Met9 Nuclear Chemistry

Chapter 18
Nuclear Reactions
Masterton/Hurley, Chemistry: Principles and Reactions, 8th Edition. © 2016 Cengage. All Rights Reserved.
May not be scanned, copied or duplicated, or posted to a publicly accessible website, in whole or in part.
Chapter Outline
• (18.1) Nuclear stability

• (18.2) Radioactivity
• (18.3) Rate of radioactive decay
• (18.4) Mass-energy relations
• (18.5) Nuclear fission
• (18.6) Nuclear fusion
Masterton/Hurley, Chemistry: Principles and Reactions, 8th Edition. © 2016 Cengage. All Rights Reserved. May
not be scanned, copied or duplicated, or posted to a publicly accessible website, in whole or in part.
Nuclear Reactions
• Result from changes taking place within atomic nuclei

• Representation of atomic nuclei
12
6 C
• Atomic number, Z, is shown as a left subscript
• Mass number, A, appears as a left superscript
Nuclear Equations
• Use nuclear symbols

• Resemble an ordinary chemical equation
• Require balancing nuclear charge and nuclear mass
• Example 147 N + 01n → 146 C + 11H
• Reactants are an N-14 nucleus and a neutron
• Products are a C-14 nucleus and an H-1 nucleus
Nuclear Stability
• Characteristic of atomic nuclei at the short distances of separation involves

attractive forces between nuclear particles
• Balance between the forces and electrostatic repulsion influences the stability of
a nucleus
Empirical Rules that Determine the Stability of
Nuclei
• Neutron-to-proton ratio (n /p+ ) required for stability varies with atomic number
• Nuclei with more than 83 protons are unstable
• Nuclei with an even number of nucleons are more stable than those with an
odd number of nucleons
• Certain numbers of neutrons or protons show exceptional stability
• Magic numbers - 2, 8, 20, 28, 50, 82, 126
Figure 18.1 - Neutron-to-Proton Ratios of Stable
Isotopes
Example 18.1 (1 of 3)
• For each pair of nuclei, list which nucleus is more stable

6
3 Li or 93 Li
• Strategy
• Determine the neutron-to-proton ratio
• Check the belt of stability
• Solution
+
• n /p
6
3 Li : n /p + = 3 / 3 = 1; 93 Li : n /p + = 6 / 3 = 2
• Stability
• 9
3 Li : is unstable
• A n /p+ = 2 lies well below the belt of stability
• 204
82 Pb or 209
85 At
• Strategy and solution
• For Pb, Z = 82, whereas Z for At is 85
• Pb is the more stable element
Radioactivity
• Decomposition of unstable isotopes

• Natural radioactivity occurs in a few nuclei
• Other nuclei can be induced artificially by bombarding stable nuclei with
high-energy particles
• Forms of emitted radiation
• Beta (β) particles - Identical in their properties to electrons
• Alpha particles (α) - Are 42 H nuclei
• Gamma rays (γ) - Consist of high-energy radiation
Figure 18.2 - Nuclear Radiation
Alpha Particle Emission
• An ordinary Helium nucleus is given off

238
92 U → 42 He + 234
90 Th
• When a nucleus emits an alpha particle, its mass number decreases by four
units and its atomic number decreases by two units
• Alpha particle: Emitted by radioactive nuclei
• Possesses the highest ionizing power
Beta Particle Emission
0
• Beta particles produce an electron and are given the symbol −1 e
234
90 Th → −01e + 234
91 Pa
• Converts a neutron into a proton
• Beta particles are smaller and lighter than alpha particles and have a lower
ionizing power
Gamma Radiation Emission
• Gamma radiation: Comprises high-energy photons

• Does not change the mass number or the atomic number
• Has the lowest ionizing power, due to its size
Positron Emission and K-Electron Capture
• Positron emission - Characteristic of nuclei that have too many protons for
stability
0
• Positrons: Possess a charge of +1 with the symbol −1e
• K-electron capture: Electron in the innermost energy level (n = 1), falls into
the nucleus
• Result of K-electron capture is the same as positron emission
• Mass number remains unchanged, whereas atomic number decreases by one
unit
Table 18.1 - Modes of Radioactive Decay
• Promethium (Z = 61) is essentially nonexistent in nature; all of its isotopes

are radioactive
• Write balanced nuclear equations for the decomposition of various isotopes of
promethium
• Pm-142 by positron emission
• Pm-147 by beta emission
• Pm-150 by alpha emission
• Strategy
• Recall the symbol of the particle emitted for the specified decay mode
• Balance mass number and atomic number
• Find the symbol of the product isotope in the periodic table by using its atomic
number
• Solution - Pm-142 decomposition by positron emission

