SENIOR HIGH SCHOOL

UNIVERSIDAD DE ZAMBOANGA

EARTH SCIENCE
Artful Aardvark (STEM-11)

THEORIES ON THE ORIGIN OF THE UNIVERSE

GENESIS

 The narrative from Genesis, one of the books of the Hebrew Bible and Christian Old Testament,
describes how God separated light from darkness, created the sky, land, sea, moon, stars, and every
living creature in a span of six days.

“COSMIC EGGS” OR BRAHMANDA

 The Hindu text Rigveda describes the universe as an oscillating universe in which a “cosmic egg” or
Brahmanda, containing the whole universe- including the sun, moon, planets, and space, expands out of
a single concentrated point called Bindu, and will eventually collapse again.

ATOMIC UNIVERSE

 Greek philosopher Leucippus and Democritus believed in an Atomic Universe. They held that the
universe was composed of very small, indivisible, and indestructible atoms. All of reality and all the
objects in the universe are composed of different arrangements of these eternal atoms and an infinite
void in which the atoms form different combinations and shapes.

GEOCENTRIC UNIVERSE

 The famous Greek philosopher Aristotle and Ptolemy proposed a geocentric universe where Earth
stayed motionless in the heavens and everything is revolving around it. The geocentric model is a
superseded description of the Universe with Earth at the center. Under the geocentric model, the Sun,
Moon, Stars, and Planets all orbited Earth. 

HELIOCENTRIC UNIVERSE

 Published in 1543, Copernicus’ De Revolutionibus Orbium Coelestium (On the Revolutions of the
Heavenly Bodies)  outlined the HELIOCENTRIC UNIVERSE similar to what we know today.
Copernicus demonstrated that the motion of celestial objects can be explained without putting Earth in
the center of the universe.

STATIC, STEADY-STATE, INFINITE UNIVERSE

 In 1687, Sir Isaac Newton described the universe as a static, steady-state, infinite universe.

 French philosopher Rene Descartes outlined a Cartesian vortex model of the universe with many of the
characteristics of Newton’s Static, infinite universe.

 A model of the universe assumed by Albert Einstein was no different from Newton’s in that it was a
static, dynamically stable universe, which was neither expanding nor contracting. He would later
abandon this part of the theory, in 1929, American astronomer Edwin Hubble showed that the universe
was not static.
BIG BANG THEORY

The fundamental statement of the Big Bang Theory is attributed to Belgian Roman catholic priest Georges
Edouard Lemaitre in 1927.

• There was only pure energy compressed in a single point called singularity.

• The big bang was a violent explosion which caused the inflation and expansion of the universe.

• The universe was extremely hot that matter cannot yet exist.

• Four fundamental forces were formed. (Gravity, Electromagnetic Force, Strong Nuclear Force, Weak
Nuclear Force).

Gravity – Attraction Between Bodies.

Electromagnetic Force – Binds atoms into molecules.
Strong Nuclear Force – Binds Protons and neutron together in the nucleus.
Weak Nuclear Force – Breaks down an atom’s nucleus and produce radioactive decay.

• After 3 minutes Universe begins to cool down, allowing the protons and neutrons to fuse and form the
nucleus of hydrogen and helium atoms.

• About 300,000 years later temperature became cool enough for hydrogen and helium atom to
completely form.

• At that point photons escaped and light existed for the very first time.

• After 300 million years, stars and galaxies began to form as hydrogen and helium coalesce with the aid
of gravity.

• In the form of nebula, to exist. The nebulae would later on form the stars systems and planets known
today.

THE ORIGIN OF THE SOLAR SYTEM

Encounter Hypothesis

- According to the Encounter Hypothesis, about 5

Gya, a rogue star passed close to the sun and
stripped materials (hot gases) from both the sun and
the rogue star

- The hot gases continued to spin in the same

direction as the sun, coalesced into smaller lumps
which formed the planets.

Nebular Hypothesis

- The Nebular hypothesis states that planets form in the rotating disks of gas and dust, forming a large

concentration at the center, the Sun.

Protoplanet Hypothesis

- The present working model for the formation of the Solar System. It began with a fragment from an
interstellar

cloud composed mainly hydrogen, helium and trace amounts of light elements. The solar nebula eventually
evolved into the sun.

- As the accretion continued, larger asteroid-sized aggregates called planetisimals are formed. They grew in size
due to the gravitational attraction they exert on to one another, forming moon-sized bodies that would later
become planets.

- The planetisimals differ in chemical composition, depending on their initial distance from the sun as they are
formed.

EARTH’S SUBSYSTEM

ATMOSPHERE

- Mixture of gases that surrounds the planet

HYDROSPHERE

- The totality of the Earth’s water

GEOSPHERE

- Makes up the solid Earth- landforms, rocks, soils and minerals

BIOSPHERE

- Is composed of all living things: people, other animals and plants.

LIFE ON EARTH

Important requirements to support life on Earth

Liquid Water

- Life would not have begun without water. The presence of water allowed the first photosynthetic organisms to
thrive.

- Earth is situated within a habitual zone

Scientists believe that water on Earth came from two possible sources:

*Water released through volcanism

*Water that came from the icy meteors of the outer regions of the Solar System that bombarded Earth

Heat Source

The heat that drives the different systems necessary to support life on Earth comes from

two sources:
*Internal heating of Earth

*External heating form the sun.

Atmosphere

It is a vital part of photosynthesis. Photosynthesis ensures the adequate amount and flow of gases on Earth-
gases which are used by most organisms on the planet.

The existence of an atmosphere on the planet is mainly due to its gravity and volcanism on Earth.

Layers of the Atmosphere

Troposphere - where all weather occurs. The base of this layer is warmer than its top because the air is heated
by the surface of the Earth, which absorbs the Sun’s energy.

Stratosphere - where jet airplanes fly

Mesosphere - as the mesosphere extends upward above the stratosphere, temperatures decrease.

*The coldest parts of our atmosphere are located in this layer and can reach –90° C.

Thermosphere - the air is thin, meaning that there are far fewer air molecules. The

thermosphere is very sensitive to solar activity and can heat up to 1,500°C or higher when the Sun is active
making an aurora that lights up the night sky.

Exosphere - the upper layer of our atmosphere, where atoms and molecules escape into space

MINERALS AND ROCKS

Mineral

- Is defined as a naturally occurring, inorganic solid with a definite chemical composition and an ordered
internal structure.

Difference between Rock and Mineral

- Rock is composed of one or more minerals but do not have a crystal structure.

- A mineral is a chemical substance made up of one or more chemicals having a definite crystal structure.

GENERAL CHARACTERISTICS OF MINERALS

1. Naturally Occurring

2. Inorganic

3. Solid

4. Definite Chemical Composition

5. Ordered Internal Structure

Crystal Structure of Minerals

- Crystal structure is dependent on the chemical composition of the mineral. Minerals similar chemical
compositions often share the same crystal structure and generally belong to the same crystal system.
Physical Properties of Minerals

1. Crystal Form Habit

2. Cleavage and Fracture

- Minerals with excellent cleavage will break into smooth, flat, parallel surface. A good cleavage will result in
small, smooth, step-like flat surface.

- Minerals that do not have cleavage will fracture either in an irregular manner or as conchoidal fracture
(smooth, curved surface)

3. Luster

- The luster of a mineral describes the appearance of light reflected from a mineral surface.

4. Color and Streak

- Streak is the color of mineral in powdered form.

5. Hardness

- Is the measurement of the mineral’s strength of the chemical bonds in its structure

6. Density

- Specific gravity is a measure of the density of a mineral. It is the weight of the mineral relative to the weight
of an equal volume of water.

ROCKS

- is any naturally occurring solid mass or aggregate of minerals found in the lithosphere, which is derived from
the Greek word lithos which means “stone”.

The Rock Cycle

Is a model that describes all the processes by

which rocks are formed, modified,
transported, decomposed, melted, and
reformed.
Igneous Rock

is formed through the cooling of magma or lava. The term “igneous” is based from the Latin Igneus, which
means fire.

2 types of Igneous Rock

1.Intrusive igneous rock

2.Extrusive igneous rock

Example: Granite, Rhyolite, Gabbro, Basalt, Obsidian, Pumice

Sedimentary Rock

- is formed when sediment is deposited out of air, ice, wind, gravity, or water flows carrying the particles in
suspension.

This sediment is often formed when weathering and erosion break down a rock into loose material in a source
area.

Example: Limestone, Chert, Arkose, Shale, SandStone, Conglomerate

Metamorphic Rock

- Metamorphic rocks arise from the transformation of existing rock types, in a process called metamorphism,
which means "change in form".

The original rock is subjected to heat and pressure, causing profound physical or chemical change.

Example: quartzite, Slate, Marble, Gneiss, Schist, Serpentnite

RENEWABLE AND NON-RENEWABLE RESOURCES

Non-Renewable Resources

- A nonrenewable resource is a natural resource that cannot be re-made or re-grown at a scale comparable to its
consumption.

NUCLEAR ENERGY

- Nuclear fission uses uranium to create energy.

- Nuclear energy is a nonrenewable resource because once the uranium is used, it is gone!

COAL, PETROLEUM, AND GAS

Coal, petroleum, and natural gas are considered nonrenewable because they can not be replenished in a short
period of time. These are called fossil fuels.

Renewable Resources

Renewable resources are natural resources that can be replenished in a short period of time.

● Solar

- Energy from the sun.

● Geothermal

- Energy from Earth’s heat.

● Wind

- Energy from the wind

● Biomass

- Energy from burning organic or living matter.

● Water

Energy from the flow of water.

THE WATER CYCLE

Water is the basic element of nature. It covers 70% of the earth’s surface. It provides life, eases out heat, drains
harmful substances and mediates many day-to-day works. Water needs to be replenished, purified and
circulated again and again so that it can perform its functions. Nature does this job through a process called the
water cycle. Also known as hydrologic cycle, the water cycle is a phenomenon where water moves through the
three phases (gas, liquid and solid) over the four spheres (atmosphere, lithosphere, hydrosphere and biosphere)
and completes a full cycle. The water cycle has many effects: it regulates the temperature of the surroundings. It
changes weather and creates rain. It helps in conversion of rocks to soil. It circulates important minerals through
the spheres. It also creates the many geographical features present on earth like the ice caps of mountains,
icebergs, the rivers and the valleys, lakes, and more. Hence it is quite important to understand and learn the
processes of the water cycle.

Step 1: Evaporation

The water cycle starts with evaporation. It is a process where water at the surface turns into water vapors. Water
absorbs heat energy from the sun and turns into vapors. Water bodies like the oceans, the seas, the lakes and the
river bodies are the main source of evaporation. Through evaporation, water moves from hydrosphere to
atmosphere. As water evaporates it reduces the temperature of the bodies.

Step 2: Condensation

As water vaporizes into water vapor, it rises up in the atmosphere. At high altitudes the water vapors changes
into very tiny particles of ice /water droplets because the
temperature at high altitudes is low. This process is
called condensation. These particles come close together and form clouds and fogs in the sky.

Step 3: Sublimation

Apart from evaporation, sublimation also contributes to water vapors in the air. Sublimation is a process where
ice directly converts into water vapors without converting into liquid water. This phenomenon accelerates when
the temperature is low or pressure is high. The main sources of water from sublimation are the ice sheets of the
North Pole and the South Pole and the ice caps on the mountains. Sublimation is a rather slower process than
evaporation.

Step 4: Precipitation

The clouds (condensed water vapors) then pour down as precipitation due to wind or temperature change. This
occurs because the water droplets combine to make bigger droplets. Also when the air cannot hold any more
water, it precipitates. At high altitudes the temperature is low and hence the droplets lose their heat energy.
These water droplets fall down as rain. If the temperature is very low (below 0 degrees), the water droplets fall
as snow. Water also precipices in the form of drizzle, sleet and hail. Hence water enters lithosphere.

Step 5: Transpiration

As water precipitates, some of it is absorbed by the soil. This water enters into the process of transpiration.
Transpiration is a process similar to evaporation where liquid water is turned into water vapor by the plants. The
roots of the plants absorb the water and push it toward
leaves where it is used for photosynthesis. The extra
water is moved out of leaves through stomata (very tiny openings on leaves) as water vapor. Thus water enters
the biosphere and exits into gaseous phase.
Step 6: Runoff

As the water pours down (in whatever form), it leads to runoff. Runoff is the process where water runs over the
surface of earth. When the snow melts into water it also leads to runoff. As water runs over the ground it
displaces the top soil with it and moves the minerals along with the stream. This runoff combines to form
channels and then rivers and ends up into lakes, seas and oceans. Here the water enters hydrosphere.

Step 7: Infiltration

Some of the water that precipitates do not runoff into the rivers and is absorbed by the plants or gets evaporated.
It moves deep into the soil. This is called infiltration. The water seeps down and increases the level of ground
water table. It is called pure water and is drinkable. The infiltration is measured as inches of water-soaked by
the soil per hour.

The first Person to establish a geocentric universe in which a fixed, spherical Earth is at the center surrounded
by concentric celestial spheres of planets and stars.

Ptolemy & Aristotle

 Ptolemy (Claudius Ptolemy) was an astronomer and mathematician. He believed that the Earth was the
center of the Universe. ... In order to make his predictions true, he worked out that the planets must
move in epicycles, smaller circles, and the Earth itself moved along an equant.
 He (Aristotle) thought Earth was the center of the universe and that the Sun, Moon, planets, and all the
fixed stars revolved around it.

The Belgian Priest to whom the big bang theory is attributed.

George Lemaitre
 Belgian astronomer and cosmologist who formulated the modern big-bang theory, which holds that the
universe began in a cataclysmic explosion of a small, primeval “super-atom.”

A term referring to the habitable zone.

Goldilocks zone
 The Goldilocks Zone refers to the habitable zone around a star where the temperature is just right - not
too hot and not too cold - for liquid water to exist on a planet. Liquid water is essential for life as we
know it. Where we find liquid water on Earth, we also find life.

The phenomenon observed by Edwin Hubble which was used to explain the expansion of the universe.
 Redshift
 Hubble's brilliant observation was that the red shift of galaxies was directly proportional to the
distance of the galaxy from earth. That meant that things farther away from Earth were moving away
faster. In other words, the universe must be expanding.

Which of the following is not a gas giant?

 A gas giant is a giant planet composed mainly of hydrogen and helium. Gas giants are sometimes known
as failed stars because they contain the same basic elements as a star.
Jupiter, Saturn, Uranus, Neptune
 A terrestrial planet, telluric planet, or rocky planet is a planet that is composed primarily of silicate rocks
or metals.
Mercury, Venus, Earth and Mars

COMPARE AND CONTRAST

Geocentric and Heliocentric

Geocentric Similarities Heliocentric

 the Sun, Moon, stars, and
planets all orbited Earth.
 The Center of the model is
the Earth.
 Proposed by Aristotle and
Ptolemy
 Both of Them are theories
on the origin of the
universe.
 Both represent the universe
 Both were created by an
astronomer.
 Earth and planets revolve
around the Sun at the
center of the Solar System.
 The center of the model is
the Sun.
 developed by
Nicolaus Copernicus

Nebular Hypothesis and Protoplanet Hypothesis

Nebular Hypothesis SIMILARITIES Protoplanet Hypothesis

 The solar nebular  Both give the main idea as  A hypothetical whirling
hypothesis describes the on how the solar system gaseous mass within a
formation of our solar created. giant cloud of gas and dust
system from a nebula cloud that rotates around a sun
made from a collection of and is believed to give rise
dust and gas. to a planet.

Atmosphere and Hydrosphere

Atmosphere SIMILARITIES Hydrosphere

 contains all the air/gasses  Both are Part of Earth’s  contains all the solid,
in Earth's system. Subsystems. liquid, and gaseous water
 Compose of nitrogen,  work together to influence of the planet
 oxygen, argon, and other the climate, trigger  Composed of frozen liquid
gases geological processes, and
affect life all over
the Earth.

Electromagnetic Force and Strong nuclear force

Electromagnetic Force SIMILARITIES Strong Nuclear Force

 Binds atoms into   Bing protons and neutrons
molecules. together in the nucleus.