TOPIC 2: EDUCATION IN ANCIENT CIVILIZATIONS.

Early societies and Education.

The way in which early societies educated their young and thus how future generations were
educated is a milestone in cultural history. Thus, the education and cultural antecedents are
significant, for present values are rooted in those of the past. Inevitably, there is all the reason for
being made aware of the main avenues of action in ancient times. This demands knowing and
understanding the ideals that shaped ancient education, together with the men that laid them
down, including the policies and practices that were set to realize them.
Our emphasis on the study of education in ancient times lies in those societies whose influence
has become more or less a permanent feature of their approach to education. This is because the
present Kenyan education system emerged out of these formal systems of education. Indeed our
education has since independence largely developed along western lines.
The Egyptian education of about 4,000 BC aimed to foster a proper understanding of religion
and vocational skills that were needed for trade and agriculture, and mathematical and
geometrical skills for surveying and measuring out plots which were flooded annually by the
Nile.
The Chinese education of 2,000 years ago sought to preserve the past, their education concerning
itself with human relationships, order, duty and morality. The greatest Chinese philosopher was
Confucius (557 BC-479 BC). The Hindus, on their part, endeavoured through their education to
prepare themselves for the life to come and maintain the caste system. The Jewish education was
immensely coloured by religious faith, an attitude towards their national history, a sense of godly
appointed mission.
The Greeks were the first to realize that society can be best enriched by development of the
talents and personalities of the individuals which make up the society. They were also the first to
recognize that the preservation of the status quo alone was inadequate, but rather that education
of the individual society was to progress and grow. Socrates (469-399 BC), Plato (428-348 BC)
and Aristotle (386-322 BC) tried to find the solution to the problem of developing a stable
society which also fostered the creative talents and freedom of the individual within it.
Consequently, from Greece the model for the educated citizen was transplanted throughout the
Hellenist World.
The Roman’s part was to absorb the spread of Hellenistic culture rather than to remodel it
entirely into some higher cultural synthesis. Their acquisition of Greek learning was to be highly
selective; they left out many structural elements and modified others. Thus while sharing
Hellenistic attitudes, they still honoured their tested traditions and tried to build a formal
educational system that sought to achieve two objectives; culture and utility. The Romans were
determined to produce decently educated men, both cultured and practical. Their most influential
educational thinker was Quintilian (AD 35-95). Quintilian took up questions of educational
methodology, discussing problems of techniques and their application.

Features of Education during the Ancient Civilization.

It is worth reminding us that the evolution of man’s culture in education extends in time to
obscure origins before the dawn of recorded history. This is so even of western man, and in fact
the religion, the economy, the values of society and the lifestyles arising from near Eastern
societies produce a succession of formal education systems, while Western Europe was still a
vast wilderness populated by primitive savages dwelling in caves. An examination of educational
phenomena of early historic societies suggests certain general conclusions as to the nature of
education of these earliest civilizations.
Education seen as cultural transmission imparted informally, without schools, dominated up to
the time complex demands of society became too great for it. Once the informal educational
practices had been thus outstripped and found wanting, there was no stopping the emergence of
educational institutions to meet the compelling needs of the man’s earliest civilizations: the
principle of division of labour apparent in the ancient civilizations soon led to similar
specializations in education.
The explosion of knowledge meant that the family and society were unable to cope with the
emergent specialisms, therefore paving the way for formal training in reading, writing and
arithmetic. Home and society needed something to supplement them; what schools taught was
supposed to be relevant to the needs of home and society.
The supportive principle of division of labour that followed the agricultural, technological and
urban revolutions of historic societies saw a class of teachers arising. Initially teachers imparted
historical and religious knowledge to a selected few. Teachers thus supplemented the family and
society in teaching what was considered relevant for the commercial, administrative and literary
needs of the evolving communities that became early historic societies.
The discovery of writing was an important stimulus towards the establishment of schools. The
skills of reading, writing and arithmetic were useful for commercial, administrative and record-
keeping purposes. Hence the limited oral tradition based on memory was surely being phased out
by the enduring authoritative recorded tradition of the written word.
Schools became a necessity, to teach people how to read and write.
Paradoxically, the authoritative recorded tradition produced a conservative, status quo,
orientation that was against change.
Except for the Jews, the art of reading and writing was limited o a very small number of people
in the early historic communities. Those in the higher sectors of society, with a birthright, were
at an advantage in receiving formal education. Being literate resulted to a rise in an important
position in society. An individual who could read and write possessed a skill that was scarce and
of great value to the community. Indeed, the acquisition of the art of reading and writing was
further glorified by being accompanied by religious mysticism. Religious mysticism replaced the
informality of pre-literate education. However, the education of the masses still took the form of
apprenticeships and oral education. Again, except for the Jews, girls and women were considered
inferior to boys and men. The education of women was therefore neglected.
The approach of teaching and learning was in its infancy.
Memorization and repeating word for word what the teacher had taught was rampant. There was
no encouragement for the learner to relate what had been taught to everyday life. No allowance
was made for the students to apply what was learnt to problem solving. Teachers neither
explained their lessons, nor saw lack of learning as the teachers’ fault. Lack of understanding
was due to the laziness of the students. Severe school and class discipline was the order of the
day. Education was a means of producing submissive, conforming and yet productive citizens of
a cohesive society.

