Ict Theory

SIMPLIFIED APPROACH TO U.A.C.
E
SUBSIDIARY ICT (THEORY)
Mugoya Mwondha David

PREFACE
“Simplified Approach to U.A.C.E, Subsidiary ICT (Theory), is
the first book of its kind to cater for Advanced Level Subsidiary ICT
notes. This book has been arranged to meet the syllabus requirement
with well organized notes.
In some topics, a few pictures have been included to bring the ideals
closer. A straight forward point outline method has been used to
enable learners quickly master the subject content.
I encourage learners to take serious note of all terms, definitions,

explanations herein.
I am sure that this book shall enable functional computing students

comfortably to attempt paper one on examination.
Mugoya Mwondha David,

King’s College, Budo
i
ACKNOWLEDGMENT
I am grateful to the following individuals for their purposeful

contribution during the time of compiling this book.
a) The Headmaster, staff and students of King‘s College, Budo for

your positive encouragement towards the production of this work.
b) Mr. Kizito G., Mrs. Ssenkubuge S.S., Mr. Kakuru R.D, and the
entire staff of the Computer Department of King‘s College, Budo
for your help accorded.
c) Colleagues in the profession including: Matovu D. K., Kiiza V.,

Aliga S., Walimbwa B., Murangira B., Sister Nawangi P, Bro.
Kiggundu F., Sebaduka R., Nakiyingi R., Kalema G.J., Maganda
M., Omoro P., Sekkide M., Owek Moses Hendrick e.t.c.
d) Head of Department – ICT; King‘s College, Budo, Mt. St. Marys‘

Namagunga, Mbarara High School, Uganda Martys S.S.
Namugongo, Our Lady of Good Counsel, Gayaza, Seroma
Christian High School – Mukono, Gombe S.S., e.t.c.
e) Staff, Aptech Computer Education – Uganda (Entebbe Road) for

your encouragement.
f) Long John, Hackers for Charities (U.S.A) for your encouraging

discussions in the field of Software Engineering and hardware
architecture.
g) Ms. Nalubwama Daniellah for her spiritual and moral support

accorded during the time of putting together this book.
h) I cannot forget Mr. Moya Martin (English Department KCB) who

laboured to go through the manuscript.
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TABLE OF CONTENT
PREFACE ........................................................................................ i
ACKNOWLEDGMENT ................................................................. ii
TABLE OF CONTENT ................................................................. iii
INTRODUCTION TO FUNCTIONAL COMPUTING ................. 1
THE COMPUTER .......................................................................... 2
COMPUTER LABORATORY..................................................... 32
BOOTING A COMPUTER .......................................................... 37
INPUT DEVICES ......................................................................... 39
OUTPUT DEVICES ..................................................................... 57
DATA STORAGE ........................................................................ 67
CENTRAL PROCESSING UNIT ................................................ 76
COMPUTER SOFTWARE .......................................................... 82
THE INTERNET ........................................................................ 104
DATA COMMUNICATIONS ................................................... 122
COMPUTER NETWORKS ........................................................ 129
NETWORK PHYSICAL TRANSMISSION MEDIA ............... 148
COMMUNICATIONS SOFTWARE ......................................... 154
TELEPHONE NETWORK......................................................... 158
COMMUNICATION CHANNELS ........................................... 162
TRENDS IN COMPUTING ....................................................... 172
EMERGING TECHNOLOGIES ................................................ 197
CAREERS IN THE COMPUTER INDUSTRY......................... 204
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GREEN COMPUTING .............................................................. 213
COMPUTER CERTIFICATION ............................................... 219
REFERENCES ........................................................................... 225
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INTRODUCTION TO FUNCTIONAL COMPUTING
Aims of Teaching Subsidiary ICT:
1. To help learners develop and consolidate their knowledge of ICT

and be aware of new and emerging technologies.
2. To encourage learners to develop as independent user.
3. To encourage learners to develop ICT skills to enhance work

productivity in a variety of subject areas.
4. To empower learners and prepare them for lifelong learning.
List of topics to be covered:
1. Introduction to Computers
2. Lab Care, Troubleshooting and Maintenance
3. Computer word processing
4. Computer Hardware
5. Computer Software
6. Electronic spreadsheets
7. Internet and World Wide Web
8. Electronic presentation
9. Data Communication and Networking
10. Databases
11. Desktop Publisher
12. Trends in Computing
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THE COMPUTER
What is a computer?
A computer is an electronic device that can accept data input, process

it according to some specified instructions, output the information,
and store the results for future use.
The term computer is derived from a Latin word "Computare" which

means to count or to calculate.
Characteristics of a good computer
A good computer carries the following characteristics:
1. Speed: a good computer is fast in its operation in that its speed is

measured in millions of instructions per second (MIPS). So a
computer with 15 million instructions per second is comparable to
lightening.
2. Accuracy: a good computer is known to be accurate that it hardly

makes any mistake. In fact, a computer is capable of detecting
and correcting any mistakes made. It follows therefore, that if
wrong data is fed into the computer, wrong results are expected
out. Hence the saying, ―Garbage in garbage out‖ (GIGO).
3. Storage: For a computer to be able to work, it must have some

form of workspace where data is stored before being processed or
where information is stored before being given out to particular
devices. This storage is called memory.
4. Diligence: (consistency) a good computer has the ability to

perform the same task ―over and over‖ for a long time without
getting bored. Therefore, computing devices must be able to
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perform the same routine repeatedly. This is evidenced in
industrial robotics, like those in car assembly lines.
5. Artificial intelligence: A good computer is artificially intelligent.

It can respond to requests given to it and provide solutions. This
is completed by its programmability that is, it can be taught to
make decisions and function accordingly.
The best example for this is the washing machines today, which
incorporate some form of logic. Such machines are capable of
taking in required amount of detergent and water for washing
after assessing the amount of dirt in the clothes.
6. Automation: A good computer does not need any supervision in

order to perform programmed routines. It performs all its tasks on
its own provided all software installations are working well.
7. Versatility: a computer is able to do many activities. Take the

example of a calculator; it can work with only numbers.
But a computer can do computations with not only all kinds of

numbers, but also with alphabets, pictures, sound, images
captured, voice (multimedia).
In general, a computer's type is determined by the following seven

factors:
1. Type of CPU: Larger computers use CPUs made up of separate,

high-speed, modern components.
In most cases, the nature of the CPU determines the type of

computer.
2. Amount of main memory the CPU can use: A computer

equipped with a large amount of main memory can support
modern programs and can even hold several different programs in
memory at the same time.
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3. Capacity of storage devices: Large computers are equipped
with higher capacity storage devices. Small computer systems
have lower capacity storage devices.
The capacity varies depending on the nature of the computer

itself. The amount of storage capacity determines the type of
computer one has.
4. Speed of output devices: Speed of microcomputer output devices

is rated in terms of the number of characters per second (cps),
pages per minute (ppm) that can be printed. Larger computers'
output devices are faster and usually rated at speeds of hundreds
or thousands of times that can be printed per minute.
5. Processing speed in millions of instructions per second

(MIPS): The term instruction is used here to describe the basic
task software asks the computer to perform while also identifying
data to be affected.
Processing speed of smaller computers ranges from 7 to 40 MIPS.
Speed of large computers can be 30 to 150 MIPS or more, and
supercomputers can process more than 200 MIPS.
In other words, a mainframe computer can process your data a
great deal faster than a microcomputer can.
6. Number of users that can access the computer at one time:

Most small computers can support only a single user; some can
support as many as two or three at a time. Large computers can
support hundreds of users simultaneously.
7. Cost of the computer: Sincerely, many users look at the asking

price of a computer to determine its type. It is known that the
higher the price the better the computer set a user gets.
Many branded computer sets e.g. Dell, Compaq are expensive yet
cerelone computer sets of the same size are relatively cheap.
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Common terms used in functional computing
A. Computer system
A computer system is a series of hardware, software, user, data,

procedures and communication that co-ordinate to perform a task.
Therefore, a computer system is made up of:
1. Hardware (Processor and peripheral devices).
2. Software.
3. Data.
4. User.
5. Procedures
6. Communication.
Computer hardware
Is the term used to describe any kind of computer equipment (think of

it as being something that can be physically touched). For example -
on a CD, the music or the computer files are the software, the disk
itself is the hardware.
Hardware devices of a PC
A Personal Computer (PC) is a general purpose tool built around a

microprocessor. It has lots of different parts -- memory, a hard disk, a
modem, etc. -- that work together. "General purpose" means that you
can do many different things with a PC. You can use it to type
documents, send e-mail, browse the Web and play games.
You will learn about the various components and how they work
together in a basic operating session.
1. Central processing unit (CPU) - The microprocessor "brain" of a

computer is called the central processing unit. Everything that a
computer does is overseen by the CPU.
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2. Memory - This is very fast storage used to hold data. It has to be
fast because it connects directly to the microprocessor. There are
several specific types of memory in a computer:
a) Random-access memory (RAM) - Used to temporarily store

information that the computer is currently working with
b) Read-only memory (ROM) - A permanent type of memory

storage used by the computer for important data that does not
change.
c) Basic input/output system (BIOS) - A type of ROM that is used

by the computer to establish basic communication when the
computer is first turned on.
d) Caching (Cache memory)- The storing of frequently used data in

extremely fast RAM that connects directly to the CPU.
e) Virtual memory - Space on a hard disk used to temporarily store

data and swap it in and out of RAM as needed.
3. Motherboard - This is the main circuit board that all of the other
internal components connect to. The CPU and memory are
usually on the motherboard. Other systems may be found directly
on the motherboard or connected to it through a secondary
connection. For example, a sound card can be built into the
motherboard or connected through PCI.
4. Power supply - An electrical transformer regulates the electricity

used by the computer.
5. Hard disk - This is large-capacity permanent storage used to hold

information such as programs and documents.
6. Operating system - This is the basic software that allows the user
to work with the computer.
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7. Integrated Drive Electronics (IDE) Controller - This is the
primary interface for the hard drive, CD-ROM and floppy disk
drive.
8. Peripheral Component Interconnect (PCI) Bus - The most

common way to connect additional components to the computer,
PCI uses a series of slots on the motherboard that PCI cards plug
into.
9. SCSI - Pronounced "scuzzy," the small computer system

interface is a method of adding additional devices, such as hard
drives or scanners, to the computer.
10. AGP - Accelerated Graphics Port is a very high-speed

connection used by the graphics card to interface with the
computer‘s monitor.
11. Sound card - This is used by the computer to record and play
audio by converting analogue sound into digital information and
back again.
12. Graphics card - This translates image data from the computer into
a format that can be displayed by the monitor.
Connections: Input / Output
No matter how powerful the components inside your computer are,

you need a way to interact with them. This interaction is called
input/output (I/O). The most common types of I/O in PCs are:
1. Monitor - The monitor is the primary device for displaying

information from the computer.
2. Keyboard - The keyboard is the primary device for entering data

into the computer.
3. Mouse - A mouse is the primary device for navigating and

interacting with the computer by way of moving the pointer.
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Removable storage - Removable storage devices/media allow you to
add new information to your computer very easily, as well as save
information that you want to carry to a different location.
1. Floppy disk –floppy disks are extremely inexpensive and easy to

save information to. They are gradually leaving the scene.
2. CD-ROM - CD-ROM (compact disc, read-only memory) is a

popular device for distribution of commercial software and music.
This is because the device is non volatile.
 Flash memory - Based on a type of ROM called electrically

erasable programmable read-only memory (EEPROM), Flash
memory provides fast, permanent storage. CompactFlash,
SmartMedia and PCMCIA cards are all types of Flash memory.
 DVD-ROM - DVD-ROM (digital versatile disc, read-only

memory) is similar to CD-ROM but is capable of holding much
more information.
Connections: Ports
a) Parallel - This port is commonly used to connect a printer.
b) Serial - This port is typically used to connect an external modem.
c) Universal Serial Bus (USB) - Quickly becoming the most popular

external connection, USB ports offer power and versatility and
are incredibly easy to use.
d) FireWire (IEEE 1394) - FireWire is a very popular method of

connecting digital-video devices, such as camcorders or digital
cameras, to your computer.
Connections: Internet/Network
a) Modem - This is the standard method of connecting to the

Internet.
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b) Local area network (LAN) card - This is used by many
computers, particularly those in an Ethernet office network, to
connected to each other.
c) Cable modem - Some people now use the cable-television system

in their home to connect to the Internet.
d) Digital Subscriber Line (DSL) modem - This is a high-speed

connection that works over a standard telephone line.
e) Very high bit-rate DSL (VDSL) modem - A newer variation of

DSL, VDSL requires that your phone line have fiber-optic cables.
A computer system unit contains many parts. See the parts below:
Behind the system unit:
Port Icon Description
The keyboard and mouse jacks look

identical on most PCs, so look for
colours and icons to help you with
plugging in these devices.
Keyboard Some mice and keyboards use USB
& Mouse ports. Older mice may use a serial
port.
Serial (or COM) ports are a very
versatile type of port. Some of the
things you can plug into a serial port
Serial or include: a mouse, modem, scanner, or
COM digital camera. Most computers have
two serial ports: COM1 and COM2.
You plug your printer into the
parallel, or printer, port. Many newer
Parallel or printers may use a USB port.
Printer
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Designed to replace older Serial and
Parallel ports, the USB (Universal
Serial Bus) can connect computers
with a number of devices, such as
printers, keyboards, mice, scanners,
digital cameras, PDAs, and more.
Better yet, the USB port supports
plug-and-play, so you can simply plug
USB in a USB device and start using it.
USB 1 ports can transfer information
at a speed up to 12 Mbps (Megabytes
per Second). Newer USB 2 ports can
transfer information at a speed up to
480 Mbps. Most computers come with
two USB ports.
You plug your monitor into the video
port.
Video or
Monitor
Plug in your speakers or headphone
/ into the Line Out jack.
Line Out
The Line In jack allows you to listen
to your computer using a stereo
Line In system.
You can plug a microphone into this
jack to record sounds on your
Micropho computer.
ne
If you have a joystick, musical (MIDI)
keyboard, or other gaming device, this
Joystick is where you plug it in.
or Game
The phone or modem jack is where
you plug your computer into a phone
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Phone or line.
Modem
You can connect your computer to a
network by plugging in an Ethernet
Network <•••> cable in this port.
or
Ethernet
An SCSI port is one of the fastest
ways to connect a hard drive, CD-
SCSI ROM drive, or other device to a
computer.
A FireWire (IEEE 1394 or I. LINK)
port lets you connect such devices as
hard disks and digital camcorders to a
Fire wire
computer. A FireWire port can
transfer information at a speed up to
400 Mbps (Megabytes per Second).
B. Computer literacy:
Computer literacy refers to having knowledge and understanding of

computers and their uses.
C. ICT
Short for Information Communications Technology; However, apart

from explaining an acronym, there is not a universally accepted
definition of ICT.
The ideas, methods and applications involved in ICT are constantly

changing on an almost daily basis. It‘s difficult to keep up with the
changes - they happen so fast.
Let‘s focus on the three words behind ICT:
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1. INFORMATION
2. COMMUNICATIONS
3. TECHNOLOGY
A good way to think about ICT is to consider all the uses of digital
technology that already exist to help individuals, businesses and
organisations use information.
ICT covers any product that will store, retrieve, manipulate, transmit
or receive information electronically in a digital form. For example,
personal computers, digital television, email, robots.
So ICT is concerned with the storage, retrieval, manipulation,

transmission or receipt of digital data. Importantly, it is also
concerned with the way these different uses can work with each
other.
In business, ICT is often categorized into two broad types of product:
1. The traditional computer-based technologies (things you can

typically do on a personal computer or using computers at home
or at work);
2. The more recent, and fast-growing range of digital

communication technologies (which allow people and
organisations to communicate and share information digitally)
Let's take a brief look at these two categories to demonstrate the

kinds of products and ideas that are covered by ICT:
Traditional Computer Based Technologies
These types of ICT include:
Standard Office Applications - Main Examples
1. Word processing: E.g. Microsoft Word: Write letters, reports etc

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2. Spreadsheets: E.g. Microsoft Excel; Analyse financial
information; calculations; create forecasting models etc.
3. Database software: E.g. Oracle, Microsoft SQL Server, Access;

Managing data in many forms, from basic lists (e.g. customer
contacts through to complex material (e.g. catalogue)
4. Presentation software: E.g. Microsoft PowerPoint; make

presentations, either directly using a computer screen or data
projector. Publish in digital format via email or over the Internet
5. Desktop publishing: E.g. Adobe Indesign, Quark Express,

Microsoft Publisher; produce newsletters, magazines and other
complex documents.
6. Graphics software: E.g. Adobe Photoshop and Illustrator; create

and edit images such as logos, drawings or pictures for use in
DTP, web sites or other publications
Specialist Applications - Examples (there are many!)
1. Accounting package: E.g. Sage, Oracle; manage an organisation's

accounts including revenues/sales, purchases, bank accounts etc.
2. Computer Aided Design: Computer Aided Design (CAD) is the

use of computers to assist the design process. Specialised CAD
programs exist for many types of design: architectural,
engineering, electronics, roadways.
3. Customer Relations Management (CRM): Software that allows

businesses to better understand their customers by collecting and
analysing data on them such as their product preferences, buying
habits etc.
Often linked to software applications that run call centres and

loyalty cards for example.
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Traditional Computer Based Technologies
The C part of ICT refers to the communication of data by electronic

means, usually over some distance. This is often achieved via
networks of sending and receiving equipment, wires and satellite
links.
The technologies involved in communication tend to be complex.

You certainly don't need to understand them for your ICT course.
However, there are aspects of digital communications that you need
to be aware of.
These relate primarily to the types of network and the ways of

connecting to the Internet. Let's look at these two briefly.
Internal networks
Usually referred to as a local area network (LAN), this involves

linking a number of hardware items (input and output devices plus
computer processing) together within an office or building.
The aim of a LAN is to be able to share hardware facilities such as

printers or scanners, software applications and data. This type of
network is important in the office environment where colleagues
need to have access to common data or programmes.
External networks
Often you need to communicate with someone outside your internal

network; in this case you will need to be part of a Wide Area
Network (WAN). The Internet is the ultimate WAN - it is a big
network of networks.
ICT in a Broader Context
Your ICT course will almost certainly cover the above examples of
ICT in action, perhaps focusing on the use of key applications such as
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spreadsheets, databases, presentation, graphics and web design
software.
It will also consider the following important topics that deal with the
way ICT is used and managed in an organisation:
a) The nature of information (the "I" in ICT); this covers topics

such as the meaning and value of information; how information is
controlled; the limitations of ICT; legal considerations, e.t.c.
b) Management of information - this covers how data is captured,

verified and stored for effective use; the manipulation, processing
and distribution of information; keeping information secure;
designing networks to share information, e.t.c.
c) Information systems strategy - this considers how ICT can be

used within a business or organisation as part of achieving goals
and objectives
Reasons why ICT is considered important:
1. ICT has a very wide range of applications that cover various

sectors of health, education, agriculture, government, commerce,
etc.
2. ICT encourages economic growth through making

competitiveness possible, increased trade and investment.
3. It leads to creation of opportunities and empowerment by

providing access to local and global markets, and promotion of
rural development.
4. Improved delivery of social services and reduction of weakness to

natural disasters as well as reducing isolation of communities and
providing immediate connection to the modern world.
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5. Improved transparency and governance through availability of
free space of discussions through the use of ICT.
6. Introduction of new management and control methods in both

public and private sectors hence facilitating enterprise resource
management.
7. Introduction to the new knowledge-based economy.
8. Modernisation of private sector through improved market access,

sales, trade and knowledge of business trends.
9. ICT facilitates research and development into better methods of

doing thing and work.
D. Data
Data is a collection of raw and unprocessed facts, figures, and

symbols. Such facts are of little meaning or significance until they are
sorted or put in more useful manner. Examples of data include:
a) letters (e.g., a, b, c, ...)

b) words and symbols
c) numbers
d) examination scores
e) musical notes
E. Information
Information is data that is processed, organized, meaningful, and

useful. Data processing means transforming raw, meaningless,
unprocessed facts into information.
Examples of information include:
a) Words (e.g., apple, boy, cat)

b) A report, a letter, an essay
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c) A mathematical formula
d) Comments, grades
e) A piece of music, a song
The Information Processing circle
The series of input, process, output, and storage activities is very

often called the information processing cycle.
Data Process Information
Storage
The six basic stages of information processing
1. Collection of Data -- capturing data from their sources and

recording it onto some media (e.g., paper).
2. Preparation of Data -- copying, grouping, or arranging data in a

more convenient way for input. Checking and verifying the data
collected are often done at this stage.
3. Input of Data -- entering the data or sending the stored data into
the processing system. Checking the accuracy and validity of the
input data are often done at this stage.
4. Processing of Data -- calculating or manipulating the input data

and even storing the results for future use.
5. Output of Information -- giving out the processed results in a

readable form (e.g., a report).
6. Data/information storage –the keeping of raw facts or information

in a computer until such a time when the user needs it.
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Common information processing systems include
1. A batch processing system is one where data are collected

together in a batch before processing starts.
- The method of data entry for early computers was using punched
cards, which were handled in bunch / set / group, and hence the
term batch processing.
- Each piece of work for a batch processing system is called a job.
- Batch processing is most suitable for tasks where a large amount

of data has to be processed on a regular basis.
- Examples of batch processing systems include payroll systems

and examination report card systems.
Advantages of a batch processing system include

a) Once data is submitted for processing, the computer may be left
running without human interaction.
b) The computer is only used for a certain period of time for the
batch job.
c) Jobs can be time-tabled for when the computer is not busy.
Disadvantages of a batch processing system include
a) There is always a delay before work is processed and returned.
b) Batch processing usually involves an expensive computer and a

large number of trained staff.
2. Real-time Processing System is one that processes data without

significant delay.
a) Examples of real-time processing systems include anti-missile

defence systems, airplane landing control system, flight
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simulation systems, electronic fund transfer systems, and tickets
reservation systems.
b) Real-time processing systems are usually interactive processing

systems.
Advantages of a real-time processing system include
a) There is no delay for response.

b) Information is always up-to-date.
c) Output from the computer may be used to adjust and improve the
input.
Disadvantages of a real-time processing system include

a) A computer must be dedicated only to the task.
b) The computer must be continually online.
3. Interactive Processing System is one that involves

communications between the user and the computer during
processing.
a) Examples of interactive processing systems include electronic

fund transfer systems, tickets reservation systems, and point-of-
sales systems.
4. Multi-tasking System is one that can handle a number of

different jobs at the same time.
a) Actually, the CPU cannot do two things at the same time, but
makes use of 'idle time' to increase the capacity of a computer.
b) An example of multi-tasking is typing in a word processor while
listening to music played from a CD-ROM.
c) Both batch and interactive jobs may be run in a multi-tasking
environment.
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5. Multi-user System is a time-sharing system that allows different
users to independently run different programs at the same time.
6. Time-sharing System is one that allows multiple users to share

time on a single computer.
a) Each user is given a time slice of CPU time (e.g., each user is
served every 0.1 s by the computer).
b) The computer works so fast that each user seems to be the sole
user of the computer.
c) One example of a time-sharing system is the bank's bankcard

system, which allows hundreds of people to access the same
program on the mainframe at the same time.
d) A time-sharing system that allows different users to

independently run different programs at the same time is also
called a multi-user system.
The following are common data collecting and processing equipment

in offices today.
 Typewriters - manual/electronic
 Fax machines
 Electronic mails and internet
 Telephones
 Computers
Disadvantages of Manual systems
1. Slow i.e. it takes a lot of time to find particular information and

put it in a more useful way depending on a need at particular time.
2. Rigid: Information is normally kept in a given order and may not
be changed to another form easily.
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3. Space: Paper files and archives take large space to store. This
may be quite expensive.
Advantages of manual systems

1. Cheap
2. Simple to understand.
3. Power failure does not affect the system.
Advantages of using computers for information processing

include:
1. Computers with communicating capability can share data and

information with other computers.
2. Tasks can be completed faster because computers work at

amazing speed.
3. Computers can process large amounts of data and generate error-

free results, provided that the data is entered correctly i.e. GIGO.
4. Computers can store enormous amounts of data for future use.
5. The high reliability of components inside modern computers

enables computers to produce consistent results.
6. Efficiency and productivity can be raised.
7. Running cost becomes lower in the long term.
8. Tasks can be completed with little human intervention (i.e.,

automatic).
9. Overall security can be raised due to less human intervention.
10. Management can observe new information and new trends more
quickly.
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11. Customer services can be improved due to efficient management
and operations.
Disadvantages of using computers for information processing

include
1. Initial investment cost can be high (Setting up).
2. Extra cost is required to employ specialised staff to operate and

design the data processing system.
3. Some jobs may be lost due to computerization and thus lower the
morale of staff members.
4. Some staff has / have to be trained or retrained.
5. Face-to-face interactions among staff may be reduced.
6. Easier transmission of viruses via the internet, which may lead to

creating untimely, costs to the recipient and sender computers.
7. Abuse: computers load personal information, which may be

misused. It is easy to misuse personal information held about an
individual but privacy rights have been enacted to minimize this.
8. Failure: problems may arise when computers cannot be used

either because they are malfunctioning or damaged. This can
bring an organization to a halt if no backup exists.
9. Security has to be provided to protect personnel and staff from

preying eyes.
Considerations before using computers for information processing

include:
a) Whether computerization can really solve the problem?

b) Is it cost effective in the long term?
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c) Whether large amount of data have to be handled?
d) Is high processing speed really significant?
e) Can the present staff manage the system?
f) Will the change due to computerization lower the morale of staff?
g) How can the loss of jobs be handled properly?
h) What can be done to help staff adapt to computerization?
What is information technology?
Information technology (IT) is the combination of computer and

communication technologies to process data into information.
Examples of IT applications in everyday life include:
a) Payment by phone services at home.

b) Payroll system in a factory.
c) Report card system in a school.
d) Billing system in the Town Gas Company.
e) Electronic funds transfer system in a bank.
f) Mailing list system in a company.
g) Stock control system in a department store.
h) Ticket reservation system in a cinema.
i) Point-of-sale system in a supermarket.
j) Traffic control system in transportation.
Applications of IT at home include:
a) Pay bills through the payment by phone services (PPS).

b) With a PPS account, bills can be paid either by phone or on the
Internet.
c) Budgeting and personal financial management.
d) Balance a cheque book.
e) Buy and sell stocks online.
f) Prepare taxes.
g) Manage investments and family budgets.
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Research and education
a) Take college classes online (i.e., cyber classes).
b) Produce assignment and reports.
c) Learn to speak a foreign language.
d) Help youngsters to read, write, count and spell.
Personal and business communications

a) Organize names and addresses.
b) Communicate with others around the world using e-mail and chat
rooms.
Applications of IT at school include:
1. Computer-based training, which includes:
a) Computer-Assisted Instructions (CAI), so that teachers can use

computers and other IT equipment to present teaching materials
in a more interesting way.
b) Computer-Assisted Learning (CAL), so that students can use

computers and appropriate software to learn at their own pace.
c) Computer-Assisted Assessment (CAA), which may reduce the

time and labor to mark the answer scripts.
2. Distance learning through computer-based training and Web-

based training.
3. Simulations of experiments or real-life situations that may be

hazardous.
4. Electronic library system for searching, borrowing, and returning

books.
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5. The School Administration and Management System (SAMS) for
keeping records of students and producing report cards or other
related documents.
6. Edutainment, which is a type of educational software that

combines education with entertainment.
Advantages of using IT is learning and teaching include:
a) A CAI and CAL package that usually contains multimedia

effects make learning more interesting and interactive.
b) Students can learn by themselves when teacher is not available.
c) Students can learn and proceed at their own pace.
d) Students can usually get their results or feedback immediately
after they have answered the question or taken an action.
e) There are rich educational resources on CD-ROMs and the
Internet.
f) Teachers can present subject matter and explain difficult
concepts more clearly with multimedia.
g) Teachers can show experiments that are difficult to perform or
dangerous in nature through simulations software.
h) Advanced instructions can be given to students in areas where the
teacher may not be qualified.
Disadvantages of using IT in teaching and learning include:
a) Face to face interaction between students and teachers may be

reduced.
b) Students can only follow what the CAL packages are designed to
offer.
Applications of IT in office include:
a) Create memos, letters, and reports.

b) Calculate payroll, prepare income statements and balance sheets.
c) Track inventory and generate invoices and receipts.
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d) Present projects and ideas by means of presentation graphics
software.
e) Use of facsimile, electronic-mail, electronic bulletin, and video
conferencing.
f) Use of document processing system to facilitate data entry.
g) Use of telecommuting, so that employees can work away from a
company's standard workplace.
h) Create Web sites to provide selected information, advertise
products and services, and conduct e-commerce.
Applications of IT in bank includes:
1. Automated teller machine (ATM)
An automatic teller machine (ATM) is a self-service banking

machine attached to a host computer through a telephone network.
Services available through an ATM include

a) Make deposits of cash and checks
b) Withdraw cash
c) Transfer money between accounts
d) Application for a check book
e) Obtain account balances
2. Make deposits, withdraw cash, and transfer money between

accounts.
3. Receive information on bank account balance.
4. Online Banking
5. Transfer money electronically among different accounts.
6. Loan and credit card applications.
7. Obtain credit card statements, bank statements, and account
balances.
8. Download monthly transaction information.
9. Use magnetic ink character recognition (MICR) to process
checks.
10. Use microfilm and microfiche to store transactions records.
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Electronic commerce (e-commerce)
Electronic commerce (e-commerce) is a financial business

transaction that occurs over an electronic network, such as the
Internet.
a) Online shopping and banking are two popular types of e-

commerce that uses either electronic money (e-money) or electric
data interchange (EDI).
b) E-money is a means of paying for goods and services over the
Internet.
c) EDI is a set of standards that control the transfer of business data
and information among computers both within and among
companies.
E-commerce businesses can be grouped into three basic models:

a) Business-to-consumer (B2C) e-commerce consists of the sale of
goods to the general public.
b) Consumer-to-consumer (C2C) e-commerce occurs when one
consumer sells directly to another, such as in an online auction.
c) Business-to-business (B2B) e-commerce consists of businesses
providing goods and services to other businesses.
Advantages of e-commerce include:
a) Transactions can occur immediately and globally, thus save time

for participants on both ends.
b) Transactions can occur 24 hours per day.
c) Businesses have access to millions of people with Internet
connections.
d) Businesses have the ability to gather customer information,
analyze it, and react if appropriate.
e) Information can be changed and be available quickly.
f) Customers can compare prices easily.
g) Feedback can be immediate.
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h) Manufacturers can buy and sell directly, avoiding the cost of the
middleman.
i) Distribution costs for information is reduced or eliminated.
Applications of IT in entertainment include:
a) Play computer games

b) Listen to music
c) Watch a video or a movie
d) Compose and edit a video
e) Retouch a photograph
f) Read a book or magazine online
g) Plan a vacation
Applications of IT in industry include:

a) Data sensing and logging
b) Robotics: A robot is a computer-controlled device that can move
and react to feedback from the outside world.
Robots are best used for jobs that require

a) Repetitive tasks
b) Lifting heavy equipment
c) High degrees of precision
 Quality control
 Computer-aided design and computer-aided manufacturing
Computer-Aided Designed (CAD) software is mainly used for

creating engineering, architectural, and scientific drawings.
Three-Dimensional (3-D) CAD programs even allow users to rotate

designs of 3-D objects in order to view them from different angles.
Popular CAD software includes Autodesk AutoCAD and Microsoft

Visio Technical.
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Applications of IT in health care include:
a) Maintain patient records in hospitals and clinics.
b) Monitor patients' vital signs in hospital rooms and at home.
c) Computer-assisted medical tests.
d) Research and diagnose medical conditions.
e) Implant computerized devices (e.g., pacemakers) that allow

patients to live longer.
f) Use computer-controlled devices during operations that require

great precision (e.g., laser eye surgery and heart surgery).
g) Telemedicine through computers with videoconferencing

capabilities.
h) Use of computer-aided surgery for training prior to performing

surgery on live humans.
Computer uses - Areas where computers are used
The following are some of the areas where computers are used.
1. Supermarkets: Most retail stores use computers to help in the

management of daily activities like stock control. The stock
control system keeps account of what is in store, what is to be
sold and what is out of stock. Management is automatically
alerted when a particular item or items are running out of stock
and need reordering.
2. Offices: Computers have increased effectively in offices by

reducing the time and effort needed to access and retrieve
information. Most modern office functions have been automated
for faster message distribution and document processing.
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3. Banks: Special cash dispensing machines called Automated
Teller Machines (ATM) have enabled automation of cash deposit
and withdrawal services. Efficiency has been increased due to
better record keeping and document brought about by computers.
4. Industries: Computers are being used to monitor and control

industrial processes. The computer age has seen the wide use of
remote controlled devices called robots. A robot is machine that
works like a human being but performs tasks that are too
unpleasant, dangerous, or complex and tedious to assign to human
beings.
5. Hospitals: Computers are used to keep patients records in order
to provide easy access to patient‘s treatment and diagnosis
history.
Computerized medical devices are now being used to get a cross

section view of the patient‘s body that enables physicians to get
proper diagnosis of the affected part of the body with high level
of accuracy. Computers also control life support machines in the
Intensive Care Unit (ICU).
6. Transport: Computers are used to monitor vehicles‘ traffic in

busy towns. This is done by the computers detecting which roads
have high traffic jams of cars and gives those roads more priority
than the normal roads with less traffic jam depending on the time.
Aircraft navigation – here computers are used to detect any
nearby plane within its neighbourhood and diverts and when
landing which runway to use.
7. Communication: Integration of computers and

telecommunication facilities has made message transmission and
reception very fast and efficient. Because of the speed with which
information can be transmitted around in the world is said to have
become a global village.
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8. Law enforcement agencies: Information held in computers such
as fingerprints, photographs and other identification details helps
law enforcers to carry out investigations speedily.
9. Education: Computers are widely used in the teaching and

learning process. Learning and teaching using computers is
referred to as Computer Aided Learning (CAL) and Computer
Aided Teaching (CAT).
For example experiments in subjects like chemistry or physics

may be demonstrated using a special computer programs that can
show them on the screen through a process called simulation.
10. Domestic and entertainment: Computers can be used at home

for recreational activities such as watching movies, playing music
and computer games. They can also be used in storing personal
information, calculating, keeping home budgets and for research
in various fields.
11. Library services: In a computerized library, a computer enables

library personal to easily access and keep updated recorded
records of books and other library materials. Library users can
also use computers to search for titles instead of using the manual
card catalogue.
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COMPUTER LABORATORY
A computer laboratory is a place where students learn practical uses

for computers, such as programming or how to use a spreadsheet
program.
The following factors must be considered when preparing computer

laboratory.
1. Security of computers, programs and other resources.

2. Reliability of the source of power.
3. The number of computers to be installed, available floor space.
4. Maximum number of users that the laboratory can accommodate.
Safety precautions and practices in the computer laboratory
Just like any other science laboratory, a computer laboratory should

be setup with safety precautions in mind. Measures should be put in
place to protect the machines from theft or destruction and users from
accidents. Laboratory users must be aware of the correct behavior
and safety rules that they should observe in order to avoid accidents,
danger or injury.
Computer laboratory safety measures can be divided into two:
a) Those that are meant to protect the users.

b) Those that are meant to protect computers.
Behaviour in a computer laboratory
The following rules must be followed in and around a computer

laboratory.
1. Avoid smoking or exposing computers to dust. This is because

smoke and dust contain small abrasive particles that can damage
computer components and cause wearing of moving parts.
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2. Avoid carrying food and beverages to the computer room. Food
may fall into the moving parts of the computer and damage them.
Liquids may spill into computer causing rusting or electrical
faults.
3. Avoid unnecessary movements because you may accidentally

knock down peripheral devices.
4. At all times follow the correct procedure for starting and shutting
down the computer to avoid loss of data and damage to computer
programs.
5. Do not open up the metallic covers of computers or peripheral

devices without permission and particularly when the computer‘s
power is still on.
Measures that protect computers
1. Burglar proofing the room: This involves fitting grills on doors,

windows and the roof to deter forceful entry into the computer
room. Installing an intrusion detection alarm system and
employing security guards also increases the level of security
alertness against theft of computers and their accessories,
2. Installing fire prevention and control equipment: The

recommended extinguishers are the gaseous type and should be
non-liquid/non -powder based. This is because liquids may cause
rusting and corrosion of computer components. On the other
hand, powder particular may increase friction and wear off
moving parts. The particles can also cause disks to crash.
3. Providing stable power supply: by installing surge protectors,

power extension cables, Uninterrupted Power Supply (UPS) for
each computer and a power backup generator.
4. Installing lightening arrestors on the computer room
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5. The room should be well laid out with enough space for
movement. Computers should be placed on stable, wide enough
desks to avoid accidentally knocking them down. Cables should
be laid out in trunks away from user parts to avoid stumbling on
them.
6. Dust and dump proofing the computer room. Dust can be

controlled by fitting good window curtains and air conditioning
system that filters dust particles from the air entering the room.
Also, the computers should be covered with dust covers when not
in use. On the other hand, dampness or humidity in the laboratory
can be controlled by using dehumidifiers. High humidity leads to
rusting of the metallic parts of a computer.
7. Cables and power sockets should be well insulated and of the

correct power rating to avoid short circuits that can damage
computer components.
8. The users should not eat or drink in the computer laboratory.

Food particles may fall in moving computer parts like the
keyboard and clog them while liquids may pour into electrical
circuits and cause short circuits.
Measures that protect the user
1. All cables should be insulated to avoid the danger of electric

shock to the users.
2. Cables should be laid away from user paths to avoid tripping on

them.
3. Providing standard furniture to avoid poor posture during

machine use which may lead to strain injury and limb fatigue. The
table should be of the right height relative to the seat to provide
comfortable hand positioning. The seat should have an upright
backrest and should be high enough to allow the eyes of the user
to be the same level with the top of the screen.
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4. Providing antiglare screens (light filters) and adjustable screens to
avoid eye strain and fatigue caused by over bright cathode ray
tube (CRT) monitors. However, modern flat panel displays such
as the Liquid Crystal Display (LCD) do not strain the eye hence
need not be fitted with antiglare screen.
5. The room should be properly ventilated to avoid dizziness caused

by lack of adequate oxygen and to allow the computers to cool.
6. The walls of the computer room should not be painted with over
bright reflection oil paints and the screens should face away from
the window to avoid glare caused by bright backgrounds.
7. Overcrowding in the computer room is not allowed. This may

cause suffocation.
8. Running and playing in the computer room is not allowed.
How to clean a computer laboratory
1. Shut down all the computers, and turn off any power strips that
are still on to avoid the risk of electrical shock or damaging any
components.
2. Wipe the keyboards. According to Dr. Gerba of the University

of Arizona, there are about 95,600 bacteria per square inch on the
average computer keyboard. Since there are likely dozens of
different people touching the keyboards in your computer lab,
wipe them down thoroughly and often with antimicrobial wipes.
Use keyboard duster to remove crumbs and other particles from in
between the keys.
3. Clean each mouse. A computer mouse has an average of 10,600

bacteria per square inch, according to Dr. Gerba. Use the
antimicrobial wipes to gently cleanse the computer mouse, but
avoid getting it too wet.
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4. Clean the tops of the computer desks. As mentioned earlier, the
desk tops are one of the biggest culprits for bacteria. Use
antimicrobial wipes to clean them at least once a day.
5. Wipe the buttons. There are several buttons on a computer tower

as well as the monitor that are always being touched by new
fingers. Clean them gently with antimicrobial wipes.
6. Dust the monitors. Use dryer sheets to remove any dust from the
monitors.
7. Sweep the floors. The floor is likely to be riddled with crumbs

and other bits of trash. Sweep the floor with a broom if you have
a tile or hardwood floor. Use a sweeper or vacuum for carpeted
floors.
8. Wipe down the chairs. About once a week, clean the chairs with
some antimicrobial wipes, as these are another commonly
overlooked home to bacteria.
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BOOTING A COMPUTER
Booting is the process of starting or resetting a computer, which

involves loading an operating system into memory.
There are two methods of booting a computer. They include:
1. Cold booting: is the initial process of turning on a computer after

it has been powered off completely.
The steps that occur during a cold boot using the Windows operating
system are:
a) If all the cables are well connected, turn on the wall switch that
sends the power to the power supply unit.
b) The power supply sends and electrical signal to the motherboard

and other devices located in the system unit.
c) The CPU resets itself and looks for the ROM that contains the
BIOS.
d) The BIOS executes the Power-On Self Test (POST) to make sure
that the computer hardware is connected properly and operating
correctly.
e) The results of the POST are compared with data in a CMOS chip
on the motherboard.
f) If the POST is completed successfully, the BIOS looks for the

boot program that loads the operating system.
g) Once located, the boot program is loaded into memory and

executed, which then loads the kernel of the operating system into
RAM.
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h) The operating system loads system configuration information, and
the remainder of the operating system is loaded into RAM, and
the desktop and the icons display on the screen.
2. Warm booting: Alternatively referred to as a soft boot, a warm

boot is one method of resetting a computer system that is already
powered on.
A warm boot can be accomplished by pressing the CTRL - ALT -

DEL keys simultaneously, or by selecting the restart command
from an operating system menu. Warm boots run faster than
turning a computer off and on again.
Reasons for restarting a computer include:
1. Commonly used to recover from errors that cannot be recovered.

2. When a computer locks or freezes.
3. After installing of certain new software program.
4. After installing a new hardware device like a flash disk.
5. After uninstalling a hardware device.
6. After uninstalling a software program.
7. When the computer slows down.
8. After changing CMOS or BIOS setup.
9. When a computer has a virus, it can constantly restart itself.
Revision questions
1. (a). Define the term booting a computer.

(b). Briefly, explain the steps needed for a complete cold boot.
2. (a). Differentiate between cold and warm booting.

(b). Outline seven reasons for carrying out a warm boot.
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INPUT HARDWARE DEVICES
What are input devices?

Are devices that generate, feed, compose, and enter data for the
computer such as a keyboard, scanner, mouse, digitiser tablet, e.t.c.
Input devices are further put into the following classification:
A. Pointing input hardware devices

Includes devices with which one can move or control a cursor or
pointer on a GUI (Graphical User Interface) and these are:
1. Mouse.
Is a hand held pointing device for computers,
involving a small object fitted with one or more
buttons and shaped to sit naturally under the hand.
The underside of the mouse houses a device that detects the mouse's
motion relative to the flat surface on which it sits. The mouse's 2D
motion is typically translated into the movement of a cursor on the
display.
Advantages of using a mouse include
a) A mouse is user-friendly for computer beginners.
b) A mouse is easy and convenient to use with a graphical user
interface.
c) Using a mouse to select items or move to a particular position on
the screen is faster than using a keyboard.
Disadvantages of using a mouse include
a) It is not easy and convenient to input text with a mouse.

b) Issuing commands by using a mouse is slower than by using a
keyboard.
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c) It needs some practice in order to control a mouse properly.
d) A mouse is not accurate enough for drawings that require high
precision.
e) A mouse usually requires a flat surface to operate.
f) A mouse needs more desk space to operate when compared with a
trackball or a touchpad.
There are three basic types of mice:
i. Mechanical mice
Has a rubber or metal ball on its underside that can roll in all
directions. Mechanical sensors within the mouse detect the direction
the ball is rolling and move the screen pointer accordingly.
ii. Opto mechanical mice
Same as a mechanical mouse, but uses optical sensors to detect

motion of the ball.
iii. Optical mice
Uses a laser to detect the mouse's movement. One must move the
mouse along a special mat with a grid so that the optical mechanism
has a frame of reference. Optical mice have no mechanical moving
parts. They respond more quickly and precisely than mechanical and
optomechanical mice, but they are also more expensive.
Mice connect to PCs in one of several ways:
i. Serial connection
They connect to an RS-232C serial port; one of the COM ports on the
back of the computer (a DB-9 or a DB-25 male connector).
A serial port is an interface that transmits one bit at a time, and RS-
232C is a standard that most serial ports conform to. The fact that
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they do take up a COM port (and it's respective IRQ) is the biggest
problem with the serial mouse. Personal Computers are very limited
to the number of COM ports available.
ii. Bus connection
The bus mouse was originally developed to help alleviate the problem
of the COM port shortage. It connects to the computer through a
small round connector (female mini-DIN-9) on the back of an
expansion card installed on the motherboard. Because an expansion
card had to be configured and installed on the motherboard, these
mice were considered much more difficult to install. Now they are
pretty well obsolete. They did free up a COM port, but they still took
up an IRQ as well as an expansion slot.
iii. PS/2 connection
The PS/2 mouse seems to be the answer to both problems. It's a type
of serial mouse but it connects to a PS/2 connector (female mini-
DIN-6) that is hard-wired directly to IRQ 12. It installs as simply as
any serial mouse, doesn't use up a COM port, and needs no expansion
card installed. Not only that, but it uses a fairly obscure IRQ that was
mostly unavailable to other devices.
iv. Cordless connection
A cordless mouse uses infrared technology to do away with the cord.

It seems like it would be a good idea because the cord on a mouse
can be a real pain. It drags across the top of the desk, gets caught and
hangs up in the other cords, or anything that might be lying on your
desktop.
They also have a receptor that must be visible to the mouse (line of
sight), if anything is in the way, the mouse won't respond. This can
sometimes cause a little stress unless you keep a very tidy desk.
Cordless mice are more expensive than other types.
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To effectively use a mouse, one has to learn seven techniques that
include:
a) Point (move the mouse and place it on a given icon, folder, file,
command, menu, e.t.c.),
b) Drag (press a button as you move an icon, folder or file),
c) Drop (release a button in the process of dragging an icon, folder,

file),
d) Click (press either the left or right button on the mouse),
e) Single click (press the left hand button of the mouse only once),
f) Double click (press the left hand button in a two quick

successions. It is normally used to open a file, folder or execute a
program),
g) Left click (means to press the left hand mouse button),
h) Right click (means to press the right hand mouse button. It

normally returns a menu short-cut),
i) Scroll (means to use the mouse to move the page in any direction
to allow the user to navigate it well). A user can scroll using the
scroll wheel that exists on all new types of mice.
2. Tracker ball
Is an input device where a finger is used to rotate a ball.
This moves a pointer on the screen. (It is very like an
upside-down mouse!). You need less room to use a
tracker ball than a mouse.
Advantages
a) Does not need as much desk space as a mouse.

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b) Is not as tiring since less motion is needed.
Disadvantages
a) Requires fine control of the ball with just one finger or thumb.
b) Repeated motions of the same muscles are stirring and can cause
carpal tunnel syndrome.
3. Touch screen
Is a screen through which data can be input just by

touching it with a finger. Items are selected just as they
would be with a mouse pointer or a light pen. It is often
chosen for user-friendly selection from a menu of items
for non-specialist users, e.g. for information in a theme park;
museums.
Advantages
a) It's natural to do - reach out and touch something.
Disadvantage
a) It's tiring if many choices must be made.
4. Touch pad (Glide pad)
Drag a finger along the surface of a touch pad and it acts like a
mouse, moving a pointer on the computer screen. Touch pads may be
connected to a PC (microcomputer) or built into a laptop computer.
Advantages
a) Does not need as much desk space as a mouse.

b) Can readily be built into the keyboard.
c) Has finer resolution. That is, to achieve the same cursor
movement onscreen takes less movement of the finger on the
glide pad than it does mouse movement.
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d) Can use either buttons or taps of the pad for clicking.
Disadvantages
a) The hand tires faster than with a mouse since there is no support.
b) Some people don't find the motion as natural as a mouse.
5. Pointing stick
Is a pointing device that looks like a pencil eraser between the G, H
and B keys. It is moved with the forefinger, while the thumb is used
to press related keys located in front of the space bar.
6. Graphics tablet (or digitizing tablet)
A graphics drawing tablet used for sketching new
images or tracing old ones. Also called a "graphics
tablet," the user contacts the surface of the device with a
wired or wireless pen or puck.
Often mistakenly called a mouse, the puck is officially the "tablet
cursor."
7. Stylus
A pointed instrument used as an input device on a pressure-sensitive
screen.
8. Light pen
A light-sensitive stylus wired to a video terminal is used
to draw pictures or select menu options. The user brings
the pen to the desired point on screen and presses the
pen button to make contact. Screen pixels are constantly
being refreshed.
When the user presses the button, the pen senses light, and the pixel
being lit at that instant identifies the screen location.
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9. Cyber glove
It is an input device for virtual reality environments.
Various sensor technologies are used to capture
physical data such as bending of fingers. Often a
motion tracker, such as a magnetic tracking device or
inertia tracking device, is attached to capture the global position /
rotation data of the glove.
These movements are then interpreted by the software that

accompanies the glove, so any one movement can mean any number
of things. Gestures can then be categorized into useful information,
such as to recognize Sign Language or other symbolic functions.
10. Eye gaze/eye tracking
Eye tracking follows the eye movements of a person looking at any

visual such as a printed advertisement, an application's user interface
or a page on a Web site. It is used to analyze the usability and
effectiveness of the layout.
B. Text input hardware devices
These are devices with which one can enter text into a computer.
Text refers to character data, or to one of the segments of a program
in memory. Text input hardware devices include:
1. Keyboard
Physically, computer keyboards are an
arrangement of rectangular or near-
rectangular buttons, or "keys". Keyboards
are designed for the input of written text,
and also to control the operation of the computer. Keyboards
typically have characters engraved or printed on the keys; in most
cases, each press of a key corresponds to a single written symbol.
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However, to produce some symbols requires pressing and holding
several keys simultaneously, or in sequence; other keys do not
produce any symbol, but instead affect the operation of the computer,
or the keyboard itself.
A keyboard is made up of various special buttons that perform
specific functions. These buttons include:
a) Control key: Is a key, which when pressed in combination with
another key, will perform a special operation. The Control key is
a modifier key; it is used in the same fashion as the Shift key.
b) Functional key: Is a key on a computer or terminal keyboard

which can be programmed so as to cause an operating system
command interpreter or application program to perform certain
actions. e.g. F1 for help.
c) Alt key: Is either of two keys located next to the Space bar, used
to change the function of a key pressed. The Alt key is a modifier
key, it is used in the same fashion as the shift key. For example,
simply pressing "A" will type the letter A, but if you hold down
either alt key while pressing A, the computer will perform an
"Alt-A" function, which varies from program to program.
d) Caps lock: Pressing it causes the keyboard to go into a mode in

which letter keys are interpreted as capital letters by default. The
caps lock does not affect the number or punctuation keys.
e) Space bar: Is a key on an alphanumeric keyboard in the form of a

horizontal bar in the lower - most row, significantly wider than
other keys. Its main purpose is to conveniently enter the space,
e.g., between words during typing.
f) Shift key: Is either of two modifier keys on the QWERTY

computer keyboard, located on the edges of the row below the
home row, used to type an alternate 'upper' character, when there
are upper and lower characters shown on a key. The Shift key will
also capitalise the letter keys.
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g) Modifier key: Is a special key on a computer keyboard that
changes the normal action of another key when the two are
pressed in combination.
For example, <Alt> + <F4> in Microsoft Windows will automatically
close the program in an active window. In contrast, pressing just
<F4> will probably do nothing unless assigned a specific function in
a particular program. By themselves, modifier keys usually do
nothing.
Advantages of using keyboards for data input include:
a) It is not necessary to buy additional equipment because most

computers are normally supplied with keyboards.
b) Entering data and instructions with keyboards is generally faster

than with pointing devices.
c) Keyboards are more reliable and usually produce fewer errors

than other input methods such as voice input and optical character
recognition.
Disadvantages of using keyboards for data input include:
a) It takes a lot of time to practice in order to type quickly and

accurately.
b) Typing speeds are still very slow when compared with computer
speeds.
2. Handwriting recognition
Is the ability of a computer to receive intelligible
handwritten input. The image of the written text may be
sensed "off line" from a piece of paper by optical
scanning (optical character recognition).
Alternatively, the movements of the pen tip may be sensed "on line",
for example by a pen-based computer screen surface.
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3. Optical character recognition
The process of converting scanned images of machine-printed or
handwritten text (numerals, letters, and symbols) into a computer-
processable format; also known as optical character recognition
(OCR).
A typical OCR system contains three logical components: an image
scanner, OCR software and hardware, and an output interface. The
image scanner optically captures text images to be recognized. Text
images are processed with OCR software and hardware.
The process involves three operations: document analysis (extracting
individual character images), recognizing these images (based on
shape), and contextual processing (either to correct misclassifications
made by the recognition algorithm or to limit recognition choices).
4. Speech recognition
Refers to the Ability of computer to accept speech input and act on it
or transcribe it into written language. Current research efforts are
directed toward applications of automatic speech recognition (ASR),
where the goal is to transform the content of speech into knowledge
that forms the basis for linguistic or cognitive tasks, such as
translation into another language.
5. Chorded keyboard
(Also called a chord keyboard or chording keyboard) is a computer

input device that allows the user to enter characters or commands
formed by pressing several keys together, like playing a "chord" on a
piano. The large number of combinations available from a small
number of keys allows text or commands to be entered with one
hand, leaving the other hand free to do something else (such as
manipulating a mouse).
A secondary advantage is that it can be built into a device (such as a

pocket-sized computer) that is too small to contain a normal sized
keyboard.
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6. GKOS keyboard
The GKOS keyboard standard for small portable terminals is

intended for replacing the QWERTY where there is not enough room
for a large number of keys but still all QWERTY functions are
required.
Typical applications are small wireless devices, cellular

terminals/browsers and tablet PCs. As of 2006, it is not used in any
commercial applications except Chrichton barcoding personal
organisers.
7. Keyer
Is a device for signalling by hand, by way of pressing one or more

switches. Modern keyers typically have a large number of switches
but not as many as a full-size keyboard; typically between four and
fifty. A keyer differs from a keyboard in the sense that there is no
"board"; the keys are arranged in a cluster.
A keyer may take the form of a single telegraph key for keying
Morse code. In this use, the term "to key" means to turn on and off a
carrier wave, typically. For example, it is said that one "keys the
transmitter" by interrupting some stage of amplification with a
telegraph key.
8. Bar code readers
A bar code is a set of parallel printed lines of differing thicknesses,

which are used to store coded information about an item.
Bar codes are read using a Bar Code Reader, which can be in the
form of a hand-held ‗wand‘ or a stationary
laser scanner over which the bar code is
passed. This method of data entry is used in
big shops and supermarkets and in libraries.
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Advantages
a) A fast method of data entry.

b) Eliminates possible human error.
Disadvantage
a) Scratched or crumpled barcodes may cause problems.
9. QR code Reader
(Abbreviated from Quick Response Code) is the trademark for a type

of two-dimensional bar codes in which information is represented by
black and white dots (so-called "square data dots" or "data pixels"). It
looks as below:
To read information off a QR code, a QR code reader

is used on smart phones, android phones or by modern
bar code readers.
QR Codes can contain more than just a simple link to a website: Use
them to link to a video, your Facebook profile or an MP3 file—
anything a modern smartphone is capable of doing. Directly take
your visitors to the relevant content, without the bother of typing in
complicated URLs.
a) QR codes have become common in consumer advertising.

Smartphone users can install an application with a QR-code
scanner that can read a displayed code and convert it to a URL
directing the Smartphone‘s browser to the website of a company,
store, or product associated with that code providing specific
information.
b) QR codes are now used over a much wider range of applications,

including commercial tracking, entertainment and transport
ticketing, product / loyalty marketing.
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c) It can also be used in storing personal information for use by
government.
d) Users may receive text, add a vCard contact to their device, open
a Uniform Resource Identifier (URI), or compose an e-mail or
text message after scanning QR codes.
e) QR codes also may be linked to a location to track where a code

has been scanned.
10. MICR reader
Characters are printed using special magnetic ink, which

contains iron oxide. As the document passes into the
M.I.C.R. reader, the ink is magnetized, so that the
shapes of the characters can be recognized
electronically. The characters have to be printed in a special font
style.
The main use of MICR is to input data from bank cheques. The
Cheque Number, the Branch Sort Code and the Account Number are
printed in magnetic ink at the bottom.
The Amount gets typed in later. All the cheques received get fed into
an MICR Reader and the data is automatically input to the bank's
computer system.
Advantages
a) Documents are difficult to forge.

b) It is fast and cuts out human error.
c) Documents can still be read after being written on, folded, spilt on
etc...
Disadvantages
a) M.I.C.R. readers and encoders are expensive.

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b) The system can only accept a few characters.
Others include:
a) Telegraph key (~20 WPM Morse code)

b) Vibroplex (30–80 WPM Morse)
C. Gaming input hardware device:
A device with which one can play a game on personal computer.
1. Joystick
Is a computer peripheral or general control device

consisting of a handheld stick that pivots about one end
and transmits its angle in two or three dimensions to a
computer. Joysticks are often used to control games, and
usually have one or more push-buttons whose state can also be read
by the computer.
2. Game pad (or joy pad)
Also called joy pad or control pad, is a type of game

controller held in the hand, where the digits (especially
thumbs) are used to provide input. Game pads generally
feature a set of action buttons handled with the right thumb and a
direction controller handled with the left.
Others include:
a) Paddle
b) Power Pad
D. Image, video input hardware devices
Are devices that are used to record video, images and other moving
activities with one late downloads to the computer for storage,
saving, copying onto media, or otherwise in any other form.
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They include among others
1. Image scanner
A scanner is a device used to digitise graphics for

a computer. Hand-held scanners may be passed
over a picture. Flatbed scanners remain still
while the picture is scanned. As well as
digitizing pictures, scanners may be used for capturing text from
documents (see OCR). It is also used as a photocopying device.
2. 3D scanner:
A graphics input system that records x, y and z coordinates of a real

object. Contact is made with various points on the object's surface by
a light sensor, sound sensor, robotic instrument or pen.
3. Digital camera
A photograph can be taken by a digital camera and then

downloaded into the computer from the camera. There is
no need to buy film. Some digital cameras are used as
surveillance cameras e.g. for taking pictures of speeding
cars.
4. Digital camcorder
A light weight, handheld video camera, especially one

that records data in digital form onto a storage device
such as a videotape, DVD, or hard disk.
5. Webcam
Is a digital video camera that can be directly connected

to a computer. It usually takes a digital picture at regular
intervals and uploads the picture to an Internet website.
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Web cams are used for teleconferencing. Users communicate with
each other using microphones and speakers as well as web cams to
see each other on their monitors.
6. Digital video recorder
A digital video recorder (DVR) (or personal video recorder (PVR) is

a device that records video without videotape to a hard drive-based
digital storage medium.
6. Digital video cameras
Can record video in digital form so that it can be

downloaded to a computer for editing.
E. Audio input devices
Are devices with which helps a user to record sound waves into a
digital file on a computer. Examples include:-
1. Digital Dictaphone
Is a sound recording device most commonly used to record speech

for later playback or to be typed into print.
2. Microphone (see also speech recognition)
Is the input device used (in union with software such as

"sound recorder") to turn sound waves into digital files
that a computer can understand.
The other include:
3. Digital audio recorder
Other specialised devices include:
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1. Midi instruments:
Refers to normal musical instruments which have a midi port for

input through a midi interface in the computer. The music can then be
stored as a file, displayed on screen and edited ready for playback.
2. Sensor
Chemical responses to the physical environment or movement can be

converted to electrical signals in the sensor that can be translated and
used by the computer.
Various sensors can be used to measure heat, light, sound, pressure,

strain, acidity (pH), oxygen concentration, humidity, pulse, water
level, water flow, speed, tilt or simply whether something like a door
or a valve is open or shut.
3. Remote Control
Emits a beam of infra red light, which carries data

signals. Commonly used for input to TVs and VCRs
and now becoming used by computers as a "wireless"
method of communication.
Review Questions
1. Define an input device.
2. State four ways in which input devices aid education in your

school.
3. Outline possible ways in which a mouse is connected to the

system unit.
4. State four techniques that are required for an efficient use of a

mouse.
5. Briefly outline and describe the five parts on your keyboard.

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6. In terms of physical usage, state two advantages of using a digital
camera to a flat bed scanner.
7. State four ways in which a diagram like a map of Uganda be input

a computer system.
8. What are pointing input devises?
9. State and briefly describe pointing devices, pointing out as each is

used
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OUTPUT HARDWARE DEVICES
Are devices with which a user can display, represent, and reproduce
information.
1. Monitor:
A display device is an output device that conveys text, graphics, and

video information to a user. Information on a display device is
sometimes called a soft copy because it exists electronically and
displays only for a temporary period on the computer‘s screen.
Display devices can be monochrome (single colour – black and

white) or colour (many colour spectrum). Two main types of display
devices are CRT monitors and LCD monitors.
CRT monitor
A CRT monitor works like a standard television because

it also contains a Cathode Ray Tube (CRT). The front of
the CRT is the screen, which is coated with tiny dots of
phosphor material. Each dot consists of a red, a green,
and a blue phosphor and the three dots combine to make up each
pixel.
Advantages of CRT monitors include
a) Can produce fast colour output.

b) Can be viewed from a very wide angle.
c) Cheaper in cost than LCD monitors in general.
Disadvantages of CRT monitors include
a) Emit higher electromagnetic radiation (EMR) than LCD monitors.

b) Consume more energy than LCD monitors.
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LCD monitor
A LCD (Liquid Crystal Display) monitor uses liquid

crystal rather than a cathode ray tube, to create images on
the screen. LCD monitors produce colour using either
passive matrix or active matrix technology.
Advantages of LCD monitors include
a) LCD monitors require less than one-third the power of a CRT.
b) LCD monitors take up less desk space than traditional CRT

monitors.
c) Radiation emitted by LCD monitors is neglectable that CRTs.
d) They have a narrow viewing angle compared to CRT monitors.
e) They have a higher refresh rate compared to CRT monitors.
f) They have a higher and colour rich resolution than CRTs.
Disadvantages of LCD monitors include
 LCD monitors are usually more expensive than CRT monitors.
 LCD monitors can only be viewed from a very narrow angle.
OLED
An OLED (Organic Light-Emitting Diode) is a light-emitting diode

(LED) in which the emissive electroluminescent layer is a film of
organic compound which emits light in response to an electric
current. This layer of organic semiconductor is situated between two
electrodes. Generally, at least one of these electrodes is transparent.
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OLEDs are used to create digital displays in devices such as
television screens, computer monitors, and portable systems such as
mobile phones, handheld games consoles and PDAs.
Advantages of higher resolution include
a) Drawings can be produced more accurately, and more details can

be shown.
Disadvantages of higher resolution include
a) More memory is required to draw the information in higher

resolution.
b) High-resolution pictures take longer time and a faster processor to

process.
Advantages of display devices include
a) The time to display the image is fast.
b) Screen displays can include text, graphics, and colors.
c) Display devices are usually quiet.
d) No paper is wasted for obtaining the output.
Disadvantages of display devices include
a) Information produced on the screen is only temporary, and will be

lost when the power of the display device is turned off.
b) Unsuitable for users with visual problems.
c) Needs a separate device to produce the hard copy.
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Measurements of monitor performance
The performance of a monitor is measured by the following

parameters:
a) Luminance is measured in candelas per square meter (cd/m2 also

called a Nit).
b) Aspect ratio is the ratio of the horizontal length to the vertical

length. Monitors usually have the aspect ratio 4:3, 5:4, 16:10 or
16:9.
c) Viewable image size is usually measured diagonally, but the

actual widths and heights are more helpful since they are not
affected by the aspect ratio in the same way. For CRTs, the
viewable size is typically 1 in (25 mm) smaller than the tube
itself.
d) Display resolution is the number of distinct pixels in each

dimension that can be displayed. Maximum resolution is limited
by dot pitch.
e) Dot pitch is the distance between sub pixels of the same colour in
millimetres. In general, the smaller the dot pitch, the sharper the
picture will appear.
f) Refresh rate is the speed that the monitor redraws images on the
screen. Refresh rate is measured in hertz, which is the number of
times per second the screen is redrawn.
g) Response time is the time a pixel in a monitor takes to go from

active (white) to inactive (black) and back to active (white) again,
measured in milliseconds. Lower numbers mean faster transitions
and therefore fewer visible image artifacts.
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h) Contrast ratio is the ratio of the luminosity of the brightest
colour (white) to that of the darkest colour (black) that the
monitor is capable of producing.
i) Power consumption is measured in watts.
j) Delta-E: Colour accuracy is measured in delta-E; the lower the

delta-E, the more accurate the colour representation. A delta-E of
below 1 is faint to the human eye. Delta-Es of 2 to 4 are
considered good and require a sensitive eye to spot the difference.
k) Viewing angle is the maximum angle at which images on the

monitor can be viewed, without excessive reduction in quality of
the image. It is measured in degrees horizontally and vertically.
2. Speakers
Are used to play music or speech from programs, CD-
ROMs and musical instruments.
3. Printer
A printer is an output device that produces text and
graphics on a physical medium such as paper. Printed
information is often called hard copy because the
information exists physically and is a more permanent
form of output than that presented on a display device
Printers come in different types depending on the nature of work as
designed by the manufacturer. Printers can be categorised in several
ways the most common distinction is the IMPACT and NON-
IMPACT printers.
Impact printers
These uses a printing metal ―hammer‖ embossed with a character

strikes a print ribbon, which presses the characters image into paper.
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In other types the hammer strikes the paper and presses it into the
ribbon characters created through impact printing can be formed by
either a solid font or dot matrix printing mechanism.
Non-impact printers
They do not depend on the impact of metal on paper. In fact no

physical contact at all occurs between the printing mechanism and the
paper. The most popular non-impact methods today utilize thermal
transfer, ink-jet.
Types of printers
Daisy-Wheel Printer:
Like a typewriter but with the preformed letters on the ends of spokes
to form a wheel. The letters strike an inked ribbon onto paper.
Advantage of using the daisy wheel printer:
a) Good (typewriter quality) resolution.
Disadvantages
a) Very slow - ½ ppm (page per minute).
b) Very noisy.
c) Can only print the characters provided on the wheel and no
graphics (line drawings, pictures).
d) It prints only in one colour (monochrome) only.
Dot-Matrix Printer:
Is a set of steel pins that strike an inked ribbon onto paper producing
a sequence of dots. Low resolution - 72 dpi (dots per inch) - can just
see the dots.
Advantages of using a dot-matrix printer:
a) Quite fast - 2 ppm (papers per minute).

b) Slightly noisy.
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c) Can print any shape of character (font) stored in the computer
memory and any graphics, all on the same page.
d) Some are capable of printing low quality colours on same page
using multiple ribbons.
Ink-Jet Printer:
It fires a jet of liquid ink through tiny holes. High resolution - 600 to
1,200 dpi for almost professional quality, sharp printing. Fast - 3
ppm.
Advantages of using ink – jet printer:
a) Very quiet.
b) Full black and colour print on same page.
c) It has a very high resolution of between 300 – 600 dpi.
d) Thousands of colours are created by mixing tiny dots of cyan,
magenta and yellow (CMY) ink on the paper.
Better printers have separate black, cyan, magenta and yellow

cartridges for easier replacement when empty.
Disadvantage
a) It is very expensive in the long run to replace the cartridges after
being used up.
Laser Printer
It works like a photocopier; powdered ink is fused
onto paper by heat and pressure. Very high resolution -
600 to 1200 dpi for full professional quality. First laser
printer introduced by IBM - the IBM 3800.
Advantages of using laser printer:
a) Very fast: 6 -16 ppm for multiple copies.

b) Almost silent.
c) It prints many copies before the cartridge is used up.
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Disadvantage
a) Colour laser printers are quite expensive but are cheaper to run
than colour inkjet printers.
Braille Printer
By converting text into the Braille code, this printer produces patterns
of raised dots on paper for use by the blind.
Thermal Transfer Printer
It is a kind of non-impact printer. In electro thermal printing,

characters are burned on to a special paper by heated rods on a print
heat. They transfer ink from a wax-based ribbon onto plain paper.
These printers can support high quality graphic.
Multifunction printer
As its name implies, a multifunction printer can perform more than

one task. Multifunction printers can usually operate as a fax machine,
copier, and scanner in addition to their traditional printing duties.
Less common types of printers include
a) Line printer
b) Daisywheel printer
c) Ball printer
d) Thermal printer
e) Plotter
f) Large-format printer
g) Portable printer
h) Photo printer
i) Label printer
j) Braille printer
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Factors to consider before buying a printer
a) Resolution: A printer‘s resolution helps to determine quality of

images it can produce. Higher resolution means higher quality
images. Printer resolution is measured in dots per inch (dpi).
b) Speed: A printer‘s speed determines how quickly it can output

pages. Speed is measured in two ways: in Characters Per Second
(cps) or in Pages Per Minute (ppm). Printers usually slow down
quite a bit when printing pages with a lot of complicated graphics,
or colour images.
c) Ink Cartridges and Toner: computers are a lot faster than most
printers are, so they can send information faster than the printer
can accept it. A printer buffer or spooler fixes this problem.
A print buffer works like a dam: it holds back the information and
releases it at a rate that the printer can handle. Today many Inkjet
printers are cheap. The ink for most printers costs a lot of money.
Inkjet printers use ink cartridges that seem to run dry at an
alarming speed.
Laser printers user toner cartridges filled with the same messy
black powder that is found in copy machines. Laser toner
cartridges last a lot longer than Inkjet cartridges, but they also
cost significantly more.
d) Memory: Laser printers have their own memory, or RAM, just
like a computer. This memory is used to store pages before they
are printed. Memory is important for printing complex or high -
resolution images. Most laser printers have anywhere from 2 MB
to 8 MB of memory.
e) Print Buffer and Spooler: Computers are a lot faster than most
printers are, so they can send information faster than the printer
can accept it. A printer buffer or spooler fixes this problem. A
print buffer works like a dam: it holds back the information and
releases it at a rate that the printer can handle.
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4. Graphics Plotter
Uses high precision motors controlled by the
computer to draw on paper with coloured ink pens.
Used for drawings where a high degree of accuracy is
required such as building plans, printed circuit boards
and machine parts.
5. Light-Emitting Diode (LED)
Small low power devices, which emit light. Used to indicate various
events such as power on or hard disk in operation and to monitor
other control applications.
6. Relay switches and motors
A computer can be programmed very easily to turn switches on and

off at the required times. For example to control traffic lights or
electric motors in a robot arm. Used in the automobile industry to
spray body shells or to assemble and weld parts together; or to
assemble delicate electronic components on a printed-circuit board
for computers, radios and almost anything else you can think of.
Review Questions
1. Define the term ―output devices‖

2. State any four output devices and briefly explain how each works.
3. Outline factors to consider before determining the quality of ones
monitor.
4. Briefly, describe the major classes of monitors widely used in E.
Africa.
5. State two differences between the monitor and a printer.
6. Briefly, describe the two types of printers.
7. State three differences between a graphical plotter and a laser
printer.
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DATA STORAGE
What is data storage?
Refers to keeping of data for some time. Data is kept either for a
short time (temporary storage) or for a long time (permanent storage).
While working with a computer, it is important that data is stored /
kept awaiting other actions and steps related to its manipulation.
Common term used
a) Reading is the process of transferring data, instructions, and

information from a storage medium into memory.
b) Writing is the process of transferring these items from memory to

a storage medium.
c) Memory is a temporary area for holding data, instructions, and

information.
d) Storage capacity refers to how much data a storage medium is

able to hold.
e) Storage access is the amount of time it takes to locate an item on

a medium.
Data storage is divided into many categories depending on:
1. Amount of data stored.

2. Method of data access.
3. Technology used to store data.
4. Whether the storage medium is fixed or removable?
5. Whether the storage device is internally or externally connected?
6. Whether the storage device can hold data for a short time or for a
long period of time?
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7. Whether the storage device is fast or slow at being accessed?
8. Whether the storage device can be expanded or not in terms of
storage capacity by supporting additions?
However, many computer users regard computer storage as either

primary memory or secondary storage.
Primary memory
Refers to a storage location that is very fast but looses data easily and
it is volatile. Examples of primary storage include:
1. Random Access Memory: is an example of primary volatile

memory in the system unit. Contents in RAM can be updated,
adjusted and modified. RAM is directly connected to the central
processing unit. Items in RAM that are needed for future use must
be saved to a storage device before the computer is turned off.
The two basic types of RAM are Dynamic RAM and Static RAM.
RAM chips are usually packaged on a small circuit board that is
inserted into the motherboard.
2. Read Only Memory: ROM (Read- Only Memory) is an example

of non-volatile memory. ROM chips containing data, instructions,
or information, which is recorded permanently by the
manufacturers are known as firmware.
Variations of ROM chips include
a) Programmable read-only memory (PROM), which is a type of

ROM chip on which permanently items, can be placed.
b) Erasable programmable read-only memory (EPROM) or

electrically erasable programmable read-only memory.
c) (EEPROM) are ROM chips designed to be modified by users
3. Virtual Memory: With virtual memory (VM), the operating

68
system allocates a portion of a storage medium, usually the hard
disk, to function as additional RAM. The area of the hard disk
used for virtual memory is called a swap file. The amount of data
and program instructions swapped or exchanged at a given time is
called a page.
4. Cache Memory: cache memory speeds the processes of

computing by storing frequently used instructions and data.
5. BIOS: contains the basic input/output system (BIOS), which is a

sequence of instructions the computer follows to load the
operating system and other files when the computer is turned on.
When you turn on your computer, the BIOS does several things.
This is its usual sequence:
a) Check the CMOS Setup for custom settings.

b) Load the interrupt handlers and device drivers.
c) Initialize registers and power management.
d) Perform the Power-On Self-Test (POST).
e) Display system settings.
f) Determine which devices are bootable.
g) Initiate the bootstrap sequence.
6. CMOS: CMOS (Complementary metal-oxide Semiconductor) is

used to store configuration information about the computer,
which includes amount of memory, types of disk drives,
keyboard, monitor, current date and time, etc. CMOS chips use
battery power to retain information even when the computer is
turned off. The CMOS chip is updated whenever new components
are installed.
Functions of primary memory
a) It stores programs and files under current use.

b) Stores files needed for a complete boot process of the computer.
c) It determines efficiency and performance of a computer.
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d) It provides extra space for the CPU while processing data by
swapping files in and out of the hard drive.
e) It established the basic communication between basic input and
output devices on a computer e.g. mouse, keyboard, and monitor,
e.t.c.
f) It stores a log of frequently visited files which increases the speed
of accessing that particular file.
g) Primary memory enables the user to recover work in memory for
the last 5 minutes in case of a power cut.
h) Very important for a user to take a purchase decision of a
computer set e.g. amount of RAM, amount of Video card ROM
BIOS, e.t.c.
Classification depending on technology used
1. Magnetic storage
a) Magnetic tape formats

b) Reel-to-reel audio tape recording
c) 8-track cartridge
d) Compact audio cassette
e) Digital Audio Tape
f) Floppy disk
g) Hard disk
2. Optical Media formats
a) Compact disc
b) DVD
c) Blue ray
3. Magneto-optic storage
a) Magneto-optical drive
b) Write Once Read Many
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Solid-state storage
a) Flash disk.
b) Memory cards.
Storage devices:
Refers to storage locations that keep data for a long period of time i.e.
permanently. They perform the following functions:
a) Serves to work as backing storage.

b) It stores large programs and files needed by the computer to work
for example application software and operating system software.
c) It is a yardstick considered when a user is to take an accurate
decision before computer purchase.
d) It is used in the music and film industry in distribution of their
products.
e) It is used in the software industry as an ideal storage location and
distribution of software products to end users.
f) It keeps a user‘s files for future use in a more permanent nature.
Storage devices include
1. The punch card (or "Hollerith" card): Is a recording medium

for holding information for use by automated data processing
machines. Made of stiff cardboard, the
punch card represents information by
the presence or absence of holes in
predefined positions on the card.
2. Magnetic Tape: Data is stored as magnetic fluctuations along the

length of a specially coated plastic tape,
similar to the common audiotape. It varies
from 200 to 3,600 feet and its 1 ½ inches
wide. The coded data is processed (or
translated) into useful information by the
computer. Data is accessed sequentially as the first to store will be
71
the first to access and the last will be the last to access in that
order. Information stored on the tape cannot be modified,
changed or updated at any one time. Magnetic tapes are still used
in the mainframe and minicomputers as an ideal media for backup
copies of data.
Advantages of using a tape for data storage:
a) Can hold thousands of megabytes (MB) of data depending on

the length of the tape.
b) Useful for daily backups of all work and programs on a large

network.
c) Can be set to run automatically during the night and then will
only be needed in an emergency.
Disadvantage of using tape:
(a) Very slow, as need to wind tape (perhaps a long way) to find
any specific position of data to view.
3. Floppy Disk: Data is stored magnetically and uses a material

similar to tape. It needs to be formatted to provide
a layout of tracks and segments to organize where
the data is stored. One spin of the disk provides
access to all the data and so much faster access
than tape (about 36 KB per second) but it only
starts spinning when requested. Each disk can hold only 1.44
megabytes or 360 KB of data.
Care and maintenance of the floppy diskettes:
For proper use of the floppy diskettes, one must study the following
aspects:
a) Keep diskettes away from magnet fields, such as near wire

telephones, loud speakers, and other appliances, which contain
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magnets.
b) Do not keep heavy objects on top of the diskettes.
c) Do not fold or bend diskettes.
d) While labelling or writing on the diskettes use felt tip pen, not
pencil or ballpoint pen.
e) Do not expose the disk to excessive heat or light.
f) Do not pull out the diskette from its drive when the drive light is
still on.
g) Do not use alcohol thinners, to clean the disk surface.
h) Do not touch the disk surface.
4. Hard Disk: Made of stronger material (aluminium) and fixed

permanently together with its drive
mechanism inside the computer. Data is
stored magnetically. Spinning at the required
speed all the time. It is very much faster to
access than a floppy disk or CD-ROM (faster than 1 MB per
second). It can hold thousands of megabytes (gigabytes) of data.
It is used for storing all programs and work files for very fast
access by the computer.
5. Compact Disk (CD-ROM): Uses laser (light) technology to store

the data. Comes with the data already on it for reading only
(ROM = Read Only Memory) and hence cannot be written to for
everyday storage. Like a floppy disk, it has to spin up to the
correct speed each time it is accessed.
Advantages of using a CD – ROM
(a) Much faster to access than a floppy but currently slower than a
hard disk (single-speed 15 KB per second so a 40X speed CD-
ROM drive is 40 times faster, and they are getting faster).
(b) Can hold 650 MB (megabytes) of data and more.
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(c) Useful for the distribution of today‘s large programs and
information libraries, which you can then copy (all or in part)
onto your hard disk.
(d) Also widely used by the music industry as they give better
quality sound and do not wear out like audiocassette tape.
(e) It is the safest form of storage, provided that you don‘t attack it
with a sharp or heavy object.
6. Digital Versatile Disk (DVD): (Also known, as a Digital Video
Disk) is a very large capacity CD with similar access speed. It can
store up to 4.7 GB (gigabytes) of data, which is more than enough
to store 8 music albums with full video presentation, or 4 feature-
length films. A DVD drive can also read a normal CD-ROM.
7. Blue Ray: refers to the blue laser used to read the disc, which
allows information to be stored at a greater density than is
possible with the longer-wavelength red laser used for DVDs.
The major application of Blu-ray Discs is as a medium for video

material such as feature films. Besides the hardware
specifications, Blu-ray Disc is associated with a set of multimedia
formats. Generally, these formats allow for the video and audio to
be stored with greater definition than on DVD.
Usual (Pre-BD-XL) Blu-ray Discs contain 25 GB per layer, with

dual layer discs (50 GB) being the industry standard for feature-
length video discs. Triple layer discs (100 GB) and quadruple
layers (128 GB) are available for BD-XL re-writer drives.
8. Flash Memory: Several different brands of removable storage

cards, also called memory cards, are now
available. These are solid-state devices (no
moving parts) that read and write data
electrically, instead of magnetically.
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Revision Questions
1. Distinguish a storage device from a storage medium.

2. How data stored in say a floppy diskette?
3. Distinguish RAM from ROM.
4. How important is secondary storage to a student?
5. Write short notes on the following:
a) Sequential access.
b) Random access.
6. State four storage media; two that use sequential, two that use
random access.
7. State the advantages of using random access to sequential access
while dealing with data storage.
8. Study the table below:
Storage device Storage device

Item
(medium A) (medium B)
Capacity 650 MB 4.7 GB
Access speed 32X max 8X max
Device used CD – ROM 52X External hard drive
Compatibility 95, 98, 2000, XP 2000, XP
Price 120,000 UG SHS. 185,000 UG SHS.
Usage Fixed drive External drive
(a). Identify storage medium A and B respectively:

(b). State two reasons to support your answer in (a) above:
(c). Suggest two reasons why storage medium B is rather
expensive than A.
(d). Of the two storage medium, which one do you think can be re-
used and suggest a reason why?
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CENTRAL PROCESSING UNIT
The central processing unit also called the brain of a computer; refers
to a computational engine found in the computer whose major
purpose is to process data. The central processing unit (CPU) is the
electronic device that interprets and carries out instructions that tell
the computer how to work.
Generally speaking, the central processing unit performs a number of

functions that include:
a) It controls devices under its care.

b) It helps in all the stages of data processing.
c) It is the chief brain of the computer which performs logical,
computational and comparisons of data.
d) It determines how fast the computer performs a given function.
e) It is used as yardstick to determine type and model of computer.
f) It helps the user to work with many programs at the same time.
g) It controls which part to handle which category of task within the
computer.
h) It stores data temporarily for the computer.
The central processing unit carries out instructions in a series of

machine cycles also called e-time. The four basic operations of the
machine cycle are
1. Fetching is the process of obtaining a program instruction or data

item from memory. The time taken to fetch is called instruction
time, or I-time.
2. Decoding is the process of translating the instruction into

commands that the computer understands.
3. Executing is the process of carrying out the commands.
4. Storage is the f keeping of data in the CPU location temporary.

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Note: The time taken to decode and execute is called execution time,
or E-time.
On a personal computer, the CPU is usually contained on a single

chip and is often called a microprocessor. A microprocessor usually
contains the control unit, the arithmetic and logic unit, registers, and
system clock.
1. Control unit
The control unit directs and coordinates most of the operations in the
computer.
2. Arithmetic logical unit
Specifically, the ALU performs the arithmetic, comparison, and

logical operations. Arithmetic operations include addition,
subtraction, multiplication, and division.
Comparison operations involve comparing one data item to another,

and determine if the first item is greater than, equal to, or less than
the other item. Logical operations work with conditions and logical
operators such as AND, OR, and NOT.
3. Registers
Are high-speed temporary storage locations used to hold data and

instructions.
A microprocessor contains many different types of registers, and each

performs a specific function.
Common types of registers include
a) Program counter, which holds the address of the next instruction

to be fetched from the memory.
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b) Instruction register, which holds the current instruction fetched
from memory.
c) Instruction decoder, which interprets, or decode, the instruction

currently held in the instruction register.
d) Accumulator, which holds the data item to be processed and the

results of arithmetic and logical operations.
e) Status register, which holds a collection of condition flags,

which describe the status of the most recent operation carried out
by the ALU.
STRUCTURE OF THE CENTRAL PROCESSING UNIT
Central Processing Unit

Control Unit
Input Arithmetic Logic Unit Output
Memory Unit
Data flow
Backing Store Control flow
Other terms related to a data processing;

System clock speed
The system clock controls how fast all the operations within a
computer take place. The system clock generates regular electronic
pulses, or ticks, that set the operating speed of components in the
system unit.
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The speed at which a processor executes instructions is called clock
speed, or clock rate.
Note: Today, processor speed can be used to classify many

microprocessors.
Microprocessor development - Intel

The following table helps you to understand the differences between
the different processors that Intel has introduced over the years.
Name Date Clock Speed

8080 1974 2 MHz
8088 1979 5 MHz
80286 1982 6 MHz
80386 1985 16 MHz
80486 1989 25 MHz
PI 1993 60 MHz
P II 1997 233 MHz
P III 1999 450 MHz
P IV 2000 1.5 GHz
P IV "Prescott" 2004 3.6 GHz
Note: P - Pentium
Bus
A bus is a common pathway through which information is connected

from one component to another. This pathway is used for
communication and can be established between two or more
computer components.
Functions of Buses
- Data sharing - the expansion bus must be able to transfer data

between the computer and the peripherals connected to it.
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- Addressing - A bus has address lines, which match those of the
processor. This allows data to be sent to or from specific memory
locations.
- Power - A bus supplies power to various peripherals that are

connected to it.
- Timing - The bus provides a system clock signal to co-ordinate

the peripherals attached to it with the rest of the system.
Computers can be viewed to be having just two types of buses:
- System bus: The bus that connects the CPU to main memory on
the motherboard. The system bus is also called the front-side bus,
memory bus, local bus, or host bus.
- A number of I/O Buses, ( I/O - Acronym for input/output),

connecting various peripheral devices to the CPU.
Examples of buses used in data processing
- Control Bus: Is used by the CPU to direct and monitor the

actions within the central processing unit.
- Address Bus: An address bus consists of all the signals necessary

to define any of the possible memory address locations within the
central processing unit.
- Data Bus: Sometimes referred to as memory bus, the data bus is

used to transfer instructions from memory to the CPU for
execution. It carries data (operands) to and from the CPU and
memory as required by instruction translation.
Revision Questions
1. (a). Define the Central Processing Unit.

(b). Outline the major functions of the central processing unit.
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(c). Explain the three major parts found in the central processing
unit, clearly mentioning what each does.
(d). Define the term bus.
(e). Give the meaning of the following buses:
(i). Data bus

(ii). Address bus
(iii). Control bus
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COMPUTER SOFTWARE
What is computer software?
Software is the series of instructions that tells the hardware how to

work. Software is often called a computer program.
Software is available in a variety of forms:
- Packaged software: is commercial software, which is

copyrighted and designed to meet the needs of a wide variety of
users.
- Software suite: A software suite is a collection of individual

application software packages sold as a single entity. A Microsoft
Software suite usually includes application software: a word
processor, spreadsheet software, database software, and
presentation software.
Advantages of software suites include
a) A software suite normally costs significantly less than

purchasing each of the application packages separately.
b) Ease of use because applications within a suite usually use a

similar interface and share common features.
Examples of office software suites include:
- Ability Office
- Apache OpenOffice (formerly known as OpenOffice.org)
- Aster*x
- AUIS — an office suite developed by Carnegie Mellon
University and named after Andrew Carnegie.
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- Breadbox Ensemble runs under the GEOS (16-bit operating
system) and effectively requires a version of DOS to be installed
on the host system.
- Breadbox Office — DOS software, but has been successfully

tested with Win3.x, Win95/98/98SE/ME, WinNT4.0, Win2000
and the 32bit-versions of WinXP, WinVista and Win7.0.
- Calligra Suite is the continuation of KOffice under a new name. It

is part of the KDE Software Compilation.
- Celframe Office — supports Microsoft Office and other popular

file formats, with a user interface styled on Microsoft Office
2003.
- ContactOffice - an AJAX-based online office suite. The suite

includes personal and shared Calendar, Document, Messaging,
Contact, Wiki,... tools. Available free and as an enterprise service.
- Corel WordPerfect for DOS - A word processor, spreadsheet, and

presentation software from Corel (containing WordPerfect 6.2,
Quattro Pro 5.6, Presentations 2.1, and Shell 4.0c).
- Documents To Go (Android and others)
- EasyOffice
- EIOffice (Evermore Integrated Office) — a Chinese / English /

Japanese / French language integrated office suite. Available for
Windows / Linux operating systems
- Feng Office (formerly OpenGoo) — an open source, fully

featured online office suite. The application can be downloaded
and installed on a server.
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- Framework — historical but also still supported for Windows by
the present developer, Selection & Functions Inc.
- Gobe Productive — Originally written for BeOS by developers of

the original ClarisWorks, GoBe Productive is a lightweight
integrated Works-like office suite with a generous "Hassle-Free
License."
- Google Docs — an AJAX-based online office suite from Google,

Inc. The suite includes a word processor, a spreadsheet program,
and a presentation editor. Available free and as an enterprise
service.
- IBM Lotus SmartSuite — For Windows 9x, NT, 2000 and XP

only
- Ichitaro JUST Suite 2008 — a full Japanese-language suite from

JustSystems, the most direct competitor to Microsoft Office in
Japan. For Windows only.
- Interleaf
- iWork — Apple Inc.'s Mac-only office suite. Includes Pages, for

word-processing, Numbers for spreadsheets, and Keynote, for
presentations. iWork replaces the now-discontinued AppleWorks
suite.
- Kingsoft Office (Chinese version known as WPS Office) —

Available as a paid Professional edition, with a less capable
freeware version as another option. (for Windows or Android
only)
- LibreOffice — independent fork of OpenOffice.org with a

number of enhancements.
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- MarinerPak — MarinerPak includes Mariner Write, a fully
featured word processor, and Mariner Calc, a fully featured
Spreadsheet application.
- Microsoft Office
- Microsoft Works
- Mobile office suites
- MobiSystems OfficeSuite Pro
- NeoOffice — NeoOffice is a Mac-specific open-source software

development project dedicated to integrating OpenOffice.org with
native features of Mac OS X as well as other enhancements that
give the suite a more "Mac-like" look and feel. While source code
is available for free, developers charge for the binary version of
this application.
- Office suites for Android, BlackBerry, iPhone, Symbian,

Windows Mobile, Windows Phone, and others.
- Picsel Smart Office
- Polaris Office
- QuickOffice, QuickOffice HD Pro (iOS and others)
- ShareOffice — a Web-based office suite from ShareMethods.

This suite utilizes separate word processing, spreadsheet, and
presentation applications from other vendors. It is distributed
through Salesforce.com's AppExchange program.
- Siag Office — a free office suite for Unix systems. Primarily

written by programmer Ulric Erikkson, with contributions from
other authors. Includes a word processor, a spreadsheet, and an
animation program.
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- Simdesk — an online office suite from Simdesk Technologies,
Inc. This suite offers partial compatibility with the Microsoft
Office file formats (Word, Excel, and Powerpoint). With a
monthly subscription to Simdesk Services (costing $3.50 – $20
per month), one is allowed to install the application anywhere.
(not available any longer)
- SoftMaker Office : The current edition is available for a fee, the

2006 and 2008 edition is available as freeware.
- ThinkFree Office — an office suite written in Java, from

ThinkFree, Inc. It includes a word processor (Write), a
spreadsheet (Calc), and a presentation program (Show). For
Microsoft Windows, Linux, and Mac OS X.
- Tiki Wiki CMS Groupware is a full-featured web application,

which includes a spreadsheet, webmail, etc.
- Windows Live Office - an online office suite from Microsoft

which is based on Windows Live SkyDrive. It includes a word
processor, a spreadsheet, a presentation application and a
notetaking program. Allow users to create, edit, save and share
documents.
- WordPerfect Office
- Zoho Office Suite — a free online office suite from AdventNet,
Inc. Includes a word processor, spreadsheet, presentations, and
collaboration groupware.
- Integrated software: combines application programs such as

word processing, spreadsheet, and database into a single, easy-to-
use package. Like a software suite, the applications within the
integrated software use a similar interface and share some
common features. Unlike a software suite, the applications within
the integrated software cannot be purchased individually.
The most popular integrated software is Microsoft Works.

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Advantages of integrated software include
a) Integrated software normally costs significantly less than a

software suite, or purchasing each of the application packages
separately.
b) Ease of use because applications within a suite usually use a

similar interface and share common features.
Disadvantages of integrated software include
a) The applications within the integrated software normally do not

have all the capabilities of stand-alone application software of the
same kind.
Forms of integrated software include:
1. Freeware: is copyrighted software provided at no cost to users.
2. Shareware: is copyrighted software that is distributed free for a

trial period, and payment is required for using the software
beyond that trial period.
3. Public-domain software is free software donated for public use

and has no copyright restrictions.
Other terms used in relation to software:
- A software update provides bug fixes and minor software

improvements and is made available by free download. Software
updates sometimes include new drivers to support the latest
hardware such as printers, CD drives and DVD drives.
A software update is sometimes called a software patch because it

is applied over software that you already have installed. A
software update does not provide a full software package
installation.
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- A software upgrade is a purchase of a newer version of software
you currently use of a more fully-featured version of your current
software.
- Software version is a software upgrade with enhanced and

modified functionalities.
Most software needs to be installed onto the hard disk before it can
be used, but some can be loaded into memory directly from the
storage media.
The two branches of software are system software, and application

software.
System software
System software consists of programs that control the operations of a

computer and its devices. System software also serves as the interface
between the user, the application software and hardware.
Three categories of system software are the operating system,

programming languages and utility programs.
Operating system software
An operating system (OS) is a set of programs containing instructions

that co-ordinate all the activities among computer hardware devices.
Types of operating system software
There are different types of operating systems. These are as follows:
1. Real-time Operating System: It is a multitasking operating

system that aims at executing real-time applications.
2. Distributed Operating System: An operating system that

manages a group of independent computers and makes them
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appear to be a single computer is known as a distributed operating
system.
3. Embedded System: The operating systems designed for being

used in embedded computer systems are known as embedded
operating systems.
4. Single-user, single task: As the name implies, this operating

system is designed to manage the computer so that one user can
effectively do one thing at a time. The Palm OS for Palm
handheld computers is a good example of a modern single-user,
single-task operating system.
5. Single-user, multi-tasking: This is the type of operating system

most people use on their desktop and laptop computers today.
Microsoft's Windows and Apple's MacOS platforms are both
examples of operating systems that will let a single user have
several programs in operation at the same time.
For example, it's entirely possible for a Windows user to be

writing a note in a word processor while downloading a file from
the Internet while printing the text of an e-mail message.
Advantages of a command-line interface
a) A command-line interface takes up little memory and

normally does not require a very fast processor.
b) Operation is fast because commands can be entered directly
through the keyboard.
c) Many commands can be grouped together as a batch file so

that repetitive tasks can be automated.
Disadvantages of a command-line interface
d) A command language has to be learnt and memorized.
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6. Multi-user operating system: enables two or more users to run a
program simultaneously.
7. Multitasking operating system: allows a single user to work on

two or more applications that reside in memory at the same time.
A very good example of multitasking operating system is the
GUI. A graphical user interface (GUI) allows a user to use menus
and visual images such as icons, buttons, and other graphical
objects to issue commands.
Advantages of a graphical user interface
a) A graphical user interface is user-friendly because it is easy to

learn and work with.
b) There is no need to type and memorize any command

language.
c) The interface is similar for any application.
Disadvantages of a graphical user interface
a) A graphical user interface normally requires more memory as

well as a faster processor.
b) It also occupies more disk space to hold all the files for
different functions.
c) It is difficult to automate functions for expert users.
8. Multiprocessing operating system: can support two or more

CPUs running programs at the same time.
Popular operating systems for microcomputers include:
1. DOS
2. Windows 3.X
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3. Windows 95
4. Windows NT Workstation
5. Windows 98
6. Windows 2000 Professional
7. Windows ME
8. Windows XP Home
9. Windows XP Professional
10. Windows Vista Inspirat
11. Windows 7
12. Windows 8
13. Mac OS
14. OS/2 Wrap
15. NetWare
16. Windows NT Server
17. Windows 2000 Server
18. Windows.NET Server
19. OS/2 Wrap Server for E-Business
20. UNIX
21. Linux
22. Solaris
23. Windows CE
24. Palm OS
25. Pocket PC 2002
Functions of an operating system software:
1. It provides basic working environment/interface on a computer.

2. It helps to control the use of peripherals.
3. It helps to control the loading and running of application
programs.
4. It helps to organise the use of memory/Memory management
5. It helps in the booting process of a computer.
6. It helps in file management
7. It helps in protecting hardware and software.
8. It helps in the process of connecting devices to work with a
computer (configuring devices)
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9. It helps in the processor management e.g. multitasking and time
sharing.
Utility programs
Utility programs are part of system software which are designed to

configure, analyze, optimize and maintain a computer in its working
operations.
Examples of utility programs
1. Anti-virus utilities: scan for computer viruses and remove them.
2. Backup utilities: can make a copy of all information stored on a

disk, and restore either the entire disk
3. Data compression utilities: output a smaller file when provided

with a stream or file.
4. Disk checkers: scans the content of a hard disk to find files or

areas that are
5. Disk cleaners: finds files that are unnecessary to computer and

can decide to delete.
6. Disk compression utilities: transparently compress/uncompress

the contents of a disk, increasing the capacity of the disk.
7. Disk defragmenters: increase efficiency by moving data to one

side of the disk.
8. Disk partitions: divides an individual drive into multiple logical

drives
9. Disk space analyzers: to get the size for each folder/ sub folders
& files in folder or drive. Showing the distribution of the used
space.
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10. Disk storage utilities: ensures that data is stored and files arranged
in order of ascending. It also helps the computer to re-arrange
data files.
11. Archive utilities: output a stream or a single file when provided

with a directory or a set of files. Archive utilities, unlike archive
suites, usually do not include compression or encryption
capabilities.
12. File managers: provide a convenient method of performing

routine data management tasks, such as deleting, renaming,
cataloging, un cataloging, moving, copying, merging etc.
13. Cryptographic utilities: encrypt and decrypt streams and files.
14. Hex editors: directly modify the text or data of a file.
15. Memory testers: check for memory failures.
16. Network utilities: analyzes the computer's network connectivity,

configure network settings, check data transfer or log events.
17. Registry cleaners: clean and optimize the Windows registry by

removing old registry keys that are no longer in use.
18. Screensavers: were desired to prevent phosphor burn-in on CRT

and plasma computer monitors. Modern screensavers are used
primarily for entertainment or security.
19. System monitors: for monitoring resources and performance in a

computer system.
20. System profilers: provide detailed information about the software

installed and hardware attached to the computer.
21. Sorting utility: for organizing files in any choose order
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22. Merging and combining utility: Merges or combines different
files in one.
23. Diagnostic utility: compiles technical information about a

computer's hardware and certain system software programs and
then prepares a report outlining any identified problems.
24. Debuggers: helps the computer to find out the error and fixes it.
25. Data recovery: enables the user to get back all the data that might
have been deleted or lost by virus from a computer.
26. System recovery: it enables the user to get back to the last best
known configuration settings of a computer.
27. Uninstall utility: it enables the user to remove an application

program and its associated attributes from the system.
Programming languages
Programming languages are computer tools, editors, compilers, e.t.c.
used to make programs/software. Programming tools are software in
the form of programs or applications that software developers (also
known as programmers, coders, hackers or software engineers) use
to create, debug, maintain (i.e. improve or fix), or otherwise support
software.
Common terms used in relation to programming languages:
a) Compilers help to translate high level codes to low level codes at

once.
b) Interpreter helps to translate high level to low level language in

smaller bits.
c) Debugger helps to remove errors in programming codes
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Application software programs
Application software refers to programs that perform specific end

user tasks.
Forms of application software

There are three forms of software i.e.:
a) Off-the-shelf or variety software.
b) Customized or bespoke software.
c) Hybrid software solution.
How to obtain application software
 By buying an off-the-shelf package, or

 By having it custom-written.
Most software that you use will be 'off the shelf' packages and the
same application will typically be run by thousands or even millions
of users.
You may be considering having a bespoke application written
specifically for your organisation. Other organisations end up using a
hybrid solution.
There are various advantages and disadvantages to both off-the-shelf
and bespoke applications.
Off-the-shelf software
Off-the-shelf software is software that is ready-made, available to lots

of people, and a user usually pay a license fee to use it. For example,
Microsoft Office.
Advantages of Off-the-shelf Software

1. The software is relatively cheap as the cost of development can be
spread over a large number of users.
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2. The software can be very advanced (e.g. Excel or Word) as the
revenues from a very large numbers of users‘ means that a lot of
resources can be applied to its development.
3. It is easy to get support, literature and training is usually widely

available as there are many other users using exactly the same
software.
4. It is easy to share files produced by the software with others as

chances are they also have the software available to open the file.
5. You don't have to dedicate any of your time to the development

process (e.g. helping with specifications, testing etc.).
6. It is faster to get set up, as the development work has already been
done.
7. If it is a commonly used package, users and I.T. staff may already

be familiar with it, saving on learning time and training costs.
8. It often has more functionality than bespoke software, because the

developers try to satisfy more use-cases.
9. The application is more reliable when compared to custom built

software because its reliability is proven through the use by other
organizations.
10. It is more maintainable because the systems documentation is
provided with the application.
11. The application is higher quality because competition improves

the product quality.
Disadvantages of Off-the-shelf Software
1. The software can be highly complex and will usually include
large sections that you will never use (the average Word user is
reputed to only use about 10% of the available facilities).
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2. It tends to be a compromise. By its nature it is designed for many
different types of users, each of whom will have different
requirements.
3. As the software tends to be large and complicated it may take a

long time to learn properly (some of the most asked for additions
to later versions of Word were ones that already existed in the
previous version!).
4. You may have to adjust the way that you work in order to fit in
with the way that the software has been designed.
5. There will probably be operations that you require that you

simply cannot do with the software.
6. As one small voice amongst many others your requests will not
carry much weight.
7. If you have problems you are usually at the mercy of a large and
faceless organisation who may not be quite as concerned as you
are if you have a major problem that absolutely MUST be fixed
before tomorrow morning!
8. As the same system can be bought by your competitors it is very

difficult to gain any competitive advantage from its use.
9. You may have to compromise on your requirements – it is

unlikely you will find ready-made software that does everything
you would like it to.
10. As your requirements change, the software may not be able to

change to keep up – this can lead to a costly switch to a new
package.
11. Lack of customisation can be an issue if the software does not

perform an action or process that your business requires.
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12. Business processes can be an issue as you may need to change
your business to fit the off-the-shelf software rather than having
your software fit the business.
13. Off-the-shelf software may not provide a single solution for your
requirements as a result you may have to use multiple off-the-
shelf packages to achieve a final result.
14. On-going licensing costs can add to the overall cost of an off-the
shelf software solution
Bespoke (custom-made) software
Refers to application software that has been developed to meet users‘
specific needs.
The advantages of bespoke software
1. It is specifically designed for a particular requirement and can be

tailored to fit in exactly with the way the business or organisation
wishes to operate.
2. It can be customised to work with other software that operate with

the potential to provide a fully integrated IT infrastructure across
the whole organisation
3. Users usually find it easier and more interesting to use as it does

not contain unnecessary or redundant facilities.
4. It is much more flexible than packaged software and can be

modified and changed over time requirements and business
practices change
5. The user receives much better support and can in many cases talk
directly to the developers concerned.
6. If you are lucky and find a good developer then they can
significantly add value to your company by suggesting
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alternatives, improvements and by acting as a source of IT advice
and information
7. The use of professionally developed bespoke software

applications can give you a significant business advantage over
your competition
8. The software more closely meets your requirements, as it is

developed especially for you.
9. It can be more easily integrated with existing software/other

systems you have, reducing data duplication.
10. Custom software is able to perform tasks that your competitors

cannot. Possibility to licence the software to other companies to
get back some/all of the investment.
The Disadvantages of Bespoke Software
1. If you do not have the source code you are dangerously exposed
and are wholly dependent upon the developer's continuing
existence and good will. To avoid this problem make sure you
choose a developer who provides you with the source code.
2. If you pick the wrong developer you could end up with an

application that is unstable, unreliable and full of bugs.
3. The investment required will usually be much higher than with

packaged software.
4. An unacceptable proportion of developers are either incompetent,

unprofessional or are 'cowboys' and it can be difficult to sort out
the good guys from the bad.
5. The development process for bespoke software can take a long

time, from brief to development to testing. Go live can take
considerable time and input from a business.
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6. Support for bespoke software can become an issue if sufficient
documentation is not produced or if there is limited/ no on-going
support from the Developers.
7. Custom software usually does not have all the functionality you
might need. If you really know your business it is highly probable
that you have ideas that the software doesn't implement.
8. You need to adjust your workflow and processes to match the

software.
9. Software targets only the platform that the vendor picks.

Hybrid application software solution
A third possibility is to find some off-the-shelf software that fits 80%
of your requirements, then have it customised to fit the other 20% –
either by the original developers, or by a third party.
This gives you the best of both worlds – cheaper and faster setup than
fully bespoke software, but a closer match to your requirements than
plain off-the-shelf software. However, it is only possible if there is
off-the-shelf software available that is either open source, or
otherwise flexible enough to be extended.
a) Most application software is available as packaged software that
can be purchased in retail stores or on the Web.
b) Many application software packages are also available as

shareware, freeware, and public-domain software. However, such
packages usually have fewer capabilities than packaged software.
c) A cross-platform application is one that runs identically on

multiple operating systems. Cross-platform applications often
have multiple versions, each corresponding to a different
operating system.
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d) An application service provider (ASP) is a third-party
organization that manages and distributes software and services
on the Web.
Common categories of application software include

1. Word processing software: also known as a word processor is
used to create, edit, format, save, and print documents that contain
text and graphics. For example, Ms. Word
2. Spreadsheet software: is used to organize data in rows and

columns, and perform calculations on the data. For example, Ms.
Excel.
3. Database software: data is stored in large volumes to allow use of

objects like queries, forms, report and modules to manipulate it
well.
4. Presentation software: is used to create presentations, which can

communicate ideas and other information to a group of audience.
For example, Ms. PowerPoint.
5. Computer-aided design software: is mainly used for creating

engineering, architectural, and scientific drawings. For example
ArchCAD.
6. Desktop publishing software: is used to design and produce

complicated documents that contain text, graphics, and brilliant
colors. For example, Ms. Publisher.
7. Project management software: is used to plan, schedule, track,

and analyze the events, resources, and costs of a project. For
example Ms. One Note.
8. Personal information managers: helps to organize personal

information such as appointments and to do lists. For example,
InfoPath.
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9. Accounting software: is used by companies to record and report
their financial transactions. For example, Tally, Quick Books,
Sage.
10. Paint and image editing software: is used to create and modify
graphical and photo images. For example, Adobe Photoshop.
11. Video and audio editing software: is used to modify a segment of

video or video clips. For example, Pinnacle Studio, U-lead,
Adobe Primiere.
12. Multimedia authoring software: combines text, graphics,

animation, audio, and video into an application. For example,
Pinnacle studio.
13. Web page authoring software: is specially designed for create

Web pages that contain text and multimedia elements. For
example, Adobe Dreamweaver, Frontpage, e.t.c.
14. Personal finance software: is often a simplified accounting

program that helps a user to pay bills, balance the checkbook,
track personal income and expenses, track investments, and
evaluate financial plans.
15. Educational software: is designed to teach a particular skill about

any subject. For example Encarta.
16. Reference software: (e.g., encyclopedias, dictionaries, health and

medical guides) provides valuable and thorough information for
reference purposes. For example, Rachael encyclopedia.
17. Entertainment software: software includes interactive games,

videos, and other programs designed to support a hobby or
provide amusement and enjoyment. For example Windows Media
Player.
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18. Communications software: consists of programs that help to
establish a connection to another computer or network, and
manage the transmission of data, instructions, and information
between computers and other devices. For example Skype,
Outlook, e.t.c.
Revision questions
1. (a). Define the term software.

(b). State the two branches of computer software.
(c). Write short notes on the following terms:
(i). Freeware
(ii). Shareware
(iii). Custom software:
(iv). Public domain software
2. (a). Define the term ‗operating system‘ and give four examples of
OS.
(b).State any four functions of operating system in a computer.
(c) (i). Give the difference between command line and graphical
user interface.
(ii). Give two advantages of disadvantages of command line and
GUI.
(d).(i). Define the term application software.
(ii). Explain any 10 examples of application software
applications.
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THE INTERNET
a) The Internet, sometimes called simply "the Net," is a worldwide

system of computer networks.
b) It is a network of networks in which users at any one computer

can, if they have permission, get information from any other
computer (and sometimes talk directly to users at other
computers).
c) It is a worldwide collection of networks linked together.
Accessing the internet(requirements)
You should have the following to effectively use the internet:

1. NIC Network Interface Card: enables the computer to connect
and be able to communicate.
2. Internet Service Provider (ISP): is a company that supplies

connections to the Internet, usually for a monthly fee.
3. A computer or any other device that a user will manipulate to use

the service of internet.
4. An Operating System: required to configure the machine to

accept all standards of using the internet by itself and other
computers connected.
5. Modem: used to convert incoming signals into acceptable format

for the computer to use.
6. Browser: used to access pages on the internet. Examples include –

Internet Explorer, Mozilla Firefox, Netscape navigator, e.t.c.
7. Other devices include; routers, radio receivers, e.t.c.

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Services of the internet
The World Wide Web is one of the most popular services available
on the Internet. Other widely used Internet services include e-mail,
FTP, newsgroups, message boards, mailing lists, chat rooms, instant
messaging, Internet telephony, and videoconferencing.
1. The World Wide Web: also called the Web consists of a

worldwide collection of electronic documents. Each of these
documents on the Web is called a Web page.
A Web page can contain text, graphics, animations, audio, and

video (i.e., multimedia elements), as well as built-in connections,
called hyperlinks, to other documents.
2. E-mail: is the transmission of messages via a computer network

such as a local area network or the Internet.
3. FTP (File Transfer Protocol): is an Internet standard that allows

users to upload and download files with other computers.
4. Newsgroups: also called a discussion group, is an online area

where users conduct written discussions about a particular
subject.
5. Message boards: or discussion board is a Web-based type of

discussion group that does not require a newsreader program.
6. Mailing lists: is a group of e-mail names and address given a

single name. When a message is sent to a mailing list, every
person on the list will receive a copy of the message.
7. Chat rooms: is a location on an Internet server that permits users

to chat with each other by typing lines of text on the computer.
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8. Instant messaging: is a real-time communications service that
notifies a user when one or more people are online and then
allows the user to exchange messages or files with them.
9. Internet telephony: sometimes called Voice over IP (VoIP), is a

Web-based telephone service that allows a user to talk to others
for just the cost of the Internet connection.
10. Videoconferencing: is a meeting between two or more

geographically separated people who use a network or the
Internet to transmit audio and video data. A videoconference
conducted over the Internet, using Web browsers and Web servers
to deliver the service, is called a Web conference.
A videoconference allows participants to collaborate as if they

were in the same room. Videoconferencing software along with a
microphone, speakers, and a web cam attached to the computer
are required to participate in a videoconference.
Advantages of using the internet

People have different reasons for connecting to the Internet, which
include:
1. It allows access to a wealth of information, such as news, weather
reports, and airline schedules. It provides information at various
levels of study. Everything from scholarly articles to ones
directed at children. It provides information on almost every
subject imaginable for example, history of a chair
2. It enables one to download files, listen to music, and watch

movies free of charge.
3. Access sources of entertainment and leisure, such as online

games, magazines, and vacation planning guides.
4. It has powerful search engines that enable users locate specific

data in a short time.
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5. It provides the ability for a user to do research from your home
versus research libraries.
6. It provides message boards where people can discuss ideas on any

topic. Ability to get wide range of opinions. People can find
others that have a similar interest in whatever they are interested
in.
7. The internet provides the ability of e-mails. Free mail service to

anyone in the country. Therefore, communication is made simple
and cheaper for a user. platform for products like SKYPE, which
allow for holding a video conference with anyone in the world
who also has access.
8. Friendships and love connections have been made over the

internet by people involved in love/passion over similar interests.
9. It enables one to shop for goods and services online i.e. e-

commerce. One can buy a car from Japan without necessarily
travelling. Electronic commerce (e-commerce) is a financial
business transaction that occurs over an electronic network, such
as the Internet. Online shopping and banking are two popular
types of e-commerce that uses either electronic money (e-money)
or electric data interchange (EDI).
a) E-money is a means of paying for goods and services over the

Internet.
b) EDI is a set of standards that control the transfer of business

data and information among computers both within and
among companies.
c) E-commerce businesses can be grouped into three basic

models:
d) Business-to-consumer (B2C) e-commerce consists of the sale

of goods to the general public.
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e) Consumer-to-consumer (C2C) e-commerce occurs when one
consumer sells directly to another, such as in an online
auction.
f) Business-to-business (B2B) e-commerce consists of

businesses providing goods and services to other businesses.
Advantages of e-commerce include
a) Transactions can occur immediately and globally, thus save

time for participants on both ends.
b) Transactions can occur 24 hours per day.
c) Businesses have access to millions of people with Internet

connections.
d) Businesses have the ability to gather customer information,

analyze it, and react if appropriate.
e) Information can be changed and be available quickly.
f) Customers can compare prices easily.
g) Feedback can be immediate.
h) Manufacturers can buy and sell directly, avoiding the cost of

the middleman.
i) Distribution costs for information is reduced or eliminated.

Disadvantages of using the internet
1. There is a lot of wrong information on the internet. Anyone can
post anything, and much of it is garbage.
2. There are predators that hang out on the internet waiting to get
unsuspecting people in dangerous situations.
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3. Some people are getting addicted to the internet and thus causing
problems with their interactions of friends and loved ones.
4. Pornography that can get in the hands of young children too

easily.
5. Easy to waste a lot of time on the internet. You can start surfing,
and then realize far more time has passed than you realized.
Internet and television together if added to the more inactive
lifestyles of people which further exacerbate the obesity problem.
6. Internet has a lot of "cheater" sites. People can buy essays and
pass them off as their own far more easily than they used to be
able to do.
7. There are a lot of dishonest businesses that have sprung up on the

internet to take advantage of people.
8. Hackers can create viruses that can get into your personal
computer and damage valuable data.
9. Hackers can use the internet for identity theft.
10. It can be quite depressing to be on the internet and realize just

how uneducated so many people have become in today's society.
The WWW
The World Wide Web (WWW), also called the Web, consists of a
worldwide collection of electronic documents. Each of these
documents on the Web is called a Web page. The WWW emerged in
the early 1990s, but has grown fast to become the most widely used
service on the Internet. A Web page can contain text, graphics,
animations, audio, and video (i.e., multimedia elements), as well as
built-in connections, called hyperlinks, to other documents. A Web
site is a collection of related Web pages. A home page is the starting
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page or a table of contents for a Web site, and normally has a name
called index.htm or index.html.
A Web browser is a software program used to access and view Web

pages. Examples of web browsers include:
a) Internet Explorer
b) Mozilla Firefox
c) Opera
d) Safari
e) Google Chrome
f) Konqueror
g) Arora
h) Dillo
i) K-Meleon
j) Lynx
k) Lobo
l) Kazekhase
m) Amaya
n) NetPositive
o) QNX Voyager
p) Planetweb
q) Netscape
r) Lunascape
s) Flock
t) Avant
Each Web page has a unique address, called a Uniform Resource

Locator (URL), which tells the browser where to locate the
document.
A URL consists of a protocol, a domain name, and sometimes the

path to a specific Web page or location on a Web page.
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Types of web sites
1. Affiliate: A site, typically few in pages, whose purpose is to sell a

third party's product. The seller receives a commission for
facilitating the sale.
2. Affiliate Agency: Enabled portal that renders not only its custom
CMS but also syndicated content from other content providers for
an agreed fee.
3. Archive site: Used to preserve valuable electronic content

threatened with extinction. Two examples are: Internet Archive,
which since 1996 has preserved billions of old (and new) web
pages; and Google Groups, which in early 2005 was archiving
over 845,000,000 messages posted to Usenet news/discussion
groups.
4. Attack site: A site created specifically to attack visitors

computers on their first visit to a website by downloading a file
(usually a trojan horse).
These websites rely on unsuspecting users with poor anti-virus

protection in their computers.
5. Blog (web log): Sites generally used to post online diaries which
may include discussion forums (e.g., blogger, Xanga). Many
bloggers use blogs like an editorial section of a newspaper to
express their ideas on anything ranging from politics to religion to
video games to parenting, along with anything in between. Some
bloggers are professional bloggers and they are paid to blog about
a certain subject, and they are usually found on news sites.
6. Brand building site: A site with the purpose of creating an

experience of a brand online. These sites usually do not sell
anything, but focus on building the brand. Brand building sites are
most common for low-value, high-volume fast moving consumer
goods (FMCG).
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7. Celebrity website: A website whose information revolves around
a celebrity. This sites can be official (endorsed by the celebrity) or
fan made (run by his/her fan, fans, without implicit endorsement).
8. Click-to-donate site: A website that allows the visitor to donate

to charity simply by clicking on a button or answering a question
correctly. An advertiser usually donates to the charity for each
correct answer generated.
9. Community site: A site where persons with similar interests

communicate with each other, usually by chat or message boards.
10. Content site: Sites whose business is the creation and distribution
of original content
11. Corporate website: Used to provide background information

about a business, organization, or service.
12. Dating website: A site where users can find other single people
looking for long range relationships, dating, or just friends.
13. Electronic commerce (e-commerce) site: A site offering goods

and services for online sale and enabling online transactions for
such sales.
14. Forum website: A site where people discuss various topics.
15. Gallery Website: A website designed specifically for use as a

Gallery, these may be an art gallery or photo gallery and of
commercial or non-commercial nature.
16. Government Site: A website made by the local, state, department

or national government of a country. Usually these sites also
operate websites that are intended to inform tourists or support
tourism.
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17. Gripe site: A site devoted to the criticism of a person, place,
corporation, government, or institution.
18. Gaming website and Gambling website: A site that lets users
play online games. Some enable people to gamble online.
19. Humor site: exists only to amuse.
20. Information site: Most websites could fit in this type of website
to some extent many of them are not necessarily for commercial
purposes
21. Media sharing site: A site that enables users to upload and view
media such as pictures, music, and videos
22. Mirror site: A website that is the replication of another website.

This type of websites is used as a response to spikes in user
visitors.
Mirror sites are most commonly used to provide multiple sources

of the same information, and are of particular value as a way of
providing reliable access to large downloads.
23. Microblog site: A short and simple form of blogging. Micro

blogs are limited to certain amounts of characters and works
similar to a status update on Face book
24. News site: Similar to information site, but dedicated to dispensing

news, politics, and commentary.
25. Personal website: Websites about an individual or a small group

(such as a family) that contains information or any content that
the individual wishes to include.
Many personal homepages are rare, thanks to the modern era of

social networking sites such as Myspace, but some are still used
for at home businesses. This website is different from a Celebrity
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website, which can be very expensive and run by a publicist or
agency.
26. Phishing site: A website created to fraudulently acquire sensitive

information, such as passwords and credit card details, by
masquerading as a trustworthy person or business (such as Social
Security Administration, PayPal) in an electronic communication.
27. p2p/Torrents website: Websites that index torrent files. This

type of website is different from a Bit torrent client which is
usually stand alone software.
28. Political site: A site on which people may voice political views,
show political humor, campaigning for elections, or show
information about a certain political party or ideology.
29. Porn site: A site that shows sexually plain content for enjoyment
and relaxation. They can be similar to a personal website when
it's a website of a porn actor/actress or a media sharing website
where user can upload from their own sexually explicit material
to movies made by adult studios.
30. Question and Answer (Q&A) Site: Answer site is a site where
people can ask questions & get answers.
31. Rating site: A site on which people can praise or laugh at what is
featured.
32. Religious site: A site in which people may advertise a place of

worship, or provide inspiration or seek to encourage the faith of a
follower of that religion.
33. Review site: A site on which people can post reviews for
products or services.
34. School site: A site on which teachers, students, or administrators

can post information about current events at or involving their
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school. Ugandan school websites generally use .sc, .ac in the
URL
35. Scraper site: a site which largely duplicates without permission

the content of another site, without actually pretending to be that
site, in order to capture some of that site's traffic (especially from
search engines) and profit from advertising revenue or in other
ways.
36. Search engine site: A website that indexes material on the

Internet or an intranet (and lately on traditional media such as
books and newspapers) and provides links to information as a
response to a query.
37. Shock site: Includes images or other material that is intended to

be offensive to most viewers
38. Showcase site: Web portals used by individuals and organizations

to showcase things of interest or value
39. Social bookmarking site: A site where users share other content
from the Internet and rate and comment on the content.
40. Social networking site: A site where users could communicate

with one another and share media, such as pictures, videos, music,
blogs, etc. with other users. These may include games and web
applications.
41. Warez: A site designed to host or link to materials such as music,

movies and software for the user to download.
42. Webmail: A site that provides a webmail service.
43. Web portal: A site that provides a starting point or a gateway to

other resources on the Internet or an intranet.
44. Wiki site: A site which users collaboratively edit its content.
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A Web server is a computer that delivers Web pages requested by
users. Multiple Web sites can be stored on the same Web server. A
Webmaster is the individual responsible for developing Web pages
and maintaining a Web site. Web publishing is the development and
maintenance of Web page.
Search engines
A search engine is a software program that can be used to find Web

sites, Web pages, and files on the Internet.
To find a Web site or Web page, the user just enters a word or phrase,
called the keywords or search text, in the search engine's text box,
and the search engine then displays a list of all the Web sites or Web
pages that match the keywords or search text entered.
The URLs of several Internet search engines are listed below:
Search Engine URL

AltaVista www.altavista.com
Excite www.excite.com
Google www.google.com
HotBot www.hotbot.com
Lycos www.lycos.com
WebCrawler www.webcrawler.com
Yahoo! www.yahoo.com
Askme! www.askme.com
Using the e-mail:
E-mail, or electronic mail, is the transmission of messages via a

computer network such as a local area network or the Internet.
The message can be simple text, or can include an attachment such as
a word processing document, a graphical image, an audio clip, or a
video clip.
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E-mail software creates, sends, receives, forwards, stores, prints, and
deletes e-mail messages.
An e-mail address is a combination of a user name and a domain

name that identifies a user who sends or receives e-mail. (e.g., for the
e-mail address mwondhamd@live.com, mwondhamdmd is the user
name, live.com is the domain name.)
Most e-mail programs allow users to create an address book, which

contains a list of names and e-mail addresses. Most ISPs provide
their users with a mailbox, which stores their e-mails, on a special
server called a mail server.
When an e-mail arrives at the recipient's mail server, the e-mail

transfers to a POP or POP3 server, until the recipient retrieves it with
his or her e-mail software.
Popular e-mail software includes Microsoft Outlook Express and

Eudora. Some Web sites provide e-mail services called Webmail,
which can be accessed by a Web browser.
Structure of an e-mail
An e-mail is made up of many components that include:
1. Compose, new: enables one to write a new e-mail
2. Subject: the user writes the title or heading of the message.
3. To: write the e-mail address of the recipient of the e-mail
4. C.C.: make a copy of work to other recipients, but all will know
that others have received a copy of the e-mail
5. B.C.C.: makes a copy of an e-mail to other recipients, but all will

not know that others have a copy of the same e-mail.
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6. In box: shows that list of all incoming e-mails.
7. Delete: removes an e-mail from the in-box.
8. Flag as read: shows that the e-mail was read.
Advantages of using an e-mail over ordinary mail
a) Emails are delivered extremely fast when compared to traditional

post.
b) Emails can be sent 24 hours a day, 365 days a year.
c) Webmail means emails can be sent and received from any
computer, anywhere in the world, that has an Internet connection.
d) Cheap - when using broadband, each email sent is effectively
free. Dial-up users are charged at local call rates but it only takes
a few seconds (for conventional email, eg text only) to send an
email.
e) Emails can be sent to one person or several people.
f) Computer files can be attached to an email.
g) Records and copies are kept automatically.
Disadvantages of using an e-mail over ordinary mail
a) A computer and other hardware (e.g., a modem) is required.
b) It is not secure.
c) It is easy to get on junk mail lists.
d) The recipient needs access to the Internet to receive email.
e) Viruses are easily spread via email attachments (most email

providers scan emails for viruses on your behalf).
f) Phishing - sending an email to a user falsely claiming to be a

legitimate company to cheat the user into providing information,
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such as personal information and bank account numbers on a fake
website. The details will then be used for identity theft.
g) No guarantee the mail will be read until the user logs on and
checks their email.
Cyber crime
Cybercrime refers to online or Internet-based illegal acts. These

include: -
1. Spam: or the unsolicited sending of bulk email for commercial

purposes, is unlawful. This involves sending bulk mail to persons
not known to you.
2. Fraud: is any dishonest distortion of fact intended to let another

to do or avoid doing something which causes loss. In this
situation, fraud will result in obtaining a benefit by:
a) Altering computer input in an unauthorized way. This requires

little technical expertise and is not an uncommon form of theft by
employees altering the data before entry or entering false data, or
by entering unauthorized instructions or using unauthorized
processes;
b) Altering, destroying, suppressing, or stealing output, usually to

cover up unauthorized transactions: this is difficult to detect;
c) Altering or deleting stored data;
d) Altering or misusing existing system tools or software packages,

or altering or writing code for fraudulent purposes.
3. Obscene or offensive content: The content of websites and other

electronic communications may be unpleasant, obscene or
offensive for a variety of reasons. In some instances these
communications may be illegal e.g. pornography.
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4. Harassment: it directs obscenities and belittling comments at
specific individuals focusing for example on gender, race,
religion, nationality, sexual orientation.
5. Threats: it involves written or recorded messages intended to

scare an individual or a group of individuals as a group. This may
involve writing threatening, belittling messages to the user.
6. Drug trafficking: Drug traffickers are increasingly taking

advantage of the Internet to sell their illegal substances through
encrypted e-mail and other Internet Technology. Some drug
traffickers arrange deals at internet cafes, use courier Web sites to
track illegal packages of pills, and swap guidelines for access in
say chat rooms. The rise in Internet drug trades could also be
attributed to the lack of face-to-face communication.
7. Cyber terrorism: can be defined as an act of terrorism

committed through the use of cyberspace or computer resources
(Parker 1983). As such, a simple propaganda in the Internet, that
there will be bomb attacks during the holidays can be considered
cyber terrorism.
8. An online predator is an adult Internet user who exploits

vulnerable children or teens, usually for sexual or other abusive
purposes.
Revision questions
1. (a). Define the term internet.

(b). Mention any four requirements for accessing the internet.
2. (a). Outline five services of the internet.

(b). Briefly, explain seven advantages and six disadvantages of
using the internet.
3. (a). What is e-commerce?

(b). State five advantages of e-commerce to a business.
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4. (a). Write WWW in full.
(b). State the difference between WWW and the internet.
5. (a). Define a web browser.

(b). Give five examples of web browsers in common use.
(c). Explain briefly the following websites:
i.) Affiliate.
ii.) Blog.
iii.) Content site.
iv.) Gripe site.
v.) P2P torrent site.
vi.) Social networking site.
6. (a). Give the difference between a webpage and a website.

(b). State four examples of search engines.
7. (a). What are search engines?

(b). State four examples of search engines.
8. (a). What is an e-mail?

(b). State four advantages and five disadvantages of using an
e-mail.
9. (a). Briefly, explain how an e-mail is transmitted.

(b). Give the meaning of the following:
i.) To
ii.) Compose, new
iii.) Subject
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DATA COMMUNICATIONS
Data communications refer to one computer transferring data,

instructions, and information to another computer or some other
computers.
The basic model for computer communications consists of:
1. A sending device that initiates an instruction to transmit data,

instruction, or information. e.g., Computer A, which sends out
signals to another computer (e.g., Computer B).
2. A communications device that converts the data, instruction, or

information from the sending device into signals that can be
carried by a communications channel. e.g., Modem A, which
converts the computer's digital signals into analog signals.
3. A communications channel, or path, over which the signals are

sent. e.g., a standard telephone line, along which the analog
signals are sent. Communication channels takes the following
methods:
Simplex channel
The message source is the transmitter, and the destination is the

receiver. A channel whose direction of transmission is
unchanging is referred to as a simplex channel. For example, a
radio station is a simplex channel because it always transmits the
signal to its listeners and never allows them to transmit back.
A half-duplex channel
Is a single physical channel in which the direction may be

reversed. Messages may flow in two directions, but never at the
same time, in a half-duplex system. In a telephone call, one party
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speaks while the other listens. After a pause, the other party
speaks and the first party listens. Speaking simultaneously results
in garbled sound that cannot be understood.
A full-duplex channel
Allows simultaneous message exchange in both directions. It

really consists of two simplex channels, a forward channel and a
reverse channel, linking the same points. The transmission rate of
the reverse channel may be slower if it is used only for flow
control of the forward channel.
4. A communications device that receives the signals from the

communications channel and converts them into a form
understood by the receiving device. e.g., Modem B, which
converts the analog signals back into digital signals.
5. A receiving device (i.e., Computer B) that accepts the signals

from Computer A.
6. Communications software, which consists of programs that

manage the transmission of data, instructions, and information
between computers.
Uses of computer communications include
1. VoIP (VoIP, abbreviation of voice over Internet Protocol)

commonly refers to the communication protocols, technologies,
methodologies, and transmission techniques involved in the
delivery of voice communications and multimedia sessions over
Internet Protocol (IP) networks, such as the Internet.
2. Voice mail: functions like an answering machine and allows a

caller to leave a voice message, which is stored in a voice
mailbox, for the called party.
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3. Fax: A facsimile (fax) machine is a device that transmits and
receives documents over telephone lines. Documents sent or
received via a fax machine are known as faxes. Fax capability can
also be added to the computer using a fax modem.
Advantages of Fax
a) Hard copies are available.

Disadvantages of Fax
a) Sending a big document can be slow.
b) Wasteful of paper when junk faxes are sent
4. E-mail, or electronic mail, is the transmission of messages via a

The message can be simple text, or can include an attachment
such as a word processing document, a graphical image, an audio
clip, or a video clip.
5. BBS: A bulletin board system (BBS) is a computer that maintains

a centralized collection of electronic messages.
6. Instant messaging: is a real-time communications service that

7. Chat rooms: is a location on an Internet server that permits users

to chat with each other by typing lines of text on the computer.
Some chat rooms support voice chats and video chats. To start a
chat session, a user must connect to a chat server through a chat
client program on his or her computer. Most Web browsers also
include a chat client.
8. Newsgroups: also called a discussion group, is an online area

where users conduct written discussions about a particular
subject.
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9. Internet telephony: sometimes called Voice over IP (VoIP), is a
Web-based telephone service that allows a user to talk to others
for just the cost of the Internet connection.
10. Videoconferencing: is a meeting between two or more

Internet to transmit audio and video data.
a) A videoconference conducted over the Internet, using Web

browsers and Web servers to deliver the service, is called a Web
conference.
b) A videoconference allows participants to collaborate as if they

were in the same room.
c) Videoconferencing software along with a microphone, speakers,

and a web cam attached to the computer are required to
participate in a videoconference.
11. Groupware: is a software application that helps groups of people

work together and share information over a network. Groupware
enables members of a workgroup to communicate, manage
projects, schedule meetings, and make group decisions
12. Telecommuting: is a work arrangement so that employees may

work away from the standard workplace of a company, but
communicate with the office using some kinds of
communications technology.
Advantages of telecommuting include
a) Reduces the time and expenses for traveling to and from work.
b) Eliminates traveling during unsafe weather conditions.
c) Allows a flexible work schedule for employees.
d) Provide a convenient, comfortable work environment for disabled
employees or those recovering from injury or illness.
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e) Reduces air pollution caused by vehicles driven to and from
work.
f) Employers reduce costs due to less office space and furniture is
required.
Disadvantages of telecommuting include
a) Reduced human face-to-face interactions among working staff.
b) Work has to stop if any component of the communications
system fails to work.
c) Leisure time at home may be replaced by work.
d) Data security may be jeopardized.
13. Global positioning system (GPS): consists of one or more earth-

based receivers that accept and analyze signals sent by satellites
in order to determine the receiver's geographic location.
Uses of GPS include
a) To locate a person or an object

b) Ascertain the best route between two points
c) Monitor the movement of a person or object
d) Create a map
e) Many cars and ships also use GPS to provide directions to a
destination and weather information.
14. FTP: (File Transfer Protocol) is an Internet standard that allows

users to upload and download files with other computers.
Common terms related to FTP include:
 An FTP server is a computer that allows users to upload and

download files using FTP.
 An FTP site is a collection of files that reside on an FTP server.

Some FTP sites limit file transfers to users who have authorized
accounts. Many FTP sites allow anonymous FTP, so that anyone
can transfer some or all available files.
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An operating system with FTP capabilities or a separate FTP program
is required to upload files to an FTP site.
15. Blog: is a discussion or informational site published on the World

Wide Web and consisting of discrete entries ("posts") typically
displayed in reverse order (the most recent post appears first).
16. RSS (Rich Site Summary) (originally RDF Site Summary, often
dubbed Really Simple Syndication) is a family of web feed
formats used to publish frequently updated works—such as blog
entries, news headlines, audio, and video—in a standardized
format. An RSS document (which is called a "feed", "web feed",
or "channel") includes full or summarized text, plus metadata
such as publishing dates and authorship.
17. Wiki: is a website which allows its users to add, modify, or delete
its content using a web browser usually with help of a simplified
markup language or a rich-text editor. Wikis are powered by wiki
software. Most are created collaboratively.
Wikis serve many different purposes, such as knowledge

management and note taking. Wikis can be community websites
and intranets. Some permit control over different functions (levels
of access). Editing rights may permit changing, adding or
removing material. Others permit access without implementing
access control. Other rules may also be imposed for organizing
content.
18. Internet: The Internet is a worldwide collection of networks

linked together.
19. Web 2.0: Describes web sites that use technology beyond the
static pages of earlier web sites. A Web 2.0 site may allow users
to interact and collaborate with each other in a social media
dialogue as creators of user-generated content in a virtual
community, in contrast to websites where people are limited to
the passive viewing of content. Examples of Web 2.0 include
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social networking sites, blogs, wikis, video sharing sites, hosted
services, web applications, mashups and folksonomies.
20. Web collaboration: It provides an organization with the

capability to work together with customers or internally via the
Internet in real time. Web collaboration packages generally
consist of Web-based tools within Web sites to assist an
organization in the area of sales, new revenue-generation
opportunities, and to enhance customer satisfaction.
Web collaboration is essentially the back-end software or service

that allows your center to share Web pages with customers while
offering voice and text chat assistance or to conduct single or
multi-user conferences and seminars.
Revision questions
1. (a). Define the term ‗data communication‘.

(b). Briefly, explain the basic model for data communication.
2. (a). Explain five uses of computer communication.

(b). State three advantages of using:
i.) Videoconferencing.
ii.) Telecommuting.
iii.) Fax.
3. (a). Distinguish between a wiki and an RSS feed.

(b). Write the following in full:
i.) RSS
ii.) FTP
iii.) GPS
iv.) BBS
v.) VoIP
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COMPUTER NETWORKS
What is a Network?
A network consists of two or more computers that are linked in order

to share resources (such as printers and CDs), exchange files, or
allow electronic communications.
The computers on a network may be linked through cables, telephone

lines, radio waves, satellites, or infrared light beams.
Common types of networks include
Local Area Network
A Local Area Network (LAN) is a network that is confined to a

relatively small geographical area.
It is generally limited to a geographic area such as a writing lab,

school, or building.
Metropolitan Area Network
A Metropolitan Area Network (MAN) is a network that is slightly

larger than a LAN but smaller than a WAN.
It covers about a district, or a university campus.

Wide Area Network
Wide Area Networks (WANs) connect networks in larger geographic

areas, such as the world.
Dedicated transoceanic cabling or satellite uplinks may be used to

connect this type of global network.
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Wireless LANs
More and more networks are operating without cables, in the wireless
mode. Wireless LANs (WLAN) use high frequency radio signals,
infrared light beams, or lasers to communicate between the
workstations, servers, or hubs.
Each workstation and file server on a wireless network has some sort
of transceiver/antenna to send and receive the data. Information is
relayed between transceivers as if they were physically connected.
For longer distance, wireless communications can also take place

through cellular telephone technology, microwave transmission, or
by satellite.
Wireless standards and speeds
The Wi-Fi Alliance is a global, non-profit organization that helps to

ensure standards and interoperability for wireless networks, and
wireless networks are often referred to as WiFi (Wireless Fidelity).
The original Wi-Fi standard (IEEE 802.11) was adopted in 1997.
Since then many variations have emerged (and will continue to
emerge). Wi-Fi networks use the Ethernet protocol.
Standard Max Speed Typical Range

802.11a 54 Mbps 150 feet
802.11b 11 Mbps 300 feet
802.11g 54 Mbps 300 feet
802.11n 100 Mbps 300+ feet
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Advantages of Installing Network
1. File Management
File management is where the network allocates where you store your
files within the network in-order for later recovery by the user for
example saving a word document in a certain place so that only you
can access it and nobody else.
2. Shared Storage
Shared storage is where the network allocates storage for files that
can be viewed and accessed by other people within the network for
example having a document that many people will need to view and
edit would get stored in the shared storage area of the network.
3. Account Management
Account management is where the network provides user accounts to

log in to the network, different people will need different access, for
example employee will need to log in into a employees account
where rights are limited where as a admin will log in into a admin
account where they have full access rights.
4. Web Services
Web services are managed by the network in-order to restrict the end
users on computers from accessing potentially bad websites, these
can include pornography and sites deemed unsafe to the network.
They will do this by blocking the access to such website.
5. Printing
Printing services are where the network allocates printers to certain

machines for example having one printer per floor for an office or
room in-order to save time from having to go different places to
receive a printout.
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6. Flexible Access
Computer networks enable people to access their information from

connected devices throughout the organisation. Students can begin an
assignment in their classroom, save part of it on a public access area
of the network, then go to the media centre after school to finish their
work. Students can also work co-operatively through the network.
7. Workgroup Computing
Collaborative software allows many users to work on a document or

project concurrently. For example, educators located at various
schools within a county could simultaneously contribute their ideas
about new curriculum standards to the same document, spreadsheets,
or website.
Disadvantages of Installing a School Network
1. Expensive to Install
Large campus networks can carry large price tags. Cabling, network
cards, routers, bridges, firewalls, wireless access points, and software
can get expensive, and the installation would certainly require the
services of technicians.
2. Requires Administrative Time
Proper maintenance of a network requires considerable time and

expertise.
Many organizations have installed a network, only to find that they

did not budget for the necessary administrative support.
3. Servers Fail
Although a network server is liable to failure than any other

computer, when the files server "goes down" the entire network may
bring work to a standstill.
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4. Cables May Break
One broken cable can stop the entire network.
5. Security and compliance
Network security is expensive. A great deal of attention must be paid

to network services to ensure all network content is appropriate for
the network community it serves.
Network architecture or LAN Model
The two major types of network architecture or LAN Models are:

1. Peer-to-Peer
2. Client/Server
Peer-to-Peer
Peer-to-peer network architecture allows users to share resources and

files located on their computers and to access shared resources found
on other computers. However, they do not have a file server or a
centralized management source.
In a peer-to-peer network, all computers are considered equal; they

all have the same abilities to use the resources available on the
network. Peer-to-peer networks are designed primarily for small to
medium local area networks.
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Advantages of a peer-to-peer network
 Less initial expense - No need for a dedicated server.

 Setup - An operating system (such as Windows XP) already in
place may only need to be reconfigured for peer-to-peer
operations.
Disadvantages of a peer-to-peer network
 Decentralized - No central store for files and applications.

 Security - Does not provide the security available on a
client/server network.
Client/Server
Client/server network architecture allows the network to centralize

functions and applications in one or more dedicated file servers. The
file servers become the heart of the system, providing access to
resources and providing security.
Individual workstations (clients) have access to the resources

available on the file servers.
A server is the host or central computer that manages the resources
on a network. A server provides a centralized storage area for
programs, data, and information.
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Advantages of a client/server network
1. Centralized - Resources and data security are controlled through

the server.
2. Scalability - Any or all elements can be replaced individually as
needs increase.
3. Flexibility - New technology can be easily integrated into system.
4. Interoperability - All components (client/network/server) work
together.
5. Accessibility - Server can be accessed remotely and across
multiple platforms.
Disadvantages of a client/server network
1. Expense - Requires initial investment in dedicated server.

2. Maintenance - Large networks will require a staff to ensure
efficient operation.
3. Dependence - When server goes down, operations will cease
across the network.
Network Topology
The physical topology of a network refers to the configuration of

cables, computers, and other peripherals. Physical topology should
not be confused with logical topology which is the method used to
pass information between workstations.
Main Types of Physical Topologies
Line / Linear / Bus / Multi – drop / Daisy wheel topology
A linear bus topology consists of a main run of cable with a

terminator at each end. All nodes (file server, workstations, and
peripherals) are connected to the linear cable.
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Advantages of a Linear Bus Topology
1. Easy to implement and extend.
2. Well suited for temporary networks (quick set-up).
3. Typically the cheapest topology to implement.
4. Failure of one station does not affect others.
5. Easy to connect a computer or peripheral to a linear bus.
6. Requires less cable length than a star topology.
Disadvantages of a Linear Bus Topology
1. Limited cable length and number of stations

2. A cable break can disable the entire network
3. Maintenance costs may be higher in the long run
4. Performance degrades as additional computers are added
5. Entire network shuts down if there is a break in the main cable.
6. Terminators are required at both ends of the backbone cable.
7. Difficult to identify the problem if the entire network shuts down.
8. Not meant to be used as a stand-alone solution in a large building.
Star topology
A star topology is designed with each node

(file server, workstations, and peripherals)
connected directly to a central network hub,
switch, or concentrator. Data on a star
network passes through the hub, switch, or
concentrator before continuing to its
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destination.
The hub, switch, or concentrator manages and controls all functions

of the network. It also acts as a repeater for the data flow. This
configuration is common with twisted pair cable; however, it can also
be used with coaxial cable or fibre optic cable.
Advantages of a Star Topology
1. Easy to install and wire.

2. No disruptions to the network when connecting or removing
devices.
3. Easy to detect faults and to remove parts.
Disadvantages of a Star Topology
1. Requires more cable length than a linear topology.

2. If the hub, switch, or concentrator fails, nodes attached are
disabled.
3. More expensive than linear bus topologies because of the cost of
the hub
Tree or Expanded Star
A tree topology combines

characteristics of linear bus and
star topologies. It consists of
groups of star - configured
workstations connected to a linear
bus backbone cable. Tree
topologies allow for the expansion
of an existing network, and enable
schools to configure a network to
meet their needs.
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Advantages of a Tree Topology
1. Point-to-point wiring for individual segments.

2. Supported by several hardware and software venders.
Disadvantages of a Tree Topology
1. Overall length of each segment is limited by the type of cabling

used.
2. If the backbone line breaks, the entire segment goes down.
3. More difficult to configure and wire than other topologies.
Mesh topology
A network topology in which there are at least two
nodes with two or more paths between them. A
special kind of mesh, limiting the number of hops
between two nodes, is a hypercube.
Ring topology
A network topology in which every node has exactly
two branches connected to it. These nodes and branches
form a ring. If one of the nodes on the ring fails then the
ring is broken and cannot work.
A dual ring topology has four branches connected to it, and is more
resistant to failures.
Advantages
1. Growth of the system has minimal impact on performance

2. All stations have equal access
3. Each node on the ring acts as a repeater, allowing ring networks
to span greater distances than other physical topologies.
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Disadvantages
1. Often the most expensive topology

2. Failure of one computer may impact others
A grid network
Is a kind of computer network consisting of a number
of (computer) systems connected in a grid topology. In
a regular grid topology, each node in the network is
connected with two neighbours along one or more
dimensions.
If the network is one-dimensional, and the chain of nodes is

connected to form a circular loop, the resulting topology is known as
a ring.
Considerations when choosing a network topology
1. Cost of installation.
2. Number of computers and other devices.
3. Architecture of the building to be used.
4. Purpose of the network.
5. Distance of connectivity.
6. Safety provisions of the network.
7. Personnel provisions/technicalities involved.
8. Ease in accessing the network/ speed on the network.
9. Future growth of the organization and expansion of the network.
Network Protocol
What is a Protocol?
A protocol is a set of rules that governs communications between

computers on a network.
In order for two computers to talk to each other, they must be

speaking the same language. Many different types of network
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protocols and standards are required to ensure that your computer (no
matter which operating system, network card, or application you are
using) can communicate with another computer located on the next
desk or half-way around the world.
The OSI (Open Systems Interconnection) Reference Model defines

seven layers of networking protocols. They can be simplified into
four layers to help identify some of the protocols with which you
should be familiar.
OSI Layer Name Common Protocols

7 Application
6 Presentation HTTP | FTP | SMTP | DNS | Telnet
5 Session
4 Transport TCP | SPX
3 Network IP | IPX
2 Data Link
Ethernet
1 Physical
The table above illustrates how some of the major protocols would
connect to the OSI model in order to communicate via the Internet. In
this model, there are four layers, including:
 Ethernet (Physical/Data Link Layers)

 IP/IPX (Network Layer)
 TCP/SPX (Transport Layer)
 HTTP, FTP, Telnet, SMTP, and DNS(combined Session /
Presentation / Application Layers)
Assuming you want to send an e-mail message to someone in Italy,

we will examine the layers "from the bottom up" -- beginning with
Ethernet (physical/data link layers).
Ethernet (Physical / Data Link Layers)
The physical layer of the network focuses on hardware elements,

such as cables, repeaters, and network interface cards. By far the
most common protocol used at the physical layer is Ethernet. For
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example, an Ethernet network (such as 10BaseT or 100BaseTX)
specifies the type of cables that can be used, the optimal topology
(star vs. bus, etc.), the maximum length of cables, etc.
The data link layer of the network addresses the way that data packets
are sent from one node to another. Ethernet uses an access method
called CSMA/CD (Carrier Sense Multiple Access / Collision
Detection). This is a system where each computer listens to the cable
before sending anything through the network. If the network is clear,
the computer will transmit. If some other node is already transmitting
on the cable, the computer will wait and try again when the line is
clear.
Sometimes, two computers attempt to transmit at the same instant.

When this happens a collision occurs. Each computer then backs off
and waits a random amount of time before attempting to retransmit.
With this access method, it is normal to have collisions. However, the
delay caused by collisions and retransmitting is very small and does
not normally affect the speed of transmission on the network.
Fast Ethernet
The Fast Ethernet protocol supports transmission up to 100 Mbps.

Fast Ethernet requires the use of different, more expensive network
concentrators / hubs and network interface cards.
In addition, category 5 twisted pair or fiber optic cable is necessary.
Fast Ethernet standards include:
 100BaseT - 100 Mbps over 2-pair category 5 or better UTP cable.

 100BaseFX - 100 Mbps over fiber cable.
 100BaseSX -100 Mbps over multimode fiber cable.
 100BaseBX - 100 Mbps over single mode fiber cable.
Gigabit Ethernet
Gigabit Ethernet standard is a protocol that has a transmission speed

of 1 Gbps (1000 Mbps). It can be used with both fiber optic cabling
and copper.
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 1000BaseT - 1000 Mbps over 2-pair category 5 or better UTP
cable.
 1000BaseTX - 1000 Mbps over 2-pair category 6 or better UTP
cable.
 1000BaseFX - 1000 Mbps over fiber cable.
 1000BaseSX -1000 Mbps over multimode fiber cable.
 1000BaseBX - 1000 Mbps over single mode fiber cable.
The Ethernet standards continue to evolve. with 10 Gigabit Ethernet

(10,000 Mbps) and 100 Gigabit Ethernet (100,000 Mbps),
Ethernet Protocol Summary
Protocol Cable Speed

Ethernet Twisted Pair, Coaxial, Fiber 10 Mbps
Fast Ethernet Twisted Pair, Fiber 100 Mbps
Gigabit Ethernet Twisted Pair, Fiber 1000 Mbps
IP and IPX (Network Layer)
The network layer is in charge of routing network messages (data)

from one computer to another. The common protocols at this layer
are IP (which is paired with TCP at the transport layer for Internet
network) and IPX (which is paired with SPX at the transport layer for
some older Macintosh, Linux, UNIX, Novell and Windows
networks). Because of the growth in Internet-based networks, IP/TCP
are becoming the leading protocols for most networks.
Every network device (such as network interface cards and printers)

has a physical address called a MAC (Media Access Control)
address. When you purchase a network card, the MAC address is
fixed and cannot be changed.
Networks using the IP and IPX protocols assign logical addresses

(which are made up of the MAC address and the network address) to
the devices on the network, Network layer takes care of assigning the
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correct addresses (via IP or IPX) and then uses routers to send the
data packets to other networks.
TCP and SPX (Transport Layer)
The transport layer is concerned with efficient and reliable

transportation of the data packets from one network to another. In
most cases, a document, e-mail message or other piece of information
is not sent as one unit. Instead, it is broken into small data packets,
each with header information that identifies its correct sequence and
document.
When the data packets are sent over a network, they may or may not
take the same route. At the receiving end, the data packets are re-
assembled into the proper order. After all packets are received, a
message goes back to the originating network. If a packet does not
arrive, a message to "re-send" is sent back to the originating network.
TCP, paired with IP, is by far the most popular protocol at the
transport level. If the IPX protocol is used at the network layer (on
networks such as Novell or Microsoft), then it is paired with SPX at
the transport layer.
HTTP, FTP, SMTP and DNS (Session/Presentation/Application

Layers)
Several protocols overlap the session, presentation, and application

layers of networks. Protocols listed below are a few of the more well-
known:
1. DNS - Domain Name System - translates network address (such
as IP addresses) into terms understood by humans (such as
Domain Names) and vice-versa
2. DHCP - Dynamic Host Configuration Protocol - can

automatically assign Internet addresses to computers and users
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3. FTP - File Transfer Protocol - a protocol that is used to transfer
and manipulate files on the Internet
4. HTTP – Hyper Text Transfer Protocol - An Internet-based

protocol for sending and receiving WebPages
5. IMAP - Internet Message Access Protocol - A protocol for e-mail

messages on the Internet
6. IRC - Internet Relay Chat - a protocol used for Internet chat and
other communications
7. POP3 - Post Office protocol Version 3 - a protocol used by e-

mail clients to retrieve messages from remote servers
8. SMTP - Simple Mail Transfer Protocol - A protocol for e-mail

messages on the Internet
Other common network communication standards:
1. Bluetooth: is a kind of short-range (about 10 meters) broadcast

radio communications, which can transmit data at a rate of 1
Mbps among Bluetooth-enabled devices.
Examples of Bluetooth devices include desktop computers,

notebook computers, handheld computers, Internet appliances,
cellular telephones, and printers.
2. UWB (also known as UWB, ultra-wide band and ultra band): is a

radio technology which may be used at a very low energy level
for short-range, high-bandwidth communications using a large
portion of the radio spectrum.
3. IrDA (Infrared Data Association): allows wireless devices to

transmit data via infrared light waves. The IrDA port on the
computer and the IrDA port on the peripheral device must be
aligned so that nothing obstructs the path of the infrared light
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wave. Devices that use IrDA ports include keyboards, mouse, and
printer.
4. RFID (Radio-Frequency Identification): is the use of a wireless

non-contact system that uses radio-frequency electromagnetic
fields to transfer data from a tag attached to an object, for the
purposes of automatic identification and tracking. Some tags
require no battery and are powered and read at short ranges via
magnetic fields (electromagnetic induction).
Others use a local power source and emit radio waves

(electromagnetic radiation at radio frequencies). The tag contains
electronically stored information which can be read from up to
several meters away. Unlike a bar code, the tag does not need to
be within line of sight of the reader and may be embedded in the
tracked object
5. WiMAX (Worldwide Interoperability for Microwave Access): is

a wireless communications standard designed to provide 30 to 40
megabit-per-second data rates, with the 2011 update providing up
to 1 Gbit/s for fixed stations. WiMAX is described as "a
standards-based technology enabling the delivery of last mile
wireless broadband access as an alternative to cable and DSL".
6. WAP (Wireless Application Protocol): is a technical standard for

accessing information over a mobile wireless network. A WAP
browser is a web browser for mobile devices such as mobile
phones that uses the protocol.
Before the introduction of WAP, mobile service providers had

limited opportunities to offer interactive data services, but needed
interactivity to support Internet and Web applications such as:
 Email by mobile phone

 Tracking of stock-market prices
 Sports results
 News headlines
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 Music downloads
Revision questions
1. (a). What is a network?

(b). Write short notes on the following:
i.) LAN.
ii.) MAN.
iii.) WAN.
iv.) WLAN.
2. (a). State four advantages of installing computer networks.

(b). Outline four disadvantages of computer networks.
3. (a). Distinguish between a peer – to – peer and client / server

network architecture.
(b). Explain the following forms of servers:
i.) A dedicated server.

ii.) File server.
iii.) Printer server.
iv.) Database server.
v.) Network server.
(c). State four advantages of a client / server network.
4. (a). Define a network topology.

(b). With illustrations, describe briefly any four examples of
network topologies.
5. (a). What is a network protocal?

(b). Explain the following:
i.) IP/IPX.
ii.) TCP/SPX.
iii.) HTTP.
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iv.) FTP.
v.) SMTP.
vi.) DNS.
vii.) DHCP.
viii.) Telnet.
6. (a). Describe the following:
i.) WAP.
ii.) WiMAX.
iii.) RFID.
iv.) IrDA.
v.) UWB.
vi.) Bluetooth.
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NETWORK PHYSICAL TRANSMISSION
MEDIA
Networking hardware includes all computers, peripherals, interface

cards and other equipment needed to perform data-processing and
communications within the network.
File / Network / Printer / Database Server
A server provides access control, file sharing, printer sharing, email,

database, and other services. A server provides a centralized storage
area for programs, data, and information.
Types of servers include:

a) A dedicated server is a server that performs specific tasks.
b) A file server stores and manages files.
c) A printer server manages printers and print jobs.

d) A database server stores and provides access to a database.
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e) A network server (e.g., a DNS) manages network traffic.
When configuring a server, budget is usually the controlling factor.

The following guidelines should be followed:
1. Fastest processor(s)
2. Large amount of RAM
3. Multiple large, fast hard drives
4. Extra expansion slots
5. Fast network interface card(s)
Optionally (if no other such devices are available on the network):
6. A RAID (Redundant Array of Inexpensive Disks) to preserve

large amounts of data (even after a disk failure)
7. A back-up unit (i.e. DAT tape drive, removable hard drives, or

CD / DVD / BluRay burner)
Workstation
Is a computer that is configured with a network interface card,

networking software, and the appropriate cables. Workstations do not
necessarily need large storage hard drives, because files can be saved
on the file server. Almost any computer can serve as a network
workstation.
Network Interface Card
The network interface card (NIC) provides the physical connection

between the network and the computer workstation. Most NICs are
internal, and they are included in the purchase of most computers.
Network interface cards are a major factor in determining the speed
and performance of a network. It is a good idea to use the fastest
network card available for the type of workstation you are using. The
most common network interface connections are Ethernet cards and
wireless adapters.
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Ethernet Cards
Ethernet cards are usually included with a computer, although

additional ethernet cards can be purchased and installed on most
computers. Ethernet cards can contain connections for either coaxial
or twisted pair cables (or both). If it is designed for coaxial cable, the
connection will be BNC.
If it is designed for twisted pair, it will have a RJ-45 connection.

Some Ethernet cards also contain an AUI connector. This can be used
to attach coaxial, twisted pair, or fiber optics cable to an Ethernet
card. When this method is used there is always an external
transceiver attached to the workstation. Only the RJ-45 connector is
found on most modern ethernet cards
From top to bottom:
RJ-45, AUI, and BNC connectors

Wireless Adapters
Wireless adapters are found in most portable devices, such as laptops,

smart phones, and tablet devices. External wireless adapters can be
purchased and installed on most computers having an open USB
(Universal Serial Bus) port, or unused expansion slot.
Switches
An Ethernet switch is a device that provides a central connection

point for cables from workstations, servers, and peripherals. In a star
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topology, twisted-pair wire is run from each workstation to a central
switch / hub. Most switches are active, that is they electrically
amplify the signal as it moves from one device to another. The
predecessor of the switch was the hub, which broadcasted all inbound
packets out all ports of the device, creating huge amounts of
unnecessary network traffic. Modern switches build a port map of all
IP address which responds on each port, and only broadcasts on all
ports when it doesn't have a packet's target IP address already in its
port map. Switches are:
 Usually configured with 8, 12, or 24 RJ-45 ports
 Often used in a star or tree topology
 Available as "managed" or "unmanaged", with the later less
expensive, but adequate for smaller networks
 Direct replacements for hubs, immediately reducing network
traffic in most networks
 Usually installed in a standardized metal rack that also may store
network servers, bridges, or routers
Repeaters
Since a signal loses strength as it passes along a cable, it is often

necessary to boost the signal with a device called a repeater. The
repeater electrically amplifies the signal it receives and rebroadcasts
it. Repeaters can be separate devices or they can be included into a
concentrator. They are used when the total length of your network
cable exceeds the standards set for the type of cable being used.
Bridges
A bridge is a device that allows you to segment a large network into

two smaller, more efficient networks. If you are adding to an older
wiring scheme and want the new network to be up-to-date, a bridge
can connect the two.
The bridge manages the traffic to maintain optimum performance on

both sides of the network. You might say that the bridge is like a
traffic cop at a busy intersection during rush hour.
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It keeps information flowing on both sides of the network, but it does
not allow unnecessary traffic through. Bridges can be used to connect
different types of cabling, or physical topologies. They must,
however, be used between networks with the same protocol.
Routers
Routers are the traffic directors of the global internet. All routers
maintain complex routing tables which allow them to determine
appropriate paths for packets destined for any address. Routers
communicate with each other, and forward network packets out of or
into a network. Here's an example:
While bridges know the addresses of all computers on each side of

the network, routers know the addresses other routers which in turn
know about their own networks. Routers can even "listen" to entire
networks to determine which sections are busiest -- they can then
redirect data around those sections until traffic congestion clears.
So, routers are network gateways. They move network packets from
one network to another, and many can convert from one network
protocol to another as necessary. Routers select the best path to route
a message, based on the destination address of the packet. The router
can direct traffic to prevent head-on collisions, and is smart enough to
know when to direct traffic along back roads and shortcuts.
If you have a school LAN that you want to connect to the Internet,
you will need to purchase a router. In this case, the router serves as
the forwarder between the information on your LAN and the Internet.
It also determines the best route to send the data over the Internet.
Firewalls
A firewall is a networking device that is installed at the entrance to a

LAN when connecting networks together, particularly when
connecting a private network to a public network, such as the
internet. The firewall uses rules to filter traffic into and out of the
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private network, to protect the private network users and data from
malicious hackers.
Firewalls are either hardware or software, depending on their

intended use. A firewall used to protect a network is a hardware
device that should be installed in the network between the router and
the network. Almost all hardware firewalls will have at least two
ports, labeled "Trusted" and "Untrusted". These terms imply the true
nature of the firewall's responsibility to the private network. The
public network is connected to the untrusted network port, and the
private network is connected to the trusted port.
Firewall rules are usually simple, consisting of a verb, either allow or

deny, the direction of the traffic, either inbound or outbound, and an
address or other network traffic identifier. Firewall rules are
cumulative, so general rules may be specified, and exceptions added
as necessary. Some examples are:
 Allow outbound all (all private network users can do anything on
the public network)
 Deny inbound all (default setting to prevent all traffic from the
public or untrusted port, to the private port)
 Allow inbound port 80 (allow internet web traffic to come into
network to find web servers)
 Allow inbound port 80 destined to 170.200.201.25 (allow
inbound web traffic to a specific web server on your private
network)
 Deny inbound from 201.202.1.1/24 (deny all inbound traffic from
a specific IP address or range of addresses)
Software firewalls are commonly included in modern workstation

and server operating systems. They operate in a similar way as
hardware firewalls, except that they filter traffic in and out of the
machine itself.
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COMMUNICATIONS SOFTWARE
It consists of programs that help to establish a connection to another

computer or network, and manage the transmission of data,
instructions, and information between computers and other devices.
Communications software usually includes one or more of the

following features:
 Dialing feature that allows a user to store, review, select, and dial
telephone numbers to connect to another computer.
 File transfer feature that allows a user to send one or more files
from one computer to another.
 Terminal emulation feature that allows a personal computer to act

as a specific type of terminal, so that the user can connect to and
access data and resources on a minicomputer or mainframe.
 Internet access feature that allows a user to use the computer to

connect to the Internet to send e-mail, participate in chat rooms,
visit World Wide Web sites, and so on.
Software related to communications includes

1. E-mail software
E-mail, or electronic mail, is the transmission of messages via a

a) The message can be simple text, or can include an attachment

such as a word processing document, a graphical image, an audio
clip, or a video clip.
b) E-mail software creates, sends, receives, forwards, stores, prints,

and deletes e-mail messages.
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c) An e-mail address is a combination of a user name and a domain
name that identifies a user who sends or receives e-mail.
d) Most e-mail programs allow users to create an address book,

which contains a list of names and e-mail addresses.
e) Most ISPs provide their users with a mailbox, which stores their
e-mails, on a special server called a mail server.
f) When an e-mail arrives at the recipient's mail server, the e-mail

transfers to a POP or POP3 server, until the recipient retrieves it
with his or her e-mail software.
g) Popular e-mail software includes Microsoft Outlook Express and

Eudora.
h) Some Web sites provide e-mail services called Webmail, which

can be accessed by a Web browser.
2. Web browser
A Web browser allows a user to access and view Web pages on the
Internet.
a) Most Web browsers also allow the use of other Internet services
such as e-mail and chat rooms.
b) Two popular Web browsers are Microsoft Internet Explorer and

Netscape Navigator.
3. Chat room software
A chat room is a location on an Internet server that permits users to

chat with each other by typing lines of text on the computer.
a) Some chat rooms support voice chats and video chats.

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b) To start a chat session, a user must connect to a chat server
through a chat client program on his or her computer.
c) Most Web browsers also include a chat client.
4. Newsreader
A newsgroup, also called a discussion group, is an online area where

users conduct written discussions about a particular subject. To
participate in a discussion, a user sends a message to the newsgroup,
and other users in the newsgroup read and reply to the message.
A thread or threaded discussion consists of the original message and

all subsequent related replies. The entire collection of Internet
newsgroups is called Usenet.
a) The computer that stores and distributes newsgroup messages is

called a news server.
b) The difference between a chat room and a newsgroup is that a

chat room is a live conversation while a newsgroup is not.
c) A newsreader program is required to participate in a newsgroup,

and most Web browsers include a newsreader.
5. Instant messenger
Instant messaging (IM) is a real-time communications service that

a) An instant messenger program from an instant messaging service

must be installed in order to use instant messaging.
b) No standards exist currently for instant messaging. All those

individuals involved need to use the same instant messenger to
guarantee successful communications.
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6. Groupware
Groupware is a software application that helps groups of people

work together and share information over a network. Groupware
enables members of a workgroup to communicate, manage
projects, schedule meetings, and make group decisions.
7. Videoconferencing software
A videoconference is a meeting between two or more

Internet to transmit audio and video data.
a) A videoconference conducted over the Internet, using Web

browsers and Web servers to deliver the service, is called a Web
conference.
b) A videoconference allows participants to collaborate as if they

were in the same room.
c) A videoconferencing software along with a microphone, speakers,

and a digital video camera attached to the computer are required
to participate in a videoconference
Revision questions
1. (a). Define the term communication software.

(b). State four common features of a communication software.
2. (a). Explain the following as related to communication software.
i.) E-mail.
ii.) Web browser.
iii.) Newsreader.
iv.) Instant messege.
v.) Group ware.
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TELEPHONE NETWORK
The Public Switched Telephone Network (PSTN) is the worldwide

telephone system that handles voice-oriented telephone calls.
The telephone network is originally built to handle voice

communications. However, it is also a basic part of computer
communications today. Data, instructions, and information can be
sent over the telephone network using dial-up lines or dedicated lines.
Advantages of Telephone
a) Immediate contact is available.

b) Tone of voice helps communications.
Disadvantages of Telephone
a) It may take a long time to get someone on the phone.

b) Call is successful only when the person to contact is present.
c) Time zone problems between different countries.
Dedicated lines
A dedicated line is a permanent connection between two

communications devices.
a) A leased line is a dedicated line leased from a telephone or

communications service company.
b) Dedicated lines can be analog or digital.
c) Digital lines have faster transfer rates than analog lines.
Popular types of digital dedicated lines are
1. ISDN lines: ISDN (Integrated Services Digital Network) is a set

of standards for digital transmission of data over standard copper
telephone lines.
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a) With ISDN, the same telephone line that could normally carry
only one signal, can now carry three or more signals at once using
a technique called multiplexing.
b) ISDN requires that both ends of the connection have an ISDN

modem.
c) ISDN lines also require a special ISDN telephone for voice

communications.
Advantages of ISDN lines include
a) Provides faster transfer rates than dial-up lines.
b) Faster Web page downloads and clearer videoconferencing.
c) Produce very clear voice conversations.
2. Digital subscriber lines
DSL (digital subscriber lines) provides high-speed connections to

the Internet over a regular copper telephone line.
a) The user must have a special network card or DSL modem to

connect to a digital subscriber line.
b) DSL is much easier to install and can provide much faster data
transfer rates than ISDN.
c) ADSL (asymmetric digital subscriber line) is a type of DSL that
supports faster transfer rates when receiving data (i.e.,
downstream rate) than when sending data (i.e., upstream rate).
d) ADSL is ideal for Internet access because most users download

more information from the Internet than they upload.
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3. Cable TV lines
The cable TV network also provides high-speed Internet

connections for users equipped with a cable modem.
4. T-carrier lines
A T-carrier line is a digital line that carry multiple signals over a

single communications line using the multiplexing technique.
a) The most popular T-1 line can carry 24 separate signals at a

transmission rate of 64 Kbps each, for a total transmission rate of
1.544 Mbps.
b) A T-3 line is equal in speed to 28 T-1 lines, and can carry 672
individual signals at a transmission of 64 Kbps each, for a total
transmission rate of 43 Mbps.
c) The Internet backbone also use T-3 lines.
Advantages of T-carrier lines include
a) T-carrier lines provide very fast data transfer rates.
Disadvantages if T-carrier lines include
a) T-carrier lines are so expensive that only medium to large

companies can afford the investment.
5. ATM
Asynchronous Transfer Mode (ATM) is a service that carries

voice, data, video, and multimedia at extremely high speeds.
Advantages of a dedicated line include

a) The quality and consistency of the connection is better than a
dial-up line because dedicated lines provide a constant
connection.
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Dial up lines
With dial-up access, the user uses a computer, a modem, and a

regular telephone line to dial into an ISP. A dial-up connection is a
slow-speed technology.
Some users opt for high-speed technologies such as digital subscriber

lines or cable television Internet services.
Revision questions
1. (a). State the advantages of using a telephone over using an e-

mail.
(b). Give the difference between a dedicated line and a dial up
line.
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COMMUNICATION CHANNELS
Data travel from one computer to another using a number of

communication channels that include cables, wireless transmission
and other devices. Let us look at the following common terms.
1. Bandwidth: refers to a measure of the channel capacity, or the

maximum throughput (the sum of the data rates that are delivered
to all terminals in a network) of a logical or physical
communication path in a digital communication system.
2. Latency: is a measure of time delay experienced between

communication terminals in a given time.
3. Broad band: refers to the wide bandwidth characteristics of a

transmission medium and its ability to transport multiple signals
and traffic types at the same time.
4. Cable: is a medium through which information usually moves

from one network devices to another.
There are several types of cable which are commonly used with
LANs. In some cases, a network will utilize only one type of
cable, other networks will use a variety of cable types. The type
of cable chosen for a network is related to the network's topology,
protocol, and size.
Types of cables used in networks include:

1. Unshielded Twisted Pair (UTP) Cable
2. Shielded Twisted Pair (STP) Cable
3. Coaxial Cable
4. Fiber Optic Cable
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Unshielded Twisted Pair (UTP) Cable
Twisted pair cabling comes in two varieties:

shielded and unshielded. Unshielded twisted pair
(UTP) is the most popular and is generally the best option for school
networks
The quality of UTP may vary from telephone-grade wire to extremely

high-speed cable. The cable has four pairs of wires inside the jacket.
Each pair is twisted with a different number of twists per inch to help
eliminate interference from adjacent pairs and other electrical
devices. The tighter the twisting, the higher the supported
transmission rate and the greater the cost per foot. The EIA/TIA
(Electronic Industry Association/Telecommunication Industry
Association) has established standards of UTP and rated six
categories of wire (additional categories are emerging).
Categories of Unshielded Twisted Pair
Category Speed Use

1 1 Mbps Voice Only (Telephone Wire)
2 4 Mbps Local Talk & Telephone (Rarely used)
3 16 Mbps 10BaseT Ethernet
4 20 Mbps Token Ring (Rarely used)
100 Mbps (2 pair) 100BaseT Ethernet
5
1000 Mbps (4 pair) Gigabit Ethernet
5e 1,000 Mbps Gigabit Ethernet
6 10,000 Mbps Gigabit Ethernet
Unshielded Twisted Pair Connector
The standard connector for unshielded twisted pair

cabling is an RJ-45 connector. This is a plastic connector
that looks like a large telephone-style connector. A slot
allows the RJ-45 to be inserted only one way.
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RJ stands for Registered Jack, implying that the connector follows a
standard borrowed from the telephone industry. This standard
designates which wire goes with each pin inside the connector.
Shielded Twisted Pair (STP) Cable
Although UTP cable is the least expensive cable, it may be

susceptible to radio and electrical frequency interference (it should
not be too close to electric motors, fluorescent lights, etc.). If you
must place cable in environments with lots of potential interference,
or if you must place cable in extremely sensitive environments that
may be prone to the electrical current in the UTP, shielded twisted
pair may be the solution. Shielded cables can also help to extend the
maximum distance of the cables.
Shielded twisted pair cable is available in three different

configurations:
1. Each pair of wires is individually shielded with foil.
2. There is a foil or braid shield inside the jacket covering all wires
(as a group).
3. There is a shield around each individual pair, as well as around
the entire group of wires (referred to as double shield twisted
pair).
Coaxial Cable
Coaxial cabling has a single copper conductor at its

center. A plastic layer provides insulation between
the center conductor and a braided metal shield.
The metal shield helps to block any outside interference from

fluorescent lights, motors, and other computers.
Although coaxial cabling is difficult to install, it is highly resistant to

signal interference. In addition, it can support greater cable lengths
between network devices than twisted pair cable. The two types of
coaxial cabling are thick coaxial and thin coaxial.
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Coaxial Cable Connectors
The most common type of connector used with

coaxial cables is the Bayone-Neill-Concelman
(BNC) connector. Different types of adapters are
available for BNC connectors, including a T-connector, barrel
connector, and terminator. Connectors on the cable are the weakest
points in any network. To help avoid problems with your network,
always use the BNC connectors that crimp, rather screw, onto the
cable.
Fiber Optic Cable
Fiber optic cabling consists of a center glass core

surrounded by several layers of protective materials.
It transmits light rather than electronic signals
eliminating the problem of electrical interference.
This makes it ideal for certain environments that contain a large
amount of electrical interference. It has also made it the standard for
connecting networks between buildings, due to its immunity to the
effects of moisture and lighting. Fiber optic cable has the ability to
transmit signals over much longer distances than coaxial and twisted
pair. It also has the capability to carry information at high speeds.
This capacity broadens communication possibilities to include
services such as video conferencing and interactive services.
Summary of cable types and specification
Specification Cable Type

10BaseT Unshielded Twisted Pair
10Base2 Thin Coaxial
10Base5 Thick Coaxial
100BaseFX Fiber Optic
100BaseBX Single mode Fiber
100BaseSX Multimode Fiber
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Specification Cable Type
1000BaseFX Fiber Optic
1000BaseBX Single mode Fiber
1000BaseSX Multimode Fiber
Installing Cable - Some Guidelines
When running cable, it is best to follow a few simple rules:
a) Always use more cable than you need. Leave plenty of slack.
b) Test every part of a network as you install it. Even if it is brand

new, it may have problems that will be difficult to isolate later.
c) Stay at least 3 feet away from fluorescent light boxes and other
sources of electrical interference.
d) If it is necessary to run cable across the floor, cover the cable with
cable protectors.
e) Label both ends of each cable.
f) Use cable ties (not tape) to keep cables in the same location
together.
Wireless networks
Wireless transmission media send communications signals by using

broadcast radio, cellular radio, microwaves, satellites, and infrared
signals.
Wireless transmission media are used when it is inconvenient,

impractical, or impossible to install wires and cables
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Examples of wireless transmission media include
1. Broadcast radio: is a wireless transmission medium that

distributes radio signals through the air.
a) A transmitter is needed to send the broadcast signal and a receiver

is needed to accept the signal.
b) Some networks use a transceiver, which both sends and receives

signals from wireless devices.
c) Bluetooth is a kind of short-range (about 10 meters) broadcast

radio communications, which can transmit data at a rate of 1
Mbps among Bluetooth-enabled devices.
Examples of Bluetooth devices include desktop computers,

notebook computers, handheld computers, Internet appliances,
cellular telephones, and printers.
d) Wireless networks using broadcast radio often use one of the

802.11 specifications.
e) The 802.11b specification provides transfer rates up to 11 Mbps.
f) The 802.11a specification provides transfer rates up to 54 Mbps.
2. Cellular radio: is a form of broadcast radio that is used widely

for mobile communications, specifically cellular telephones.
a) Personal Communications Services (PCS) is a set of technologies

used for completely digital cellular devices such as handheld
computers, cellular telephones, pagers, and fax machines.
b) CDMA (Code Division Multiple Access) is the most popular PCS

technology because of its fast transmission speed and lower cost.
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c) A newer technology, called 4G, provides even faster transfer rates
than PCS so that users can display multimedia, watch TV, or
conduct a videoconference on a cellular device.
3. Microwaves: are radio waves that provide a high-speed signal

transmission.
a) Microwaves transmission involves sending signals from one

microwave station to another.
b) Microwaves transmission is fast (up to 4,500 times faster than a

dial-up modem) but is limited to line-of-sight transmission, which
means that the microwaves must transmit in a straight line with
no obstructions between microwave antennas.
c) Microwaves stations often locate on the tops of buildings, towers,

or mountains to avoid possible obstructions.
d) Microwaves transmission is used where installing physical

transmission media is difficult or impossible (e.g., deserts, lakes,
or to communicate with a satellite), but line-of-sight transmission
is available.
4. Communications satellites: is station in the space that receives

microwaves signals from an earth-based station, amplifies the
signals, and broadcasts the signals back over a wide area to many
earth-based stations.
a) Communications satellites are usually placed about 22,300 miles

above the Earth's equator and moves at the same rate as the Earth.
b) Applications of communications satellite include television and

radio broadcasts, videoconferencing, paging, and global
positioning systems.
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Advantages of satellites
a) Lots of data can be sent at the same time.

b) Allow high quality broadband communication across continents.
Disadvantages of satellites
a) The fee to launch a satellite is extremely expensively.
b) The infrastructure needed to access satellite communication is

also expensive.
5. Infrared (IR): is a wireless transmission media that sends signals

using infrared light waves.
a) IR transmission also requires a line-of-sight transmission as that

required by microwaves.
b) Computer devices such as a mouse, printer, and digital camera,

which have an IrDA port may transfer data from one device to
another using infrared light waves.
c) IR is an alternative to short-range broadcast radio

communications such as Bluetooth.
Advantages of wireless networks
1. Mobility - With a laptop computer or mobile device, access can

be available throughout a school, at the mall, on an airplane, etc.
More and more businesses are also offering free WiFi access
("Hot spots").
2. Fast setup - If your computer has a wireless adapter, locating a

wireless network can be as simple as clicking "Connect to a
Network" -- in some cases, you will connect automatically to
networks within range.
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3. Cost - Setting up a wireless network can be much more cost
effective than buying and installing cables.
4. Expandability - Adding new computers to a wireless network is as

easy as turning the computer on (as long as you do not exceed the
maximum number of devices).
Disadvantages of wireless networks:
1. Security - Be careful. Be vigilant. Protect your sensitive data with

backups, isolated private networks, strong encryption and
passwords, and monitor network access traffic to and from your
wireless network.
2. Interference - Because wireless networks use radio signals and

similar techniques for transmission, they are susceptible to
interference from lights and electronic devices.
3. Inconsistent connections - how many times you have heard

"Wait a minute, I just lost my connection?" Because of the
interference caused by electrical devices and/or items blocking
the path of transmission, wireless connections are not nearly as
stable as those through a dedicated cable.
4. Speed - The transmission speed of wireless networks is

improving; however, faster options (such as gigabit Ethernet) are
available via cables. If you are only using wireless for internet
access, the actual internet connection for your home or school is
generally slower than the wireless network devices, so that
connection is the bottleneck. If you are also moving large
amounts of data around a private network, a cabled connection
will enable that work to proceed much faster.
Revision questions
1. (a). Define a communication channel.

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i.) Bandwidth.
ii.) Latency.
iii.) Broadband.
iv.) Cable.
2. (a). Give the difference between UTP and STP cables.

(b). Mention four guidelines for installing cables.
3. (a). What are wireless networks?

(b). Explain the various wireless transmission media.
4. (a). State three advantages and two disadvantages of using

wireless networks.
(b). Describe the various types of cables used in networking.
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TRENDS IN COMPUTING
In this topic, we shall observe the following aspects:
1. Computer Security ethics and Privacy
A computer security risk is any event or action that cause a loss or

damage to computer hardware, software, data, or information.
a) Some abuses to computer security are accidental, but some are

planned.
b) Any illegal act involving a computer is generally referred to as a

computer crime.
c) Cybercrime refers to online or Internet-based illegal acts.
2. Internet and network attacks
a) Viruses: is a small piece of software that is attached on real

programs and disorganizes their mode of operation. For example,
a virus might attach itself to a program such as a spreadsheet
program. Each time the spreadsheet program runs, the virus runs,
too, and it has the chance to reproduce (by attaching to other
programs).
b) E-mail viruses: An e-mail virus travels as an attachment to e-

mail messages, and usually reproduces itself by automatically
mailing itself to a number of people in the victim's e-mail address
book. Some e-mail viruses don't even require a double - click --
they launch when you view the infected message in the preview
pane of your e-mail software.
c) Trojan horses: This program claims to do one thing (it may

claim to be a game) but instead does damage when you run it (it
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may erase your hard disk). Trojan horses have no way to replicate
automatically.
d) Worms: is a small piece of software that uses computer networks

and security holes to replicate itself. A copy of the worm scans
the network for another machine that has a specific security hole.
It copies itself to the new machine using the security hole, and
then starts replicating from there, as well.
e) A rootkit is a stealthy type of software, often malicious, designed

to hide the existence of certain processes or programs from
normal methods of detection and enable continued privileged
access to a computer
How to control computer viruses
 Installing latest antivirus computer program.

 Activating firewalls.
 Sensitizing users about dangers of a computer virus.
 Avoid downloading e-mail attachments before scanning them.
 Never install programs you are not sure of.
 Limit access by using passwords.
 Penalizing offenders who install and download unlicensed
software programs.
3. Denial of service attacks
A type of attack conducted over the Internet, using the combined

resources of many computers to attack, and often crash, a targeted
computer system or resource (e.g., a program, website or network).
An example of how a DDoS attack is conducted: an attacker will exploit

vulnerability in one computer system and make it the DDoS master
using Remote Control Software. Later, the intruder will use the master
system to identify and manage zombies that can perform the attack.
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There is no single DoS attack method, and the term has come to include
a variety of different forms of attack, a number of which are outlined
below:
 Ping flood - This attack uses the Internet Message Protocol

(ICMP) ping request to a server as a DoS method. The strategy
either involves sending ping requests in such larger quantities that
the receiving system is unable to respond to valid user requests, or
sending ping messages which are so large (known as a ping of
death) that the system is unable to handle the request.
 Smurfing - it makes use of the TCP Internet Message Protocol

(ICMP) ping request to mount DoS attacks. In a typical smurfing
attack the attacker sends a ping request to the broadcast address of
network containing the IP address of the victim. The ping request
is sent to all computers on the broadcast network, which in turn
all reply to the IP address of the victim system thereby
overloading the victim with ping responses.
 TCP SYN Flood - The attack begins with a client attempting to

establish a TCP connection with the victim server. The client
sends a request to the server, which in turn returns an ACK
package to acknowledge the connection.
At this point in the communication the client should respond with

a message accepting the connection. Instead the client sends
another ACK which is responded to by the server with yet another
ACK. The client continues to send ACKs to the server with the
effect of causing the server to hold sessions open in anticipation
of the client sending the final packet required to complete the
connection.
As a result, the server uses up all available sessions serving the

malicious client, thereby preventing access to other users.
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 Fraggle - A fraggle attack is similar to a smurfing attack with the
exception that the User Datagram Protocol (UDP) is used instead
of using ICMP.
 Land - Under a Land attack the attacker creates a fake SYN

packet contain the same source and destination IP addresses and
ports and sends it to the victim causing the system to become
confused when trying to respond to the packet.
 Teardrop - A teardrop type of DoS attack exploits a weakness in

the TCP/IP implementation on some operating systems. The
attack works by sending messages fragmented into multiple UDP
packages. Ordinarily the operating system is able to reassemble
the packets into a complete message by referencing data in each
UDB packet. The teardrop attack works by corrupting the offset
data in the UDP packets making it impossible for the system to
rebuild the original packets. On systems that are unable to handle
this corruption a crash is the most likely outcome of a teardrop
attack.
 Bonk - An effective attack on some Windows systems involving

the transmission corrupted UDP packets to the DNS port (port 53)
resulting in a system crash.
 Boink - Similar to the Bonk attack except that the corrupted UDP
packets are sent to multiple ports, not just port 53 (DNS).
Back Door Attacks
Back Door attacks use programs that provide a method for entering a
system without going through the usual authentication process. This
can either take the form of hidden access points deliberately put into
application by the original developers to help in maintaining and
debugging the software or a malicious program that is placed on a
system through a virus, or other method which opens up the system
to unauthorized access.
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A number of back door programs have been discovered over the
years, some which are listed below:
a) Back Orifice - This rather a poorly named tool was developed by

a group known as the Cult of the Dead Cow Communications.
The primary purpose of Back Orifice is to provide remote access
to a server for the purposes of performing administrative tasks.
b) NetBus - Similar to Back Orifice, NetBus is also designed to

enable remote administrative access to Windows system.
c) Sub7 - Sub7 is yet another illicit back door program designed to

allow unauthorized access to systems.
Whilst the installation of any of the above back door programs on a

system will have serious implications for security, all these threats
can be effectively prevented through the implementation of a
complete virus scanning strategy.
Spoofing
The basis of spoofing involves hiding as a trusted system in order to

gain unauthorized access to a secure environment. IP spoofing
involves modifying data to make it appear to originate from the IP
address of a system that is trusted by a server or firewall. Using this
approach, a host is able to pass through the IP filtering that would
otherwise serve to prevent access.
Man in the Middle Attacks
Man-in-the-middle attacks are perhaps one of the more difficult and

modern forms of security breaking approaches. As the name implies,
such an attack involves the secret assignment of a software agent
between the client and server ends of a communication. In this
situation neither end of the communication is aware that the
malicious agent is present in the line of communication.
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Man-in-middle attacks have increased considerable since the
introduction of wireless networking. Now there is no need for the
rogue to connect to a wire, instead the data can simply be intercepted
from anywhere within range of the wireless signal (such as in the
parking lot outside an office or the road in front of a house). The best
way to avoid such attacks is to use encryption and secure protocols in
all communications.
Replay Attacks
In a replay attack an agent is once again placed within the client /

server line of communication. In the case of a Replay attack,
however, the transaction data is recorded for the purpose of allowing
the data to be modified and replayed to the server at a later time for
wrong purposes. For example, a replay attack might record the entire
process of a user logging into a banking web site and performing
transactions. The recorded transcript may then be replayed to repeat
the login sequence for the purposes of stealing money from the
account.
TCP/IP Hijacking
TCP/IP Hijacking occurs when an attacker takes control of an

ongoing session between a client and a server. This is similar in to a
man-in-the-middle attack except that the agent sends a reset request
to the client so that the client loses contact with the server while the
rogue system assumes the role of the legitimate client, continuing the
session.
Mathematical Attacks
The solution to a number of the types of attack outlined above has

involved the use of encryption. A mathematical attack involves the
use of computation based on the mathematical properties of the
encryption algorithm to attempt to decrypt data. The best way to
avoid the decryption of data is to use strong encryption (128-bit)
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rather than rely on weaker encryption (both 40-bit and 56-bit
encryption can easily be broken).
Password Guessing
On systems which rely only on a login name and password the

security of the entire system is only as strong as the passwords
chosen by the users. The best way to ensure passwords are not
cracked is to avoid the use of simple words or phrases which can be
found in a dictionary.
This needs to be balanced with making the passwords easy enough to

remember so that users do not write them on pieces of paper and stick
them on their laptops or monitors for others to find.
The best passwords consist of a mixture of upper and lower case

characters combined with numbers and special characters. A common
approach is to substitute numbers in place of similar letters. For
example W3ath3rN3ws uses the number 3 in place of the letter 'E',
the reasoning being that the number 3 is much like a reversed 'E'
making the password easy to remember. Unfortunately most
password cracking algorithms know about this type of substitution.
There are two primary mechanisms for breaking password protection,

brute force and dictionary.
Brute Force Password Attacks
A brute force attack uses algorithms to systematically try every

possible version of characters in an effort to find the correct
password.
If allowed to continue, a brute force attack will eventually identify

the correct password, although a well implemented security plan will
disable the account and block the IP address from which the attempts
were made after 3 or 4 failed password attempts.
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Dictionary Password Attacks
Dictionary password attacks take advantage of the fact that many user
simply rely on easy to remember words as their passwords. A
dictionary attack simply works through a list of words from a
dictionary to see if any of them turn out to be a valid password. Such
brute force programs also take into consideration such tricks as using
the number 3 instead of the letter 'e' and the number 1 in place of the
letter 'l'.
Password Cracking
Computer systems typically store the passwords which allow access

to the system in a password file which is cryptographically protected
from our eyes. A number of password cracking programs are
available for getting the passwords from a password file.
4. Unauthorized access and use:
Unauthorized access is the use of a computer or network without

permission.
A cracker, or hacker, is someone who tries to access a computer or

network illegally.
Some hackers break into a computer for the challenge. However,

others use or steal computer resources or corrupt a computer's data.
Unauthorized use is the use of a computer or its data for unapproved

or possibly illegal activities.
Examples of unauthorized use of computers include
 An employee using a company computer to send personal e-mail.

 Someone gaining access to a bank computer and performing an
unauthorized transfer.
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 One way to prevent unauthorized access and unauthorized use of
computers is to utilize access controls.
5. Hardware theft and vandalism:
Hardware theft is the act of stealing computer equipment. The act of

defacing or destroying computer equipment is known as hardware
vandalism.
Precautions to prevent hardware theft include
 Use physical access controls, such as locked doors, and windows.

 Use cables to lock the equipment to desk, cabinet, or floor.
 Install alarm systems for additional security.
 Never leave a notebook computer or handheld computer
unattended in a public place.
 Use passwords, possessed objects, and biometrics as a method of
security.
 Back up all the files stored on the computer regularly.
 Install surveillance cameras (CCTV).
6. Software theft:
Two common forms of software theft are:
a) Physically stealing media (e.g., floppy disk, or CD-ROM) that

contains software; and
b) Software piracy, which is the most common form of software

theft. Software piracy refers to the unauthorized and illegal
duplication of copyrighted software.
a) A single - user license agreement or end-user license agreement is

the most common type of license included with software
packages purchased by individual users.
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b) A software site license gives the buyer the right to install the
software on multiple computers at a single site (e.g., a school
computer laboratory).
c) A network site license allows network users to share a single copy

of the software, which resides on the network server.
Risks of software piracy include
a) Increase the chance of spreading computer viruses.

b) No technical support for the software can be received.
c) Drive up the software cost for all legal users.
7. Information theft:
Information theft refers to stealing personal or confidential

information from others.
Reasons for information theft include
a) A company wants to learn about a competitor.

b) An individual steals credit card numbers to make fraudulent
purchases.
Preventions for information theft include
c) Implement access control to computers and networks.
An access control is a security measure that defines
 Who can access a computer?

 When the users can access the computer?
 What actions the users can take while accessing the computer?
Access control is normally implemented using a two-phase process:
 Identification verifies whether the user is a valid one.

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 Authentication verifies that the user is really the one he or she
claims to be.
Methods of identification and authentication exist, which include
a) User names and passwords
 Most multi-user operating systems require a user to enter the

correct user name and password before accessing the data,
information, and programs stored on a computer or network.
 Many other systems that maintain financial, personal, and other

confidential information also require a user name and password as
part of their logon procedure.
 Some systems assign the user names and even passwords to their
users, but some systems allow their users to choose their own user
names and passwords.
b) Possessed objects: A possessed object is any item that a user

must carry to gain access to a computer or computer facility.
Examples of possessed objects include badges, cards, and keys.
 Possessed objects are often used in combination with personal

identification numbers.
 A personal identification number (PIN) is a numeric password,

either assigned by a company or selected by a user.
 PINs provide an additional level of security.
c) Biometric devices: authenticates a person's identity by verifying

personal characteristics (e.g., fingerprints).
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It translates a personal characteristic into a digital code that is
compared with a digital code stored in the computer.
Examples of biometric devices include
 A fingerprint scanner, which captures curves and indentations of a

fingerprint.
 A hand geometry system, which can measure the shape and size
of a person's hand.
 A face recognition system, which captures a live face image and

compares it with a stored image.
 A voice recognition system, which compares a person's live

speech with their stored voice pattern.
 A signature verification system, which recognizes the shape of

handwritten signature of a person.
 An iris recognition system, which reads patterns in the tiny blood

vessels in the back of the eye, which are as unique as a
fingerprint.
Advantages of biometric devices include
- Personal characteristics are unique and cannot be forgotten or

misplaced.
Disadvantages of biometric devices include
- Most of the biometric devices are expensive.
- A fingerprint scanner might reject a legitimate user if the user

cuts his or her finger.
- Hand geometry readers can transmit germs.

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- A signature might not match the one on file when the person is
nervous.
- A voice recognition system might reject a legitimate user with a

sore throat.
d) Callback system: A biometric device authenticates a person's

identity by verifying personal characteristics (e.g., fingerprints).
It translates a personal characteristic into a digital code that is

compared with a digital code stored in the computer.
An organization should therefore:
- Maintain a log that records in a file both successful and

unsuccessful access attempts.
- Investigate unsuccessful access attempts immediately to ensure
they were not intentional breaches of security.
- Review successful access for irregularities, such as use of the

computer after normal working hours or from remote computers.
- Have written policies regarding the use of computers by

employees for personal reasons.
- Document and explain the policy of computer use to employees.
- Use encryption techniques
8. System failure
A system failure is a prolonged malfunction of a computer that can

also cause hardware, software, data, or information loss. Common
causes of system failure include:
- Aging hardware
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- Natural disaster (e.g., fires, floods, storms, or earthquakes)
- Electrical power variation. Electrical power variations can cause
loss of data or equipment. A single power disturbance can
damage multiple systems in a computer network.
Electrical power disturbances include
- Noise is any unwanted signal, usually varying quickly, which is

mixed with the normal voltage entering the computer.
- An under voltage occurs when the electrical supply drops (i.e.,
below 220 volts in Hong Kong).
- An overvoltage, or power surge, occurs when the incoming

electrical power increases significantly above the normal 220
volts.
 A surge protector can be used to protect computer equipment

against under voltage and overvoltage.
 Many users also connect an uninterruptible power supply to the

computer for additional electrical protection.
 Files should be backed up regularly to prevent against data loss

caused by a system failure.
9. Backing up
A backup is a duplicate of a file, program, or disk that can be used if

the original is lost, damaged, or destroyed. Files can be restored by
copying the backed up files to their original location on the computer.
Backup copies should be kept in a fireproof and heatproof safe or
offsite.
Types of backup
a) Full backup, which copies all of the files in the computer.
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b) Differential backup, which copies only the files that have changed
since the last full backup.
c) Incremental backup, which copies only the files that have

changed since the last full or last incremental backup.
Some users implement a three-generation backup procedure to

preserve three copies of important files.
a) The grandparent is the oldest copy of the file.

b) The parent is the second oldest copy of the file.
c) The child is the most recent copy of the file.
10. Wireless security
Wireless networks are much more at risk to unauthorized use than

cabled networks. Wireless network devices use radio waves to
communicate with each other. Unencrypted information transmitted
can be monitored by a third-party, which, with the right tools (free to
download), could quickly gain access to your entire network, steal
valuable passwords to local servers and online services, alter or
destroy data, and/or access personal and confidential information
stored in your network servers.
To minimize the possibility of this, all modern access points and

devices have configuration options to encrypt transmissions. These
encryption methodologies are still evolving, as are the tools used by
malicious hackers, so always use the strongest encryption available in
your access point and connecting devices. Three basic techniques are
used to protect networks from unauthorized wireless use. Use any
and all of these techniques when setting up your wireless access
points:
1. Encryption
Enable the strongest encryption supported by the devices you will be

connecting to the network. Use strong passwords (strong passwords
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are generally defined as passwords containing symbols, numbers, and
mixed case letters, at least 14 characters long).
2. Isolation
Use a wireless router that places all wireless connections on a subnet

independent of the primary private network. This protects your
private network data from pass-through internet traffic.
3. Hidden SSID
Every access point has a Service Set IDentifier (SSID) that by default
is broadcast to client devices so that the access point can be found.
By disabling this feature, standard client connection software won't
be able to "see" the access point. However, the eves-dropping
programs can easily find these access points, so this alone does little
more than keep the access point name out of sight for casual wireless
users.
11. Computers and health risks
Prolonged computer usage can lead to health risks such as
a) Eye strain
b) Back pain due to poor sitting posture
c) Electromagnetic radiation especially with CRT monitors
d) Addiction from use
e) Wrist pain to do non-ergonometric
f) Repetitive Strain Injury(RSI)
g) Headaches
h) Neck pain
i) Stress due to noise from fans, printers, power inputs
j) Ear problems for use of ear phones especially with embedded
systems
Precautions to help prevent such risks include
a) Pay attention to sitting posture.

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b) Take a break to stand up, walk around, or stretch every 30 to 60
minutes.
c) Place the display device about an arm's length away from the eyes
with the top of the screen at eye level or below.
d) Adjust the lighting in the room.
e) Ensure that the workplace is designed ergonomically. Ergonomics
means adding comfort, efficiency, and safety into the design of
items in the workplace.
- Some keyboards have built-in wrist rests.
- Most display devices have a tilt-and-swivel base and controls to

adjust the brightness, contrast, positioning, height, and width of
images.
- Most CRT monitors today also adhere to the MPR II standard,

which defines acceptable levels of electromagnetic radiation.
12. Computer ethics
Are the moral guidelines that govern the use of computers and
information systems.
Frequently concerned areas of computer ethics are
a) Unauthorized access and use of computer systems
b) Software piracy
c) Information privacy: Information privacy refers to the right of

individuals or organizations to deny or restrict the collection and
use of information about them.
d) Information accuracy: Information accuracy becomes an

important issue when it is necessary to access information
maintained by other people or companies, such as that on the
Internet. Inaccurate input can result in erroneous information and
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incorrect decisions made based on that information. Never
assume that information provided on the Web is always correct.
The Web site providing access to the information may not be the
creator of the information. Always evaluate the content provided
on a Web page before using it.
Some people also concerned with using computers to alter output,

particularly graphical images (e.g., retouching a photograph).
They believe that even the slightest alteration could lead to
deliberately misleading photographs.
Intellectual property rights
Intellectual property (IP) refers to work created by inventors, authors,

and artists. Intellectual property rights are the rights to which creators
are entitled for their work.
 A copyright gives authors and artists exclusive rights to duplicate,

publish, and sell their materials.
 A common infringement of copyright is software piracy.
 Copyright law usually gives the public fair use to copyrighted

material (e.g., for educational purposes). However, this vague
definition is always subject to widespread interpretation.
 A trademark protects a company's logos and brand names.
Codes of conduct
A code of conduct is a written guideline that helps to determine

whether a specific action is ethical or unethical.
Codes of Conduct: A code of conduct is a voluntary set of rules

which people agree to follow or abide by. Codes of Conduct are not
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legally binding but once someone agrees to abide by it, then it is
considered binding.
Codes of Conduct related to ICT might cover things such as usage of

the Internet, for example, the internet should not be used during work
time to shop online or book holidays. It would probably cover
downloading and viewing pornographic material at work or gambling
online during work time.
Other things that are often covered by Codes of Conduct are the
security and use of user names and passwords, for example, not
leaving your workstation logged on if you are not present or not
telling anyone else your password.
A sample IT code of conduct include
a) Computers may not be used to harm other people.
b) Users may not interfere with other's computer work.
c) Users may not meddle in other's computer files.
d) Computers may not be used to steal.
e) Computers may not be used to bear false witness.
f) Users may not copy or use software illegally.
g) Users may not use other's computer resources without

authorization.
h) Users may not use other's output.
i) Users shall consider the social impact of programs and systems

they design.
j) Users should always use computers in a way that demonstrates

consideration and respect for other people.
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Information privacy
Information privacy or data privacy is the relationship between

collection and distribution of data, technology, the public expectation
of privacy, and the legal and political issues surrounding them. This
includes the following:
a) Electronic profiles
Involves keeping details concerning online user of a specific service

or product. It involves, writing personal details so as to be allowed to
use the service. Remember how you obtained your e-mail address;
you filled a form related to your details. This profile is never
viewable by third parties unless otherwise.
b) Cookies
A cookie, also known as an HTTP cookie, web cookie, or browser

cookie, is usually a small piece of data sent from a website and stored
in a user's web browser while a user is browsing a website. When the
user browses the same website in the future, the data stored in the
cookie can be retrieved by the website to notify the website of the
user's previous activity
c) Spam
Spam is the use of electronic messaging systems to send unwanted

bulk messages, especially advertising, at random. While the most
widely recognized form of spam is e-mail spam, the term is applied
to similar abuses in other media.
d) Phishing
Phishing is the act of attempting to acquire information such as

usernames, passwords, and credit card details (and sometimes,
indirectly, money) by hiding as a trustworthy unit in an electronic
communication.
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e) Pharming
Is an attacker's attack intended to redirect a website's traffic to

another, fake site. Pharming can be conducted either by changing the
hosts file on a victim's computer or by exploitation of a weakness in
DNS server software. DNS servers are computers responsible for
resolving Internet names into their real IP addresses. Pharming
requires unprotected access to target a computer, such as changing a
customer's home computer, rather than a corporate business server.
f) Spywares
Spyware is a type of malicious program installed on computers that

collects information about users without their knowledge. The
presence of spyware is typically hidden from the user and can be
difficult to detect. Some spyware, such as keyloggers, may be
installed by the owner of a shared, corporate, or public computer
intentionally in order to monitor users.
Spyware can collect almost any type of data, including personal

information like Internet surfing habits, user logins, and bank or
credit account information. Spyware can also interfere with user
control of a computer by installing additional software or redirecting
Web browsers. Some spyware can change computer settings, which
can result in slow Internet connection speeds, un-authorized changes
in browser settings, or changes to software settings.
g) Adware
Adware, or advertising-supported software, is any software package

which automatically renders advertisements in order to generate
revenue for its author. The advertisements may be in the user
interface of the software or on a screen presented to the user during
the installation process.
The functions may be designed to analyze which Internet sites the

user visits and to present advertising relevant to the types of goods or
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services featured there. The term is sometimes used to refer to
software that displays unwanted advertisements.
h) Privacy laws
Privacy law refers to the laws which deal with the regulation of
personal information about individuals which can be collected by
governments and other public as well as private organizations and its
storage and use. Privacy laws are considered in the context of an
individual's privacy rights or reasonable expectation of privacy.
i) Social engineering
In the situation of security, it is understood to mean the art of

influencing people into performing actions or revealing confidential
information.
j) Employee monitoring
- E-mail scanning: is a process in which incoming and outgoing

mail passes through E-mail filtering software to search for content
which may violate the policies of the employer.
- Video surveillance: One of the most effective forms of employee

monitoring is through the use of Video surveillance equipment.
Video feeds of employee activities are fed back to a central
location where they are either recorded or monitored live by
another person. This is a benefit because it provides an unbiased
method of performance evaluation and prevents the interference
of a manager's feelings in an employee's review.
- Location monitoring: For employees that do not work in a static

location, supervisors may chose to track their location. Common
examples of this are delivery and transportation industries. In
some of these cases the employee monitoring is minor as the
location is tracked for other purposes, such as determining the
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amount of time before a parcel will be delivered, or which taxi is
closest.
- Employee privacy and ethical issues: From an ethical point of

view, the employee does not give up all of his or her privacy
while they are in their work environment. Privacy can become a
moral matter, but it is important to know what the employee and
employer rights are. The ethical challenge that companies face
involves protecting their interests through Internet monitoring
while ensuring they don't go so far that employees lose all sense
of privacy in the workplace.
- Legal issues: It is illegal to perform monitoring, such as reading

an employee's emails, unless it can be shown that it is a necessary
precaution and there are no other alternatives. Everyone in the
conversation must give consent before the conversation can be
recorded. It requires that monitored conversations have a beep at
certain intervals or there must be a message informing the caller
that the conversations may be recorded, take note that this is not
informing the company representative which calls are being
recorded.
The following uses of employee information are generally

considered legal:
 Find needed business information when the employee is not

available.
 Protect security of proprietary information and data.
 Prevent or investigate possible criminal activities by employees.
 Prevent personal use of employer facilities.
 Check for violations of company policy against sending offensive
or pornographic email.
 Investigate complaints of harassment.
 Check for illegal software.
- Security: In some cases, monitoring an employee's work leads to

monitoring the employee's life in aspects that are not related to
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work. This leads to obtaining of information about the employee,
compromising the security of employee.
k) Content filtering
Content-control software, content filtering software, secure web

gateways, censorware, and web filtering software are terms for
software designed and optimized for controlling what content is
permitted to a reader, especially when it is used to restrict material
delivered over the Internet through the Web, e-mail, or other means.
Revision questions
1. (a). Define the term computer security ethics and privacy.

(b). Outline any five internet and network attacks.
2. (a). What are denial of service attacks?

i.) Ping flood.
ii.) Smurfing.
iii.) Fraggle.
iv.) Tear drop.
v.) Bonk.
3. (a). What are back door attacts?

(b). List three back door programs in common use.
4. (a). Distinguish between hacking and cracking.

(b). Outline possible measures needed to control dangers of both
hacking and cracking.
5. (a). Define the term data backup.
(b). Outline the three forms of data backup techniques.
6. (a). Outline seven dangers as a result of continued computer use.

(b). Suggest possible ways of controlling dangers mentioned in
(a) above.
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7. (a). Define the term information privacy.
(b). Describe eight tools used for information privacy.
8. (a). Distinguish privacy laws and social engineering.

(b). Explain five ways of monitoring an employee in an
organisation.
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EMERGING TECHNOLOGIES
1. Artificial intelligence
Artificial intelligence is a major feature of the fifth computer

generation. It enables computers to behave and reason like human
beings.
Application of artificial intelligence
a) Game playing
You can buy machines that can play master level chess. There is
some AI in them, but they play well against people mainly through
bully force computation--looking at hundreds of thousands of
positions.
b) Speech recognition
In the 1990s, computer speech recognition reached a practical level

for limited purposes. Thus United Airlines has replaced its keyboard
tree for flight information by a system using speech recognition of
flight numbers and city names. It is quite convenient.
c) Understanding natural language
Computers can be trained to learn and take instructions using natural

languages. This is possible in some developed countries where robots
understand this process.
d) Computer vision
The world is composed of three-dimensional objects, but the inputs to

the human eye and computers' TV cameras are two dimensional.
Some useful programs can work only in two dimensions, but full
computer vision requires partial three-dimensional information that is
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not just a set of two-dimensional views. At present there are only
limited ways of representing three-dimensional information directly,
and they are not as good as what humans evidently use.
e) Expert systems
A ―knowledge engineer‖ interviews experts in a certain field and tries

to represent their knowledge in a computer program for carrying out
some task. How well this works depends on whether the academic
method required for the task is within the present state of AI.
One of the first expert systems was MYCIN in 1974, which

diagnosed bacterial infections of the blood and suggested treatments.
It did better than medical students or practicing doctors.
f) Heuristic classification
One of the most possible kinds of expert system given the present
knowledge of AI is to put some information in one of a fixed set of
categories using several sources of information. An example is
advising whether to accept a proposed credit card purchase.
Information is available about the owner of the credit card, his record
of payment and also about the item he is buying and about the firm
from which he is buying it (e.g., about whether there have been
previous credit card frauds at this establishment).
g) Computer science
AI researchers have created many tools to solve the most difficult

problems in computer science. Many of their inventions have been
adopted by mainstream computer science and are no longer
considered a part of AI. All of the following were originally
developed in AI laboratories:
- Time sharing.
- Interactive interpreters.
- Graphical user interfaces and the computer mouse,
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- Rapid development environments.
- The linked list data structure.
- Automatic storage management.
- Symbolic programming.
- Functional programming.
- Dynamic programming and object-oriented programming.
h) Finance
Banks use artificial intelligence systems to organize operations,

invest in stocks, and manage properties. In August 2001, robots beat
humans in a simulated financial trading competition.
i) Hospitals and medicine
A medical clinic can use artificial intelligence systems to organize

bed schedules, make a staff rotation, and provide medical
information.
Artificial neural networks are used as clinical decision support

systems for medical diagnosis, such as in Concept Processing
technology in EMR software. Other tasks in medicine that can
potentially be performed by artificial intelligence include:
 Computer-aided interpretation of medical images. Such systems

help scan digital images, e.g. from computed tomography, for
typical appearances and to highlight obvious sections, such as
possible diseases. A typical application is the finding of a
swelling.
 Heart sound analysis
j) Heavy industry
Robots have become common in many industries. They are often

given jobs that are considered dangerous to humans. Robots have
proven effective in jobs that are very repetitive which may lead to
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mistakes or accidents due to a lapse in concentration and other jobs
which humans may find shameful. Japan is the leader in using and
producing robots in the world. In 1999, 1,700,000 robots were in use
worldwide.
Similar techniques may be used in answering machines of call

centers, such as speech recognition software to allow computers to
handle first level of customer support, text mining and natural
language processing to allow better customer handling, agent training
by automatic mining of best practices from past interactions, support
automation and many other technologies to improve agent
productivity and customer satisfaction.
k) Transportation
Hairy logic controllers have been developed for automatic gearboxes

in automobiles (the 2006 Audi TT, VW Toureg and VW Caravell
feature the DSP transmission). The gear box automatically engages a
necessary gear to enable the car move without much task from the
driver.
l) Telecommunications
Many telecommunications companies make use of heuristic search in

the management of their workforces, for example BT Group has
deployed heuristic search in a scheduling application that provides the
work schedules of 20,000 engineers.
m) Music
The evolution of music has always been affected by technology. With

AI, scientists are trying to make the computer emulate the activities
of the skillful musician.
Composition, performance, music theory, sound processing are some

of the major areas on which research in Music and Artificial
Intelligence are focusing.
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n) Aviation
The Air Operations Division AOD, uses AI for the rule based expert
systems. The AOD has use for artificial intelligence for substitute
operators for war and training simulators, mission management aids,
support systems for tactical decision making, and post processing of
the simulator data into symbolic summaries.
Airplane simulators are using artificial intelligence in order to

process the data taken from simulated flights. Other than simulated
flying, there is also simulated aircraft warfare. The computers are
able to come up with the best success situations in these situations.
The computers can also create plans based on the placement, size,
speed, and strength of the forces and counter forces. Pilots may be
given assistance in the air during combat by computers..
o) News and publishing
The company Narrative Science makes computer generated news and

reports commercially available, including summarizing team sporting
events based on statistical data from the game. It also creates
financial reports and real estate analyses.
p) Other
Various tools of artificial intelligence are also being widely deployed

in:
- Speech and text recognition,

- E-mail spam filtering
- Applications are also being developed for gesture recognition
(understanding of sign language by machines).
- Individual voice recognition.
- Global voice recognition (from a variety of people in a noisy
room).
- Facial expression recognition for interpretation of emotion
and non verbal cues.
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- Robot navigation
- Obstacle avoidance
- Object recognition
2. Digital forensics
Digital forensics (sometimes known as digital forensic science) is a

branch of investigative science around material found in digital
devices, often in relation to computer crime for example, hacking,
cracking, spamming, e.t.c.
The technical aspect of an investigation is divided into several sub-

branches, relating to the type of digital devices involved;
Branches of digital forensics include
- Computer forensics
The goal of computer forensics is to explain the current state of a

digital object; such as a computer system, storage medium or
electronic document.
- Mobile device forensics
Mobile device forensics is a sub-branch of digital forensics relating to

recovery of digital evidence or data from a mobile device.
- Network forensics
Network forensics is concerned with the monitoring and analysis of

computer network traffic, both local and WAN/internet, for the
purposes of information gathering, evidence collection, or crime
detection.
Traffic is usually stopped at the packet level, and either stored for
later analysis or filtered in real-time.
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- Database forensics
Database forensics is a branch of digital forensics relating to the

forensic study of databases and their metadata. Investigations use
database contents, log files and in-RAM data to build a time-line or
recover relevant information.
Revision questions:
1. (a). Define the term artificial intelligence.

(b). Explain ten areas where Artificial intelligence is applied.
2. (a). Define the term digital forensic.

(b). State the branches of digital forensic.
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CAREERS IN THE COMPUTER INDUSTRY
The overall computer technology field is growing, thanks to the

increasing trust of business and everyday affairs on computers.
This is great news indeed for those looking to join the field. One of
the only computer related jobs to be wary of are positions in
computer programming, as much of this work is being outsourced to
different countries. However, most other computer related
professions are experiencing an exciting growth.
The Fastest Growing Jobs in Computer related career:
1. Computer and Information System Management
a) These professionals serve as technology managers and decision

makers within an institution or on a consulting basis.
b) They ensure that the information technology and

telecommunications of the company work and run smoothly.
c) They assist other managers and executives in assessing the short-

and long-term goals of the company, and subsequently
recommend and implement technological solutions for reaching
those goals.
d) They oversee such areas as software development, network

security, and Internet operations.
e) They also work with computer engineers, Web designers, support

specialists, and other IT professionals to implement and upgrade
computer hardware and software, create intranet sites, develop
Internet sites, and manage the overall network system.
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f) These professionals have strong leadership and managerial skills,
excellent communicators, and able to quickly think seriously and
reasonably.
g) They solve any technological problem, and therefore troubleshoot

quickly and effectively, and are to work under stressful
circumstances and deadlines.
2. Computer Scientist
a) He can perform a wide range of jobs in information technology

and related fields.
b) A computer scientist often uses current forms of technology, or

creates new ones, in order to solve complex problems, thus
applying information technology principles to real-world
situations.
c) Computer scientists work as robotics researchers, hardware

designers, software engineers, technology consultants, and
systems analysts for universities, government organizations, and
private corporations.
d) Computer scientists help companies to maintain proper air traffic

flow in the skies above our cities.
e) Computer scientists‘ help shipping companies distribute goods to

ports around the world.
3. Computer Support Specialist
a) A computer support specialist assists people when they are having

technical trouble with their computers. It is their responsibility to
identify any technological problems and then try to fix them.
b) Because most of the computer problems can be solved via e-mail

or by phone, all computer support specialists need to possess
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excellent communication and explanatory skills as they need to be
able to give step-by-step directions so customers can solve the
problems themselves.
c) Computer support specialists are also usually responsible for

installing everything from software, printers, Wi-Fi, and other
computer tools and components.
d) Once installed, they also teach customers how to properly use the
new devices and even write instructional handbooks.
e) They check company's computer systems every day to ensure

they are operating correctly or working for a school and assisting
other teachers and administrators who are having computer
issues.
f) Most of their work consists of dealing with people who are not as
technologically gifted as they are and it's important that they
remember this and be patient when customers do not understand
how to correct the issue the first time.
4. Computer Systems Analyst
a) Computer systems analysts are responsible for using their

information technology skills to help different businesses and
organizations operate at maximum potential.
b) Systems analysts usually start an assignment by first consulting

with the company's managers, discussing what the old systems
mistakes are and what the new system should do.
c) The analysts formulate a plan and design (or perfect) systems that
will help the company achieve their goals. For example, a large
retail store or food corporation might want a systems analyst to
create a new computerized inventory system.
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d) The analyst is responsible for specifying all the details from
beginning to end when configuring a new system; including
determining if the system is economically possible.
e) He configures all hardware and software components, creating

flow charts describing the systems progress during the initial
developmental stages and experimenting with the system
repeatedly to ensure it works properly at the end.
f) They apply knowledge in structured analysis, data modeling,

information engineering, mathematical model building, sampling,
and accounting principles.
5. Computer Systems Designer
a) Those who work in computer systems design create computer and

IT systems that allow businesses and other entities to operate
effectively and efficiently.
b) As a computer systems designer, you will facilitate these

computer and IT systems, working to design custom software
programs, manage computer and information systems, as well as
manage computer facilities.
c) Your work may be done onsite for one particular company, or you
might do your work on a contract basis for several organizations.
d) Some computer systems designers specialize in a particular

service, like websites, e-commerce, and data centers. Information
security has become a growing concern for organizations, and
computer systems designers are increasingly being used to
manage these threats.
e) Computer systems designers will typically work a regular full

time week in business office settings.
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f) However, some may work in computer operations centers if they
specialize in facilities management and maintenance, and others
are able to work from home or other remote locations.
6. Computer Programmer
a) Computer programmers often work with software engineers to

convert a newly designed application into functional computer
code so that the computer can understand the instructions and run
the program.
b) Essentially, computer programmers implement the designs of

software engineers, using programming languages such as C++ to
write the program so that it runs efficiently.
c) Computer programmers also maintain and update already existing

applications.
d) They can repair buggy programs.
e) They often make use of computer-assisted engineering tools in

their work, which help automate some of the programming
process, thus allowing computer programmers to focus on the
more intricate aspects of the process.
f) Many computer programmers have begun working more as

software engineers, or as assistants to software engineers, helping
clients identify their needs and problems and working to provide
effective software solutions.
7. Database Administrator
a) Database administrators are responsible for handling the

information stored on the computer databases of various
businesses and organizations.
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b) They come up with effective ways of storing, organizing,
analyzing, using and presenting this data.
c) Database administrators are usually skilled in using database

management software.
d) Some database administrators are charged with integrating data

from old, outdated computer systems to new, more efficient
systems.
e) When a database administrator decides that a change needs to be

made to a company's database, he must test any modifications and
make sure no damage occur or data is lost.
f) Every day, these professionals must demonstrate a thorough

understanding of database systems and know the factors that
affect the performance of that system.
g) They often work closely with network administrators to devise

security measures to protect private company information, as
many databases are connected to the Internet.
h) Some database administrators even participate in the design of

databases.
8. Network Administrator
a) Network administrators are responsible for building, maintaining,

managing, and repairing an organization's computer networks.
b) Network administrators handle a company's Local Area Networks

(LANs), Wide Area Networks (WANs) and network segments, as
well as manage the company's Internet and intranet systems.
c) They must install and maintain hardware and software that

supports an organization's networks, making sure everything is
working the way it is supposed to be.
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d) Network administrators keep a sharp eye on network
performance, taking steps to ensure user's needs are being met
and repairing any problems that crop up.
e) Network security is also a vital component of a network

administrator's work, as they must establish a means of protecting
the organization's networks from hackers and other threats.
9. Network System Analyst
a) A network system analyst is an expert in the relationship between

computers and various networks, like local area networks (LAN),
wide area networks (WAN), the Internet, intranets and other
communications systems.
b) They design and implement networks according to their clients'

specific business and telecommunications needs.
c) They should also be familiar with all hardware and software

components related to networks, as they will also assist in the
upgrading and maintenance of the systems.
d) These professionals can also manage and supervise other

Information Technology (IT) team members, like computer
programmers or web designers.
e) Network system analysts should be able to think on their feet, stay

side by side of the latest industry developments, and be excellent
communicators.
f) They should also be able to think seriously, as they will often be

called upon to troubleshoot network problems.
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10. Software Engineer
a) Software engineers create and develop all kinds of software

programs, such as video games, computer operating systems,
network systems, business applications, and so on.
b) They design and engineer programs that can work within

hardware limitations and still provide the best interface
experience according to the needs of the user.
c) Based on the user's needs, software engineers construct and test

various version of an application.
d) Once a test is successful, they then engineer the program,

implement it to the user's specifications, and maintain it for the
user if needed.
e) Software engineers can set up companies' programs to respond

directly to that company's needs. For example, a sales and
marketing company might hire software engineers to develop,
construct, and maintain a specific sales application, which could
track accounts and log sales, so its employees could better interact
with potential clients.
Preparing for a career in the computer industry
There are many career opportunities in the computer industry. It is

important for one to consider taking up subjects that are essential like
Maths, Physics since many professional courses rotate around this.
Other career opportunities do not need any bias in Maths and Physics
like working as an internet café attendant. One therefore needs to
prepare appropriately depending on the career one chooses.
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Review questions:
1. Write five roles of the following:
a) Computer and information system manager.

b) Computer scientists.
c) Computer support specialist.
d) System analyst.
e) System designer.
f) Computer programmer.
g) Database administrator.
h) Network administrator.
i) Network system analyst.
j) Software engineer.
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GREEN COMPUTING
Green computing is defined in many ways to include:
1. The creation of environmentally sustainable computing or IT.
2. The study and practice of designing, manufacturing, using, and

disposing of computers, servers, and associated subsystems—
such as monitors, printers, storage devices, and networking and
communications systems — efficiently and effectively with
minimal or no impact on the environment.
The goals of green computing are:
1. To reduce the use of dangerous materials,

2. To maximize energy efficiency during the product's lifetime,
3. To promote the recyclability or biodegradability of outdated
products and factory waste.
Many corporate IT departments have Green Computing plans to

reduce the environmental impacts of their IT operations. Research
continues into key areas such as making the use of computers as
energy-efficient as possible, and designing algorithms and systems
for efficiency-related computer technologies.
Software and deployment optimization
The efficiency of algorithms has an impact on the amount of

computer resources required for any given computing purpose.
Algorithm changes, such as switching from a slow (e.g. linear) search
algorithm to a fast (e.g. hashed or indexed) search algorithm can
reduce resource usage for a given task from considerable too close to
zero.
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Resource allocation
Algorithms can also be used to direct data to data centers where

electricity is less expensive. Researchers from MIT, Carnegie Mellon
University, and Akamai have tested an energy allocation algorithm
that successfully monitors traffic to the location with the cheapest
energy costs.
A similar approach has also been used to cut energy usage by

managing traffic away from data centers experiencing warm weather;
this allows computers to be shut down to avoid using air
conditioning.
Virtualizing
Computer virtualization refers to the idea of computer resources, such

as the process of running two or more logical computer systems on
one set of physical hardware.
With virtualization, a system administrator could combine several

physical systems into virtual machines on one single, powerful
system, thereby unplugging the original hardware and reducing
power and cooling consumption. Virtualization can assist in
distributing work so that servers are either busy or put in a low-power
sleep state.
Terminal servers
Terminal servers have also been used in green computing. When

using the system, users at a terminal connect to a central server; all of
the actual computing is done on the server, but the end user
experiences the operating system on the terminal. These can be
combined with thin clients, which use up to 1/8 the amount of energy
of a normal workstation, resulting in a decrease of energy costs and
consumption. There has been an increase in using terminal services
with thin clients to create virtual labs. Examples of terminal server
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software include Terminal Services for Windows and the Linux
Terminal Server Project (LTSP) for the Linux operating system.
Power management
The Advanced Configuration and Power Interface (ACPI), an open

industry standard, allows an operating system to directly control the
power-saving aspects of its basic hardware. This allows a system to
automatically turn off components such as monitors and hard drives
after set periods of inactivity.
In addition, a system may hibernate, where most components

(including the CPU and the system RAM) are turned off. ACPI is a
successor to an earlier Intel-Microsoft standard called Advanced
Power Management, which allows a computer's BIOS to control
power management functions.
Data center power
Data centers, which have been criticized for their particularly high
energy demand, are a primary focus for green computing. Data
centers can improve their energy and space efficiency through
techniques such as storage consolidation and virtualization.
Operating system support
The leading desktop operating system, Microsoft Windows, has

included limited PC power management features since Windows 95.
These initially provided for stand-by (suspend-to-RAM) and a
monitor low power state.
Windows added hibernate (suspend-to-disk) and support for the

ACPI standard. Windows 2000 was the first NT-based operating
system to include power management.
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Power supply
Desktop computer power supplies (PSUs) are in general 70–75%

efficient, dissolve the remaining energy as heat. A certification
program called 80 Plus certifies PSUs that are at least 80% efficient;
typically these models are drop-in replacements for older, less
efficient PSUs of the same form factor.
Storage
Smaller form factor (e.g., 2.5 inch) hard disk drives often consume
less power per gigabyte than physically larger drives. Unlike hard
disk drives, solid-state drives store data in flash memory or DRAM.
With no moving parts, power consumption may be reduced
somewhat for low-capacity flash-based devices. As hard drive prices
have fallen, storage firms have tended to increase in capacity to make
more data available online. This includes archival and backup data
that would formerly have been saved on tape or other offline storage.
The increase in online storage has increased power consumption.
Reducing the power consumed by large storage arrays, while still
providing the benefits of online storage, is a subject of ongoing
research. An example is sky drive and drop box respectively.
Video card
A fast GPU may be the largest power consumer in a computer.

Energy - efficient display options include:
4. No video card - use a shared terminal, shared thin client, or

desktop sharing software if display required.
5. Use motherboard video output - typically low 3D performance

and low power.
6. Select a GPU based on low idle power, average wattage, or

performance per watt.
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Display
CRT monitors typically use more power than LCD monitors. They
also contain large amounts of lead. LCD monitors typically use a
cold-cathode fluorescent bulb to provide light for the display. Some
newer displays use an array of light-emitting diodes (LEDs) in place
of the fluorescent bulb, which reduces the amount of electricity used
by the display. Fluorescent back-lights also contain mercury, whereas
LED back-lights do not.
Materials recycling
Recycling computing equipment can keep harmful materials such as

lead, mercury, and hexavalent chromium out of landfills, and can also
replace equipment that otherwise would need to be manufactured,
saving further energy and emissions. Computer systems that have
outlived their particular function can be re-purposed, or donated to
various charities and non-profit organizations.
Telecommuting
Teleconferencing and telepresence technologies are often

implemented in green computing initiatives. The advantages are :
1. Increased worker satisfaction,

2. Reduction of greenhouse gas emissions related to travel, and
3. Increased profit margins as a result of lower overhead costs for
office space, heat, lighting, etc.
Other related initiatives, such as hotelling reduce the square footage
per employee as workers reserve space only when they need it. Many
types of jobs, such as sales, consulting, and field service, integrate
well with this technique. Voice over IP (VoIP) reduces the telephony
wiring infrastructure by sharing the existing Ethernet copper. VoIP
and phone extension mobility also made hot desking more practical.
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Review questions:
1. (a). Define the term ‗Green Computing‖.

(b).State two goals of Green Computing.
(c). Explain the following in relation to Green Computing:
i.) Software and deployment optimization.

ii.) Resource allocation.
iii.) Virtualization.
iv.) Terminal servers.
v.) Power management.
vi.) Data center power.
vii.) Operating system support.
viii.) Power supply.
ix.) Storage.
x.) Video card.
xi.) Material recycling.
xii.) Telecommuting.
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COMPUTER CERTIFICATION
Professional certifications in computer technology are non-degree
awards made to those who have achieved qualifications specified by
a certifying authority. Depending on the particular certification,
qualifications may include completing a course of study, proof of
professional accomplishments, achieving a specified grade on an
examination or some combination thereof. The intention is to
establish that an individual holding a certification is technically
qualified to hold certain types of position within the field.
Certifications, generally, need to be renewed periodically, or may be

valid for a specific period (e.g. the lifetime of the product upon which
the individual is certified). As a part of a complete renewal of an
individual's certification, it is common for the individual to show
evidence of continual learning — often termed continuing education
— or learning continuing education units (CEU). Certification is
often used in the professions of information technology industry.
Some certification programs are tilting toward specific technologies,

and are managed by the vendors of these technologies. These
certification programs are tailored to the institutions that would
employ people who use these technologies.
1. Vendor-specific certifications
 Apple Inc. sponsors the Apple certification program.

 ARM Holdings sponsors the ARM Accredited Engineer program.
 Avaya sponsors the Avaya Professional Credential Program.
 Cisco Systems sponsors the Cisco Career Certifications program.
 Brocade Communications Systems sponsors the Brocade
Certification and Accreditation program.
 Citrix Systems sponsors the Citrix Certified Administrator
program.
 Cyberoam sponsors the Cyberoam Security certifications
program.
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 Hewlett-Packard sponsors the HP ExpertONE certification
program.
 Dell sponsors the Dell Certified Systems Expert program with
Associate and Master levels.
 IBM sponsors certifications.
 ISIS Papyrus sponsors the Papyrus Certified Professionals
Program.
 Juniper Networks sponsors the Juniper Networks Technical
Certification Program.
 LANDesk sponsors the Certified LANDesk Administrator and
Certified LANDesk Engineer program.
 Microsoft Corporation sponsors the Microsoft Certified
Professional program.
 MySQL (as part of Oracle now) sponsors a certification program.
 National Instruments offers certifications in Lab VIEW,
TestStand, and LabWindows/CVI software.
 Nortel sponsors the Nortel Certifications program.
 Novell sponsors a certification program.
 Object Management Group sponsors the Certified Professional
program for the Unified Modeling Language.
 Oracle Corporation sponsors the Oracle Certification Program.
 Red Hat sponsors the Red Hat Certification Program
 SAP sponsors individual training and certifications
 SAS sponsors a certification program
 SolarWinds sponsors the SolarWinds Certified Professional
Program for network management
 SpringSource sponsors the SpringSource Certified Professional
program.
 Sun Microsystems sponsors the Sun Certified Professional
program (now part of the Oracle Certification Program)
 Sybase sponsors the Certified Sybase Professional program
 Ubuntu, provides Ubuntu Certified Professional program
 VMware sponsors certification programs (VCP & VCDX)
 Zend Technologies sponsors the Zend Certified Engineer (PHP)
program.
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2. Third-party and vendor-neutral certifications
Third-party commercial organizations, trade associations, and

vendor-neutral interest groups that sponsor certifications include:
 SCIPP International ANSI Accredited Secure Web-Application

Development Awareness course and End-User Security
Awareness courses.
 MigrationX sponsors unique IT migration related certifications
like Certified Migration Expert (CME) & Certified Migration
Professional (CMP).
 The BSD Certification Group Inc. A non-profit organization
committed to creating and maintaining a global certification
standard for system administration on BSD based operating
systems.
 INFINIDOX sponsors 4 professional information security
certifications.
 Basic Computer Literacy Certification
 Certiport sponsors the Microsoft Office Specialist and IC3
certification (Internet and Computing Core).
 CompTIA (Computing Technology Industry Association)
CompTIA offers 12 professional IT Certifications, validating
foundation-level IT knowledge and skills.
 ECDL Foundation sponsors the European Computer Driving
Licence (also called International Computer Driving Licence)
(ICDL)
 International Information and Communication Technology
Council Certification Program
 (ISC)² sponsors the CISSP, SSCP and other security certifications
 Learning Tree International sponsors Learning Tree Professional
Certification.
 Linux Professional Institute
 Majinate sponsors the Accredited Symbian Developer scheme for
Symbian OS
 NACSE (National Association of Communication Systems
Engineers) sponsors 36 Vendor Neutral, knowledge specific,
Certifications covering the 5 major IT Disciplines which are: Data
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Networking, Telecomm, Web Design & Development,
Programming & Business Skills for IT Professionals.
 Network Professional Association offers the Certified Network
Professional program
 The Open Group sponsors TOGAF certification and the IT
Architect Certification (ITAC) and IT Specialist Certification
(ITSC) skills and experience based IT certifications.
 Planet3 Wireless sponsors the Certified Wireless Network
Administrator (CWNA) certification SAGE (organization)
sponsors the SAGE program
 SANS Institute operates the Global Information Assurance
Certification program.
 Storage Networking Industry Association (SNIA) sponsors the
SNIA Certification Program.
 The SolidQ University Certifications
 Testout offers the PC Pro Certification and the Network Pro
Certification with its CompTIA A+ and Network+ course
material. Validated Guru provides the Certified Software
Developer (VGCSD) certification. The exam is free ($0),
Certificate and Validation Services optional.
 Eipass.
3. General certification
General certification of software practitioners has struggled. The ACM

had a professional certification program in the early 1980s, which was
discontinued due to lack of interest. Today, the IEEE is certifying
software professionals, but only about 500 people have passed the exam
by March 2005.
 The IEEE Computer Society sponsors the Certified Software

Development Professional as well as membership designations,
"Senior" and "Fellow" which reflect experience and peer review
qualification.
 The IET sponsors the Chartered Engineer and Incorporated
Engineer, which can be ratified into the European Engineer
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 The BCS sponsors the Chartered IT Professional (CITP)
programme.
 The Institute for Certification of Computing Professionals
sponsors the Certified Computing Professional (CCP) and
Associate Computing Professional (ACP) certifications
 The BDPA IT Institute sponsors the BDPA IT Associate (BITA),
the BDPA IT Professional (BITP), and the BDPA IT Master
(BITM) certifications
 The Canadian Information Processing Society sponsors the
Information Systems Professional (ISP) and Information
Technology Certified Professional (ITCP) in Canada.
 The American Institute of Certified Public Accountants sponsors
the Certified Information Technology Professional program.
 APICS establishes operations management standards and
sponsors certification for Logistics.
 The New Zealand Computer Society sponsors the Information
Technology Certified Professional programme
 The Australian Computer Society offers pathways to Certified
Professional (CP) and Certified Technologist (CT) designation.
 The Canadian Council of Technicians and Technologists sponsors
the Certified Engineering Technologist or Professional
Technologist Information Technology or Electronics (Computer)
Technology profiles.
4. Green Computing Certifications
Some certifications demonstrate that an individual has specific green

computing knowledge, including:
 Green Computing Initiative - GCI offers the Certified Green
Computing User Specialist (CGCUS), Certified Green Computing
Architect (CGCA) and Certified Green Computing Professional
(CGCP) certifications.
 CompTIA Strata Green IT is designed for IT managers to show

that they have good knowledge of green IT practices and methods
and why it is important to incorporate them into an organization.
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 Information Systems Examination Board (ISEB) Foundation
Certificate in Green IT is appropriate for showing an overall
understanding and awareness of green computing and where its
implementation can be beneficial.
 Singapore Infocom Technology Federation (SiTF) Singapore

Certified Green IT Professional is an industry endorsed
professional level certification offered with SiTF authorized
training partners. Certification requires completion of a four day
instructor-led core course, plus a one day elective from an
authorized vendor.
 Australian Computer Society (ACS) The ACS offers a certificate

for "Green Technology Strategies" as part of the Computer
Professional Education Program (CPEP). Award of a certificate
requires completion of a 12 week e-learning course designed by
Tom Worthington, with written assignments.
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REFERENCES
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2. Ghezzi and M. Jazayem (3d ed. 1997), Programming Language
Concepts
3. Halsall (4th ed. 1996)., Data Communications, Computer
Networks, and Open Systems
4. Hutchinson / Sawyer (3d. ed.1992), COMPUTERS the user
perspective
5. A. Cohen (2d ed. 1996), Introduction to Computer Theory
6. Maddix and G. Morgan (1989)., Systems Software: An
Introduction to Language Processors and Operating Systems
7. P. Kehoe, Zen and the Art of the Internet: A Beginner's Guide
(4th ed. 1995);
8. P. Norton (2d ed. 1996), Peter Norton's Introduction to
Computers
9. R. Cezzar (1995), A Guide to Programming Languages:
Overview and Comparison
10. R. L. Oakman (2d ed. 1997), The Computer Triangle: Hardware,
Software, People
11. R. W. Sebasta (4th ed. 1998), Concepts of Programming
Languages.
12. S. G. Nash (1990), A History of Scientific Computing
13. S. Tanenbaum and J. R. Goodman (4th ed. 1998), Structured
Computer Organization.
14. Smith (1994), The Virus Creation Labs: A Journey into the
Underground.
15. T. W. Pratt and M. V. Zelkowitz (3d ed. 1996), Programming
Languages: Design and Implementation
16. W. Biermann (2d ed. 1997), Great Ideas in Computer Science: A
Gentle Introduction
17. W. Stallings (1993), Local and Metropolitan Area Networks.
225

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SIMPLIFIED APPROACH TO U.A.C.

Mugoya Mwondha David

I encourage learners to take serious note of all terms, definitions,

I am sure that this book shall enable functional computing students

Mugoya Mwondha David,

I am grateful to the following individuals for their purposeful

a) The Headmaster, staff and students of King‘s College, Budo for

c) Colleagues in the profession including: Matovu D. K., Kiiza V.,

d) Head of Department – ICT; King‘s College, Budo, Mt. St. Marys‘

e) Staff, Aptech Computer Education – Uganda (Entebbe Road) for

f) Long John, Hackers for Charities (U.S.A) for your encouraging

g) Ms. Nalubwama Daniellah for her spiritual and moral support

h) I cannot forget Mr. Moya Martin (English Department KCB) who

Aims of Teaching Subsidiary ICT:

1. To help learners develop and consolidate their knowledge of ICT

2. To encourage learners to develop as independent user.

3. To encourage learners to develop ICT skills to enhance work

4. To empower learners and prepare them for lifelong learning.

List of topics to be covered:

A computer is an electronic device that can accept data input, process

The term computer is derived from a Latin word "Computare" which

Characteristics of a good computer

A good computer carries the following characteristics:

1. Speed: a good computer is fast in its operation in that its speed is

2. Accuracy: a good computer is known to be accurate that it hardly

3. Storage: For a computer to be able to work, it must have some

4. Diligence: (consistency) a good computer has the ability to

5. Artificial intelligence: A good computer is artificially intelligent.

6. Automation: A good computer does not need any supervision in

7. Versatility: a computer is able to do many activities. Take the

But a computer can do computations with not only all kinds of

In general, a computer's type is determined by the following seven

1. Type of CPU: Larger computers use CPUs made up of separate,

In most cases, the nature of the CPU determines the type of

2. Amount of main memory the CPU can use: A computer

The capacity varies depending on the nature of the computer

4. Speed of output devices: Speed of microcomputer output devices

5. Processing speed in millions of instructions per second

6. Number of users that can access the computer at one time:

7. Cost of the computer: Sincerely, many users look at the asking

A computer system is a series of hardware, software, user, data,

Is the term used to describe any kind of computer equipment (think of

A Personal Computer (PC) is a general purpose tool built around a

1. Central processing unit (CPU) - The microprocessor "brain" of a

a) Random-access memory (RAM) - Used to temporarily store

b) Read-only memory (ROM) - A permanent type of memory

c) Basic input/output system (BIOS) - A type of ROM that is used

d) Caching (Cache memory)- The storing of frequently used data in

e) Virtual memory - Space on a hard disk used to temporarily store

4. Power supply - An electrical transformer regulates the electricity

5. Hard disk - This is large-capacity permanent storage used to hold

8. Peripheral Component Interconnect (PCI) Bus - The most

9. SCSI - Pronounced "scuzzy," the small computer system

10. AGP - Accelerated Graphics Port is a very high-speed

Connections: Input / Output

No matter how powerful the components inside your computer are,

1. Monitor - The monitor is the primary device for displaying

2. Keyboard - The keyboard is the primary device for entering data

3. Mouse - A mouse is the primary device for navigating and