• Particle emitted
0
• Positron: −1e
• Mass and atomic number balance
Pm → 01e + 142
142
61 60
• Reaction Pm → 01e + 142

142
61 60 Nd
• Solution - Pm-147 decomposition by beta emission

0
• Particle emitted - β-particle: −1 e
• Mass and atomic number balance
Pm → −01e + 147
147
61 62
• Reaction Pm → −01e + 147

147
61 62 Sm
• Solution - Pm-150 decomposition by alpha emission

• Particle emitted - α-particle: 42 H
• Mass number and atomic number balance
150
61Pm → 42 He + 146
59
• Reaction 150
61Pm → 42 He + 146
59 Pr
Bombardment Reactions (1 of 2)
• Prepare isotopes per element ranging from 1 to 34 in which a stable nucleus

is converted into a radioactive one
• Stable nuclei are bombarded with:
• Neutrons of low energy, produced in a fission reactor
27
13 Al + 01n → 28
13 Al
• Product nucleus, Al-28, is radioactive, decaying by beta emission
28
13 Al → 28
14 Si + −01e
Bombardment Reactions (2 of 2)
• Charged particles can be accelerated to high velocities in electric and/or

magnetic fields
27
13 Al + 42 He → 30
15 P + 01n
• Product, phosphorus-30, is radioactive, decaying by positron emission:
30
15 P→ 30
14 Si + +01e
Transuranium Elements
• Possess an atomic number greater than that of uranium

• Neptunium (Np, Z = 93), the first transuranium element, was synthesized in 1940
• Latest detection was that of Uuo-294 (Element 118) in 2006, caused by the
following collisions
249
98 Cf + 48
20 Ca → 294
118 Uuo + 3 01n
Table 18.2 - Synthesis of Transuranium Elements
Application of Isotopes (1 of 4)
• Medicine
• Cancer treatment
• Cobalt-60 is used widely
• 131
I or 123I used to treat thyroid cancer
• Diagnostics
• Positron emission tomography (PET)
• Single positron emission computer tomography (SPECT)
Table 18.3 - Medical Uses of Radioisotopes
Figure 18.3 - Cobalt-60 Cancer Therapy
• Neutron activation analysis

• Sample is bombarded by neutrons, inducing radioactivity
84
38 Sr + 01n → 85
38 Sr
• Chemical identity of the element is retained, but the isotope formed is radioactive
• Wavelength of gamma rays emitted varies across elements
• Used in archaeology to study the nature of the diet practiced by prehistoric humans
• Smoke detectors
• Use americium-241
• Placed in a chamber in the unit, which also consists of a battery
• Am-241 ionizes air and completes a circuit caused by the battery
• Smoke particles impede the circuit, causing a drop in electric current, which triggers
the alarm
Figure 18.4 - Smoke Detector
• Food preservation
• Gamma rays kill insects, larvae, and parasites
• Sprouting of onions and potatoes is inhibited using irradiation
• Food that is irradiated has a longer shelf life
• Irradiated food is less harmful than chemically treated food
• Irradiation kills E.coli and also the anthrax virus
Rate of Radioactive Decay
• Radioactive decay is a first-order process rate = kX

X0
ln = kt
X
0.693
k=
t1
2
• k is the first-order rate constant
• t½ is the half life
• X is the amount of radioactive species at time t
• X0 is the amount of radioactive species at t = 0
Activity
• Rate of decay of atoms per unit time

A = kN
• A is the activity
• k is the first-order rate constant
• N is the number of radioactive nuclei present
• Units of activity
• 1 Becquerel (Bq) = 1 atom / s
• 1 Curie ( Ci) = 3.700  1010 atoms / s
Figure 18.6 - Liquid Scintillation Counter
• The half-life of radium-226 is 1.60  103 y = 5.05  1010 s

• Calculate k in s−1
• Analysis
• Information given: t1/2 for Ra-226 (5.05  1010 s)
−1
• Asked for: k in s
• Strategy
• Substitute into the formula relating half-life and rate constant in a first-order
reaction
0.693
k=
t1/2
• Solution
0.693 −11 −1
k= = 1.37  10 s
5.05  10 s
10
• What is the activity in curies of a 1.00-g sample of Ra-226?

• Analysis
• Information given: Mass of sample (1.00g) from part (a): k (1.37  10 −11 s−1 )
• Information implied: Atoms/s to Ci conversion factor
Avogadro’s number
• Asked for: Activity (A) in Ci
• Strategy
• Find the number of nuclei N in 1.00 g of Ra-226 using Avogadro’s number and
226 g/mol as the molar mass of Ra-226
• Substitute into Equation 18.1 to find activity in atoms/s
A = kN
• Use the following conversion factor to find activity in Ci
1 Ci = 3.700  1010 atoms/s
• Solution
• N 6.022  1023 atoms
1.00 g  = 2.66  1021 atoms
226 g
• A (atoms/s)
A = (1.37  10 −11 s−1 )(2.66  10 21 atom)

= 3.64  1010 atoms/s
• A (Ci)
1 Ci
3.64  10 atoms 
10
= 0.985 Ci
3.700  10 atoms/s
10
Age of Organic Material (1 of 2)
• Professor W.F. Libby of the University of Chicago in the 1950s devised a

method to determine the age of organic material
• Based on the decay rate of carbon-14
14
7 N + 01n → 146 C + 11H
• Carbon-14 formed by the above reaction is incorporated into the carbon dioxide in
the atmosphere
• Steady-state concentration results in one atom of carbon-14 for every 1012
carbon-12 atoms in atmospheric CO2
• Sample containing one gram of carbon has an activity of 15.3 atoms/min
Age of Organic Material (2 of 2)
• Intake of radioactive carbon stops when an organism dies

• C-14 level falls due to radioactive decay
14
7 C → 147 N = −01e t1/2 = 5730 y
• Activity of a sample is directly proportional to the amount of C-14
Ao
ln = kt
A
▶ Ao is the original activity (15.3 atoms / min)
▶ A is the current measure of activity
▶ t is the age of the sample
• A tiny piece of paper taken from the Dead Sea Scrolls, believed to date back
to the first century A.D., was found to have an activity per gram of carbon of
12.1 atoms/min
• Taking Ao to be 15.3 atoms/min, estimate the age of the scrolls
• Analysis
• Information given A (12.1 atoms/min); Ao (15.3 atoms/min)
• Information implied t½ for C-14 (5730 y)
• Asked for Age of the scrolls
• Strategy
• Find k by substituting into the equating half life and rate constant for a first-order
reaction
0.693
k=
t1/2
• Find t by substituting values in the following equation
Ao
ln = kt
A
• Solution
• k
0.693
k= = 1.21 10 –4 y –1
5730 y
• t
15.3 atoms / min
ln = = (1.21 10 –4 y –1 )(t ) → 0.235 = (1.21 10 −4 y −1 ) ( t )
12.1 atoms / min
t = 1.94  103 y
• Scrolls date back to the first century A.D
Shroud of Turin
• Sample of 0.1 g of the Shroud of Turin was analyzed by a recently developed

technique
• Specially designed mass spectrometer provides an accurate count of C-14 atoms
• Evidence showed that the flax used to make the linen of which the Shroud is
composed grew in the fourteenth century A.D
• Indicating that the burial garment could not have been the burial cloth of Christ
Figure 18.7 - The Shroud of Turin
Mass-Energy Relations (1 of 4)
• Energy change accompanying a nuclear reaction can be calculated from the

equation
E = c 2 m
• Δm = change in mass = mass of products − mass of reactants
• ΔE = change in energy = energy of products − energy of reactants
• c is the speed of light
• Products weigh less than the reactants in a spontaneous nuclear reaction

• Energy of the products is less than the energy of the reactants (ΔE negative)
• Energy is released when the reaction takes place
• ΔM is quantifiable in a nuclear reaction, when compared to chemical
reactions
• Δm amounts to 0.002% or more of the mass of reactants in nuclear reactions
Table 18.4 - Nuclear Masses on the 12C Scale (1 of 2)
Table 18.4 - Nuclear Masses on the 12C Scale (2 of 2)
*Note that these are nuclear masses. The masses of the corresponding atoms can be calculated by adding the masses of each extranuclear electron
(0.000549). For example, for an atom of 42 He we have 4.00150 + 2 ( 0.000549 ) = 4.00260. Similarly, for an atom of 126 C, 11.99671 + 6 ( 0.000549 ) = 12.00000.
• Useful form of the equation E = c 2 m is obtained by substituting for the

value of c in meters per second c = 3.00  108 m/s
2
m
• Thus E = 9.00  1016 2  m
s
m2 m2 J
• But 1 J = 1 kg 2 ; 1 2 =1
s s kg
J
• So E = 9.00  10  m
16
kg
• Calculating the energy change in joules requires conversion factors

• Relationship between ΔE and Δm in kilojoules can be found by using
conversion factors
J 1 kg 1 kJ
E = 9.00  1016  3  3  m
kg 10 g 10 J
10 kJ
E = 9.00  10  m
g
• For the radioactive decay of 226

88 Ra → 222
86 Rn + 42 He, calculate ΔE in kilojoules
when 10.2 g of radium decays
• Analysis
• Information given Nuclear reaction 226
88 Ra → 222
86 Rn + 42 He
Mass of Ra-226 (10.2 g)
• Information implied Nuclear masses
• Asked for ΔE
• Strategy
• Use Table 18.4 to find nuclear masses and Δm for the decay of one mole of Ra-226.
Do not round off
• Δ m = nuclear masses of products − nuclear masses of reactants
• Find Δm for the decay of 10.2 g of Ra-226
• Determine ΔE by substituting into the following equation
J
E = 9.00  10  m 16
kg
• Solution
• Δm for one mole
m = (mass of 1 mol He-4 + mass of 1 mol Rn-222) − (mass of 1 mol Ra-226)
= 4.0015 g + 221.9703 − 225.9703 g − 225.9771 g = −0.0053 g/mol Ra-226
• Δm for 10.2 g
1 mol Ra −0.0053 g
m = 10.2 g Ra   = −2.4  10 −4 g
226.0 g Ra 1 mol Ra
• ΔE
 10 kJ   10 kJ  −4
E =  9.00  10  ( m ) =  9.00  10   ( −2.4  10 kJ) = −2.2  10 7
kJ
 g  g
• End point
• In ordinary chemical reactions, the energy change is of the order of 50 kJ/g or
less
• In this nuclear reaction, the energy change is much, much greater
Nuclear Binding Energy
• Nucleus weighs less than the individual protons and neutrons

• Consider the nucleus of 63 Li
• One mole of Li-6 weighs 6.01348 g
• Calculating the total mass of three moles of neutrons and three moles of protons
3(1.00867g) + 3(1.00728 g) = 6.04785 g
• Therefore, one mole of Li-6 weighs less than the corresponding protons and neutrons
6
3 Li → 3 11H + 3 01n
m = 6.04785 g − 6.01348 g = 0.03437 g/mol Li
• The difference in quantity is called the mass defect
Binding Energy (1 of 2)
• Calculating the difference in energy
kJ g kJ
E = 9.00  10 10
 0.03437 = 3.09  10 9
g mol Li mol Li
• Resulting energy is termed as binding energy
• Calculate the binding energy of C-14, in kilojoules per mole

• Strategy
• Recall that the C-14 nucleus is made up of 6 protons
( H) and 8 neutrons ( n ).Thus
1
1
1
0
14
6 C → 6 11H + 8 01n
• Find Δm using table 18.4

• Find ΔE in kJ/mol using the formula given below
kJ
E = 9.00  10  m
10
• Solution
• Δm
m = 6(1.00728 g) + 8(1.00867 g) − 13.99995 g
= 0.11309 g/mol C - 14
• ΔE
kJ g
E = 9.00  10  0.11309
10
g mol
= 1.02  1010 kJ / mol
Binding Energy (2 of 2)
• Indicates the stability of a nucleus

• A higher binding energy makes decomposing the nucleus harder
• Binding energy per mole of nuclear particles is accurate in measuring
stability
• Calculated by dividing the binding energy per molecule per mole of nuclei by the
number of particles per nucleus
• For Li-6:
kJ 1 mol Li - 6 kJ
3.09  109  = 5.15  108
mol Li - 6 6 mol nucleons mol
Nuclear Fission and Nuclear Fusion
• Nuclear fission - Single nucleus splits into smaller nuclei, accompanied by an

evolution of energy
• Nuclear fusion - Light nuclei are combined to form a heavier nucleus,
accompanied by a larger evolution of energy
Figure 18.8 - Binding Energy per Nucleon
Fission Process (1 of 2)
• Isotopes of heavy elements undergo fission when bombarded with high-energy

neutrons
• 235
92 U and 239
94 Pu can be split by relatively low-energy neutrons
• Uranium-235 splits into two unequal fragments and a number of neutrons and
beta particles
Fission Process (2 of 2)
• Fission products are located near the middle of the periodic table
• Smaller stable neutron-to-proton ratio
• Following steps are needed to reach a stable nucleus
90
37 Rb → 90
38 Sr + –10e t1/2 = 2.8 min
90
38 Sr → 90
39 Y + –10e t1/2 = 29 y
90
39 Y→ 90
40 Zr + –10e t1/2 = 64 h
Chain Reactions
• Require the sample to be sufficiently large to capture maximum neutrons

internally
• