages. Hypogamous marriages often lead to violence
against the caste group to which the man belongs by the upper caste group to which
the woman belongs.
Exogamy on the other hand entails that individuals marry outside their own group.
Gotra exogamy whereby individuals are expected to marry outside their gotra
(lineage group), and village exogamy (which was the norm of marriage in some
 AJAY-9971313179

north Indian villages) entailes that members married outside one’s village, are some
among the various forms of exogamy. Exogamy of gotra is also strictly followed in
India. Breaking of gotra exogamy rules can also lead to honour killings.

Q5. How stereotypical gender roles have had an impact on motherhood in India.
10marks
Ans. Mostly women are hearing by their very nature, more caring and nurturing and
that motherhood is the most valuable gift that women enjoy. Such sentiments are
usually accepted as compliments to women and their innate abilities to provide love
and care, and to be able to sacrifice their own needs for those of others.

9
However, such seemingly complementary assertions may very well conceal
prevalent social biases against women. They may also work to the disadvantage of

17
women. For instance, because of social and cultural expectations, those women who
may not wish to see marriage and motherhood as their primary function in life may
feel like social anomalies. In the field of education, girls may opt for certain

13
disciplinary fields and careers rather than others (such as Mathematics or Science)
which do not disturb their sense of internalized gender roles and abilities. Women
may also feel the social pressure to live up to cultural ideals which associate self-
sacrifice and self-abnegation primarily with one gender.
13
Consequently, girls are often influenced by ingrained cultural values which tell them
that it is their duty to sacrifice better nutrition, educational opportunities, financial
resources and right to property to the male members of the family. Due to such
97

culturally ingrained values and gender biases, women who become mothers may
often do so at the expense of other desires and ambitions. Motherhood may thus
interrupt or interfere with women’s ability and desire to work and follow
-9

professional careers. At the same time, the association of childcare responsibilities

primarily with women can also place pressure on men to function only as providers
and alienate them from a fuller realization of their roles as fathers. Prescribed gender
AY

roles for women and men consequently impact the level of freedom in terms of
personal choices exerted by both genders. They also influence how women and men
perceive their roles as mothers and fathers in a given culture. Owing to rigidly
defined prescriptions, many women see marriage and motherhood as their life-goal.
AJ

Some may become mothers without really questioning their preparation for this role
or give up their professional ambitions completely once they become mothers. It is
also true, of course, that many women may genuinely desire to become mothers, and
may happily opt for domestic responsibilities over professional ones. However, an
interrogation of gender roles in society shows us that freedom of self-determination
is greatly influenced by cultural norms. Consequently, what one may believe to be a
‘free’ choice may actually reflect internalized perceptions of idealized roles, and the
un-interrogated ‘performance’ of such roles by individuals.
Women who become mothers of their own free will may also succumb to certain
behaviors and traits that are expected of mothers. For instance, they may be
 AJAY-9971313179

compelled to abandon pursuit of higher education goals, not seek employment or

give up established careers. Many women from the middle and upper-middle
classes single-handedly shoulder the burden of domestic chores associated with
mothering, such as preparing family meals, getting children ready for school,
overseeing homework and other educational requirements. But it is not only women
who are at a disadvantage as far as gender roles are concerned. Cultural
stereotyping of parenting roles in patriarchal societies can also influence men in a
detrimental way. For instance, fathers may feel obliged to limit their interaction with
their children in terms of their prescribed functions – that is, primarily as
breadwinners and providers, rather than as sources of emotional or intellectual

9
support. This serves to restrict emotional bonding between fathers and children and
could be counter-productive for the emotional growth of children.

17
It can also limit men’s perceptions of their roles as fathers and keep them from
enjoying the pleasures of a more wholesome relationship with their children. An
examination of motherhood in the context of gender roles thus helps us to take a
serious look at the notion of freedom of choice, as well as how both motherhood and

13
fatherhood get prescribed in pre-determined ways due to gender stereotyping.

Section-C
13
Answer the following questions in about 100 words each.
Q6. What is understood by work? 6marks
Ans. In economics, work is any activity or expenditure of energy that produces
97

services and products of value to other people. Although, work can be performed
without wages, salaries, or income, economically speaking, labor market work is
strictly performed for pay. These terms are then tied to the term production. Work is
-9

productive if and only if profits are produced.

According to traditional economic theories, life is divided into economic realm and
household realm. The economic realm focused on buyers, sellers, market whereas
AY

the household realm positioned itself on the range of unpaid work that is necessary
for the functioning of life. Items that are sold in market are only counted as
production and hence household realm was outside the purview of economic realm.
Throughout its history, capitalism has proved adept at causing patterns of labour
AJ

supply to change in accordance with demand, and this is particularly so in the case
of female labour. In all societies, and particularly in developing countries, there
remain essential but usually unpaid activities (such as cooking, cleaning and other
housework, provisioning of basic household needs, child care, care of the sick and
the elderly, as well as community-based activities), which are largely seen as the
responsibility of the women. This pattern of unpaid work tends to exist even when
women are engaged in outside work for an income, whether as wage workers or
self-employed workers. Women from poor families who are engaged in outside
work as well usually cannot afford to hire others to perform these tasks, so most
often these are passed on to young girls and elderly women within the household, or
 AJAY-9971313179

become a “double burden” of work for such women. These processes are also
integral to capitalism… and have become even more marked in recent years
(Ghosh).
The tendency of highlighting the unpaid economic work has a long-standing history
within the debates on gender and development. Danish economist Ester Boserup in
her work Women’s Role in Economic Development (1970) has highlighted women’s
importance to the agricultural economy. Sub-Saharan Africa, in particular, was
singled out as the great global area of “female farming systems” in which women
using traditional hoe technology assumed a substantial responsibility for food
production. Moreover, Boserup posited a positive correlation between the role

9
women played in agricultural production and their status vis-à-vis men. Instead of
needy beneficiaries, her work represented women as productive members of society.

17
One of the most pervasive themes of the present feminist movement is the emphasis
placed on the role of reproduction. Women do globe’s unpaid second and third shift
work of households tasks. Unpaid work includes housework, such as preparing
meals for the family, cleaning the house and gathering water and fuel, as well as

13
work caring for children, older people and family members who are sick—over both
the short and long term. Women in India do almost ten times the amount of unpaid
care work that men do. Three-quarters of unpaid work is routine household chores
13
exacerbated by poor access to basic services such as sanitation, clean water, and
clean sources of cooking fuel. In China and Bangladesh—to consider two other
Asian countries for comparative purposes women do about three and four times,
97

respectively, the amount of unpaid care work as men (MGI, 2015).

Human Development Report (2015) states that women are estimated to contribute 52
percent of global work, men 48 percent. But even if women carry more than half the
burden, they are disadvantaged in both realms of work— paid as well as unpaid
-9

work— in patterns that reinforce each other. In 2015, the global labour force
participation rate was 50 percent for women but 77 percent for men. Female
AY

participation in the labour force and employment rates are affected heavily by
economic, social and cultural issues and care work distributions in the home. Of the
59 percent of work that is paid, mostly outside the home, men’s share is nearly twice
that of women 38 percent versus 21 percent. The picture is reversed for unpaid work,
mostly within the home and encompassing a range of care responsibilities: of the 41
AJ

percent of work that is unpaid, women perform three times more than men 31
percent versus 10 percent.
Hence the imbalance men dominate the world of paid work, women that of unpaid
work. Unpaid work in the home is indispensable to the functioning of society and
human well-being: yet when it falls primarily to women, it limits their choices and
opportunities for other activities that could be more fulfilling to them. Even when
women are in paid work, they face disadvantages and discrimination. The evidence
of the glass ceiling is just one of them. Women are underrepresented in senior
business management globally: They hold only 22 percent of senior leadership
positions, and 32 percent of businesses do not have any female senior managers,
 AJAY-9971313179

with regional variations. Occupational segregation has been pervasive over time and
across levels of economic prosperity in both advanced and developing countries
men are over-represented in crafts, trades, plant and machine operations, and
managerial and legislative occupations; and women in mid-skill occupations such as
clerks, service workers and shop and sales workers. Even when doing similar work,
women can earn less— with the wage gaps generally greatest for the highest paid
professionals. Globally, women earn 24 percent less than men. Due to their
disproportionate share of care work, women have less time than men for other
activities, including paid work and education. In low human development countries
men spend nearly 30 percent more time on social life and leisure than women. In

9
very high human development countries the difference is 12 percent. Despite the
importance for human development, care work often goes unrecognized. Among all

17
countries attempting to measure the value of unpaid care work, estimates range
from 20 percent to 60 percent of GDP. In India unpaid care is estimated at 39 percent
of GDP, in South Africa 15 percent.

13
Q7. What do you mean by Reproductive Health and Rights? 6 marks
Ans. Reproductive health is defined by the Cairo Program of Action as follows:
Reproductive health is a state of complete physical, mental and social well-being and
13
not merely the absence of disease or infirmity, in all matters relating to the
reproductive system and to its functions and processes. (cited in Jaiswal 2012).
The definition of reproductive health has implications for both women and men. The
97

Programme of Action (POA) in ICPD placed reproductive health and rights as

follows:
• The right of couple and individuals to decide the number, timing and space of
their children; and to have information and means to do so;
-9

• Regulate her fertility through access to information and good health services;
• Have access to safe, effective, affordable and acceptable methods of family
AY

planning of their choice for regulation of fertility;

• Identification and treatment of Reproductive Tract Infections (RTIs) and
Sexually transmitted diseases among women, prevention and treatment of
RTIs/HIVs:
AJ

• Remain free of reproductive morbidity (death); and

• Bear and raise healthy children.
Reproductive rights are also legal rights that give freedom to individual/couple to
take decision with regard to reproduction and reproductive health (Jaiswal 2012).
The conceptualization of reproductive health and right can be linked to the early
women’s struggle to demand their right to legal and safe abortion in the
industrialized countries. Later, the concept of women’s reproductive health was
reformulated in the year 1994 at International Conference on Population and
Development (ICPD) popularly known as the Cairo conference. Cairo conference
emphasized that women’s health is socially constructed therefore it is important to
 AJAY-9971313179

understand reproductive health in the context of individual or couple’s right to

reproductive health. Reproductive health is recognized as human right issues also.
Reproductive right is a broader framework under which reproductive health was
included and clearly defined. The definition of reproductive health was recognized
by the Fourth World Conference on Women in 1995 known as the Beijing
Declaration and Platform for Action as a human right issue for women.
Reproductive rights may include the following rights for women;
• Right to legal or safe abortion;
• Right to birth control;
• The right of access quality reproductive health care; and

9
• Right to education in order to make reproductive choices (emphasis added,
• Amnesty international 2007, in Jaiswal 2012).

17
Q8. Explain the categories of gender based violence. 6marks
Ans. The UN Special Rapporteur on Violence Against Women has categorized forms

13
of violence against women into violence within the family, violence in the
community and violence perpetrated / condoned by the state.2 Using these broad
forms, violence against women in India can be further disaggregated as follows:
a) violence in the family – such as domestic violence, sexual abuse of children
13
in the household, dowry-related violence, rape and incestual rape by family
members, honour crimes, sex-selective abortions and female infanticide,
female genital mutilation and other traditional practices that are harmful,
97

violence against lesbian, bisexual and transgender people, and violations of

sexual and reproductive rights;
b) violence in the community – including rape, sexual abuse, sexual harassment
-9

at workplace and other public places, acid-throwing, ‘witch hunting’, sati,

honour crimes, trafficking in women and children, forced prostitution,
violence against women with disabilities, communal violence, and violence
AY

against adivasi and dalit women;

c) violence perpetrated or condoned by the state – including custodial rapes,
torture and killings, gender-based violence in militarised contexts, violence
against women migrant workers, refugees and internally displaced persons,
AJ

communal violence and other contexts of mass crimes.

These categories of violence against women are not water-tight compartments; some
types of violence against women fall under more than one category. The three
categories of violence against women are also inter-related and reinforce each other
to subvert and subjugate women’s enjoyment of human rights.

Q9. Examine the relationship between gender and language. 6marks

Ans. The study of gender is important to the study of language. It makes us realize
the difference in communication process and its impact on social behavior of men
and women. Language is used for communication oral as well as written. In its oral
 AJAY-9971313179

form it is used for conversation and dialogue; in its written form it is used for
reading and writing. Men and women both use language to communicate; but
though they may be speaking the same language, its pattern changes according to
the gender of the speaker/writer.
Take a simple sentence, “close the door.” A man will say more directly, “Close the
door, please;” while a woman may say, “will you please close the door?” The first
sentence shows assertion and authority of the speaker; the second, though politer,
denotes hesitation and lack of authority. Such differences in the use of phrases,
vocabulary, intonation and non-verbal communication are due to factors like
physical, psychological, economic and social differences in the approach of men and

9
women.
Gender issues and language issues are interconnected. Since the time women’s

17
movement started debating the power of the language, gender studies and language
studies have become important interdisciplinary academic fields. Language reflects
existing social reality. Socio-linguistic and feminist scholars are examining how
language upholds, supports or devalues women; how it shapes the social and

13
cultural contexts and how it is shaped by these contexts; and what measures can be
taken to change the social perception of gender.
Gender is a socio-cultural construct. This means that the process of social training
13
starts after birth as the family takes charge of bringing it up. A boy or a girl is
brought up according to the socio-cultural norms of his/her society and with the
passage of time he/she acquires traits that are expected of a man or a woman of that
97

group. Thus, the idea of gender can change with social changes though sex remains
the same.
• Socio-Cultural Training: The child starts growing. We train him/her as per
our social outlook. Parents buy dolls and frocks for girls, cars and guns for
-9

boys. Then there are many do’s and don’ts that elders start imposing. We
expect the male child to be strong and brave; we cuddle the little girl. Slowly,
AY

the idea of gender takes root. Boys tend to become naughty, rowdy and
aggressive. We let them be. A popular phrase in English is “boys will be
boys.” We expect the girls to be docile, gentle and obedient. We unknowingly
create two categories – girl and boy; man and woman. Boundaries are formed;
these are gender boundaries.
AJ

Language is used by both men and women but somewhere in its course of
development it gets divided (unknowingly) between two parts – male and female as
per social and cultural norms. Language mirrors, records and transmits differences.
These gender differences can be marked in various ways. Men and women are
socialized to express themselves in appropriate social language that teaches and
reinforces differentiated gender roles. Following three questions can lead us to
clarify our point:
1) Do men and women speak different languages? The answer is No and yes.
No, because it is the same language they speak. In this case, let us say English.
 AJAY-9971313179

Yes, because their phrases, expressions and intonations are so different that
they appear to be speaking different languages.
2) Do they use language differently? Yes. Otto Jespersen, in his book Language:
Its Nature, Development and Origin observes that men have many
expressions peculiar to them which women understand but do not use; on the
other hand, women have words and phrases which men know of but never
use for fear of being scorned at. That is the reason the language of men and
women appears different.
3) Is there gender bias in English language? Yes. This bias is obvious in the
manner in which language uses women. Women are ignored when words

9
such as ‘he’ or ‘man’ signify women too. For example, “everyone must do his
duty.” Here the pronoun ‘his’ denotes woman also. “Man is mortal.” In this

17
sentence ‘man’ also means ‘woman’. In both these sentences her presence is
ignored. These are known as ‘masculine generics’ and are widely accepted.
Language also defines women’s status vis-à-vis men’s and by inference gives
them secondary position. Let us look at the titles of respect, Mrs or Miss.

13
These terms show the presence/absence of man in a woman’s life whereas the
appellation Mr is independent and does not need woman’s presence.
Feminine nouns of some words are derogatory like ‘dog-bitch’, ‘wizard-
13
witch’. Similarly, words like ‘lady doctor’, ‘lady lecturer’ specify gender
unnecessarily. Terms of endearment used by men for women like ‘chick’ or
‘babe’ highlight how language devalues women. Have you read Henrik
97

Ibsen’s play A Doll’s House? In it a reader comes across many terms of

endearment that Nora’s husband uses for her to show his love.

Q10. What do you understand by women’s representation in Media?

-9

Ans. The simple dictionary meaning of representation is: the act of re-presenting/
presenting again, something that represents as an image or a symbol, like a verbal
AY

picture. For example, the portrayal of women in films or newspapers can be stated as
“representation of women in films/newspapers.” Other synonyms for representation
are: portrayal, depiction, rendition, characterization and so on. Representation also
means an act of speaking or acting on behalf of someone. Representation covers the
AJ

fields of literature, gender studies, politics, sociology, cultural studies and many
other disciplines. But we shall restrict ourselves to the relationship between gender
and representation.
Imagination plays a significant role in representation. In literature it helps in
engendering and re-engendering women. In films and TV serials and
advertisements, women’s representation is visual. Nowadays, television has
centrality to our daily lives; in fact, to our culture. It is like the language we speak, it
is simple yet complex and difficult to understand and analyze. The representation of
 AJAY-9971313179

women in the media is varied – sometimes it is according to cultural norms,

sometimes as per the new ideas and sometimes it breaks all norms.
The mother, for example, is represented as a patient, all-loving presence but she can
be very strong despite her several problems. We know how the woman is
represented in art and sculpture. All these representations are gendered and need to
be understood from a gender perspective. Representation asks the question: who is
speaking, on behalf of whom? In gender studies, one of the important aspects of
representation is to enable women to re-present themselves. There was a time when
women were represented by men because women were not allowed to speak or
write. Now with socio-cultural changes they have seized the opportunity to

9
represent their case, their problems and their view points.

17
13
13
97
-9
AY
AJ