EDUCATION IN ANCIENT EGYPT

Ancient Egyptian Civilization
Egyptian civilization is the oldest in the long history of man. It predates the Chinese, Indian and
Graeco-Roman civilizations. Egyptian civilization reached its peak between 4,000 B.C. and
1,000 B.C. It is also the earliest civilization with a recorded history. This civilization was a
product of the agricultural activities cantered on the River Nile, political unity between the upper
and lower Kingdoms under Pharaoh Menes in 3100 B.C. and the resulting centralized autocratic
theocracy, which managed to maximize the existing agricultural economy.
Religion and Social Classes. In Ancient Egypt, all things were inseparable from religion. This
made Herodotus (484 B.C. - 425 B.C.), the Greek father of History, to describe the Egyptians as
extremely religious. The total number of deities was in excess of two thousand, with the Pharaoh
being considered and treated as a deity on earth, or the god king. The Pharaoh ensured that the
gods were worshipped and sacrifices made to them. All land belonged to the Pharaoh and there
was intimate link between the religious, the economic, the social, the political, the artistic, the
scientific and the technological; practices.
The Egyptian believed in physical life after death, which was considered as a kind of transient
sleep. Because of this, the Egyptians developed mummification or conservation in death into a
highly sophisticated science.

Egyptian society was stratified into three classes. The upper class included the royal family, the
nobles and the priests. The middle classes were the professionals and scribes. The lowest class
included the fellahin or serfs and the slaves. Egyptian priests had a very powerful position
politically, socially, economically and educationally. They both directly and indirectly controlled
the entire educational system.
The Aims and Structure of Ancient Egyptian Education.
Aims
Egyptian education aimed at perpetuating social stability and the status quo. Education
perpetuated a socially stratified society by slotting the various classes into their social, political
and economic riches in society.
The education aimed at producing professionals and labour oriented personnel to support the
social structures. For this reason, Egyptian education was practical, technical, professional, and
utilitarian.
The River Nile being at the heart of Egyptian civilization, education was designed to foster the
development of a complex agricultural science, creating irrigation and flood control networks,
which made Egypt the granary of the ancient world.
Egyptian education also preferred a religious view of the world by seeking to enhance the
people's religious and moral development and piety to the gods. Education was considered both a
preparation for life and a vehicle for life after death. Education thus contained religious and
philosophical studies to achieve the society's polytheist ideals.
Structure.
(a) Elementary Education.
Elementary schools were first established between 3,000 B.C. and 2,000 B.C: in response to the
basic needs of Egyptian society. They were established to offer training in various vocations
rather than literacy. The latter was initially restricted to the clergy, with only their sons being
exposed to reading and writing under priests in temple schools.
Schooling for the few lucky boys began at four years of age and lasted up to the time they were
14 years, when they were considered ready for the world of work. The curriculum included
mastering the symbols and signs of writing unique to the respective social classes, professions or
vocations; elementary science, arithmetic, geometry, astronomy, music and dancing. The last two
were taught for recreational, moral and religious training.
The dominant methods of teaching were dictation, memorization, copying of texts, imitation,
repetition, participation and observation, the last particularly in physical education. These
methods did not encourage higher-level thinking, problem solving, or the spirit of inquiry, with
teachers hardly explaining their lessons. School discipline was severe and ruthless. Laziness was
highly discouraged and severely punishable.
Good manners, physical fitness through swimming and archery, cleanliness and moral
uprightness were highly valued. To Egyptians bodily hygiene was of religious significance, and
may well have originated the adage that cleanliness is next to godliness.
Those boys who did not go to elementary school were trained informally by their fathers in skills
other than the 3Rs - reading, writing and arithmetic. Through apprenticeships and oral traditions
the masses were taught to fit into their prescribed positions in society. Girls only received
training in domestic roles under their mothers at home. Slaves were not offered any formal
education.
(b) Secondary Education
Secondary education was conducted in the same premises as elementary education. It was mainly
a continuation of improvement and consolidation of the elementary school learning, with
particular attention being given to refining the style and composition of the art of writing and
craftsmanship. Boys of the upper class informally participated in learning activities that
enhanced their etiquette and code of behaviour.
(c) Higher and Professional Education
This education took place in temples, colleges or universities. On the East bank of the Nile, at
Tell-el--Armana, there was a kind of university, the House of Life. Higher education was mainly
for the instruction of priests and professionals.
This education was guardedly, secretly and informally passed on to immediate relatives,
colleagues and social equals. It was thus restricted to those recognized as heirs by virtue of birth.
This was particularly in regard to priesthood and medicine. Other professionals included teachers
and scribes who used their homes, offices, business premises and temples to impart the relevant
knowledge and skills to selected boys.
Contribution of Egyptian Education to Human Civilization
The Egyptian educational achievements and contributions to human civilization are many. In art,
modern painting and sculpture borrowed much from Egyptian models. In architecture, Egyptians
were the first to successfully use mass with stone in copying the massive desert cliffs and
mountains to build the pyramids, are of the enduring wonders of the world. In literature, the
Egyptians used proverbs, similes, aphorisms, etc, to teach moral conduct, methods that are in
extensive use in today's teaching. In mathematics, the Egyptian method of multiplication was
until recently used in Eastern Europe and Asia. In medicine, the Egyptians had knowledge of
physiology, surgery and blood circulation, and are the originators of the Hippocratic oath.
In writing, the Egyptians developed hieroglyphics and invented the earliest known writing
materials. "Paper: is an abbreviation of "papyrus", which was a plant cultivated in Egypt and
used for writing.
However, there are critics of Egyptian civilization who argue that these achievements were not
built upon due to the stagnation and decline that followed the end of the old Kingdom. That as it
may be, but the foundations of modern western world developments in science and technology in
ancient Egypt civilization are not in dispute.
EDUCATION IN ANCIENT INDIA
Indian Civilization, Religion and Education
The Indian civilization arose between 2,500 and 1,500 B.C. along the Indus River. It was centred
on the proper utilization and management of the resources of the Indus River Valley, mainly
agriculture.
The civilization thrived between 1, 3000 B.C. and A.D 450, during which time. Hinduism and
Buddhism arose and developed into major world religions. A third religion, Jainism, arose,
although it had fewer adherents than the first two.
The three religions affected education in India in basic ways. To understand the education of
Ancient India therefore requires us to also understand the religious foundation of this education.
Education was inseparable from religion. Indeed, the principles of this education were contained
in the three religions' holy texts.
At the elementary level education was devoted to the vocations and was therefore, practical and
utilitarian. It included religious instruction.
Higher education was highly esteemed as the path to salvation.
Among the Hindus or Brahmans, higher education was offered in training colleges called
parishads and forest colleges, which catered for the higher education of distinguished scholars
and emphasized contemplation religious education was conducted in temple colleges, whereas
secular matters were taught in the court schools. The dominant teaching methods were oral and
rote, emphasizing memorization and imitation.
Hinduism and Education
Hinduism is one of the leading religions of the world, in terms of the number of its followers
scattered all over the world. The religion has three main gods:
 Brahma, the creator, or lord of the universe
 Vishnu, the preserver of the universe, and
 Siva, the destroyer.
Teachings about, these gods are contained in the Upanishads.
Hinduism is a complex and eclectic religion, combining several ideas, and being polytheistic in
worship and action, but monotheistic in theory.
According to Hinduism, salvation means ascending from the sinful materialistic world into god,
Brahma. Accordingly, the main aim of education is to enable one to be free from earthly desire.
The language of Hindu learning and scriptures is called Sanskrit. The Vedas contain Ancient
Hindu religious teachings, which include hymns, chants and rituals. The Vedas are the holy texts.
They clearly show that Indian society was stratified into a rigid caste system, which prescribes
the duties of each caste. The castes included:
• The Brahmans - the intellectuals, rulers, teachers and priests.
• The Kshatriyas - warlords, warriors and administrators
• The Vaisyas - farmers, herders, money-handlers and merchants.
• The Sudras - menial servants and serfs of the first three classes.
Members of each caste had their own duties, responsibilities and privileges. The caste system
was thus a social and religious stratification and was central to the operation of Hinduism. The
caste system allowed no mobility between the classes and no equality of opportunity, even in
education. The Sudras and women hardly received any education.
Those cast out of their classes for non-adherence to the rigid stipulations were referred to as
Pariahs. These were casteless and had no rights or privileges.
Buddhism and Education
Buddhism developed as a major religion from about 500 B.C. due to the following factors:
(a) The emergence of an alternative civilization centred on the Ganges River Valley.
(b) The new civilization rendered Hinduism inadequate for the rich, independent minded and
urbanized population.
By 200 B.C., Buddhism had spread from the Indian Peninsula to other parts of Asia.
The founder of Buddhism was Gautama Siddharta (563 B.C – 489 B.C), popularly known as the
"Buddha" or the "Enlightened One" by his followers. Born in Nepal to the north east of India, the
Buddha became disillusioned with his aristocratic lifestyle and left his family to lead an ascetic
life of meditation through Yoga. Six years later, at 35 years of age, he received a revelation on
the right path in life. This major motivation for adopting an ascetic life was to understand why
suffering existed in the world. In the revelation, the Buddha is said to have seen the past, the
present and the future, and found the cause of suffering to be desire. The right or noble path
revealed to him consisted of eight steps, namely:
The right views, right aspirations, right speech, right conduct, right livelihood, right effort, right
mindfulness, and right contemplation. The Buddha emphasized that one's success in following
the right path during his present life is determined by his/her behaviour in preceding lives, or the
law of Karma which determined one’s order of reincarnations.
The ultimate aim in following the right path was to reach a state of nirvana in which suffering
has been overcome, a desireless state that stops any further reincarnations, with the soul
becoming nothing.
In Buddhism, knowledge was accepted from all sources and was respected. The main aim of
education was to produce an individual who could free himself/herself from self-centeredness,
one who could become compassionate, pitiful and enduring. In Buddhism, education was for all,
irrespective of caste.
Jainism and Education
Jainism is closely associated with Buddhism and is one of the oldest religions in India, though a
minority one. The religion was founded around 500 B.C. by Vardhamana, who was born in
northwest India. Jain means "Conqueror of evil". There are believed to be several such
conquerors, the supreme ones being Pishabha and Mihavira. Jains believe that the earth is
external and is revived in different cycles by different Jains.
Salvation in Jainism is achieved when the soul is isolated from the body and attains the ultimate
states, Nirvana. Like Buddhism, Jainism emphasizes asceticism and monastic life, and in the
course of time has become more and more identified with Buddhism in India.
Educationally, the major aim was to produce an individual who would be critical and self-reliant,
one who constantly viewed existing religions with skeptism and sought to achieve spiritual well
being through Yoga.
EDUCATION IN ANCIENT GREECE AND ROME.
Greek Civilization, The Old and New Education
The Greeks or Hellenes settled in the Greek Peninsula sometimes after 2,000 B.C. They formed
themselves into twenty city-states or polis.
Though there was no unified government, the Greeks were united by language, religion and a
common civilization.
Greek society was regimented into three classes: the citizens, the non-citizens, and state-owned
slaves. Provision or non-provision of education was determined by one's social class. In terms of
education, the city-states of Sparta and Athens were the most important. However, their
education was not as religious as that of the other ancient civilizations.
Greek education can be divided into two methods, the old and the new. The first is referred to as
the Age of Homer, which began about 900 B.C. and ended about 776 B.C., the date of the first
Olympiad. This education was dominated by the Homeric epics, was theologically and
discipline-based, and was represented by Spartan education.
The new education lasted from about 431 B.C and extended to the point Greek civilization was
fully integrated into Roman life after the 4th century B.C. This education marked the peak of
Greek civilization characterized by a cultural revolution in which old traditions in education,
religion and morality were discarded. By the close of this period philosophical schools had been
established, being later organized into the university of Athens. The new education was
philosophically oriented towards peace and war and is represented by Athenian education.
Education in Sparta

Spartan education represented the old Greek education and was regulated by the Constitution of
Lycurgus (850-800 B.C). The constitution established a military socialist state with state-
controlled education to serve the needs of the various social military institutions in Sparta.

The city-state of Sparta was situated in the middle of a hostile conquered people who greatly
outnumbered the Spartans, both in and outside the polis. As an indication of this disproportion,
by about ninth century B.C. there were about nine thousand Spartan citizens against two hundred
and fifty thousand non-citizens (a ratio of 1:28). Due to this, the main objective of Spartan
education was to produce warriors for the survival of society. It was designed to instil and
develop obedience and loyalty in Spartan youth and was highly paternalistic.
The paedonomus or superintendent was charged with the duty of educating Spartan youth. At
birth, infants were exposed to ice and snow in the mountains to weed out the weaklings. At the
age of seven years, boys began to live in barracks where they were given small ratios, bathed in
cold water and received beatings from elders.
Life in the barracks emphasized harsh existence. Educational activities included drills and
gymnastics with a little informal training in intellectual education in the form of basic language.
Discipline was harsh.
Between the age of 18 and 20, the boys became ephebi or cadetcitizens and underwent vigorous
military training. From age twenty to thirty, they were posted to serve at border points. At age
thirty they became warriors, full citizens and could marry but continue to lead a communal life in
the barracks. Women received gymnastic training at home aimed at producing mothers of strong
and brave warriors.
Spartan education developed no art, literature, philosophy or science. They developed an
education that produced physical strength, endurance, stamina, and strength of character, loyalty
and patriotism.
Education in Athens
Athenian education is symbolic of the New Greek education. As in the case of Sparta, Athenians
believed in the supremacy of the state, although theirs was tempered by an emerging belief that
individual self-actualisation was just as good for the welfare of the state. Athenian education was
liberal and emphasized science, humanities and physical fitness.
The Athenian state only provided education between the ages of sixteen and twenty which was
an advanced course in physical training in preparation for military service. Before this, and
starting at seven years of age, Athenian boys received two types of education in private schools:
physical exercises and music, singing and playing musical instruments.
State education also included instruction in reading, writing and literature and was wholly under
state-officials. The boys became cadet citizens at 16 years, graduating to full citizens after two
years, after which education and training continued, since the whole environment was educative.
Girls received domestic education in the seclusion of their homes.
During the transitional Age of Pericles that was marked with extreme individualism, political and
economic exchanges with various kinds of peoples, a cultural revolution occurred, and with it the
need to change the curriculum. The emergent curriculum was cantered towards the individual
land was literary and theoretical. It included geometry, drawing, grammar and rhetoric. The
education of citizen-cadets now emphasized intellectual development rather than physical
fitness. This produced freelance teachers known as sophists who faced the challenge of training
young men for a political career. They were trainers in practical wisdom and claimed they could
teach any subject. Their influence on Athenian youths was profound, to the point that they
accepted no universal criteria for truth, knowledge and morals. This was negative, for no
satisfactory interpretation of life could be made: every situation would be subject to individual
judgement. This was seen as destructive by the older generation who disapproved of the
Sophists' tendency to be biased towards a laissez faire (leaving things alone) approach in
teaching. As a result there arose a conflict between the new and old Greek education.
Realizing that a return to the old moral system would not be possible, there arose educational
theorists who were known as the "Great Mediators". They tried to construct a middle ground in
the conflict based on a new understanding of work or virtue revolving around the individual,
rather than Athenian citizenship. Among the most unknown educational theorists were Socrates
(469 B.C - 399 B.C), Plato (427 B.C. – 347 B.C) and Aristotle (384 B.C. - 328 B.C.).
As a result of their efforts, two classes of higher education developed; the rhetorical schools,
preparing pupils for public life through training in oratory, and the dialectic philosophical
schools whose primary objective was speculative metaphysical and ethical questions. The
University of Athens grew out of a synthesis of the two types of schools.
The University had the elaborate structure of a modern University and continued to function as
the hub of learning within the Roman Empire until emperor Justinian suppressed it in A.D. 529.
The Athenian Senate elected its head.
After the Roman conquest of 146 B.C., Greek civilization fused with Roman education and
spread over the east, extending beyond its boundaries without changing its character. The Greek
legacy for the history of education and the course of human civilization was thus spread around
the world by the Roman Empire.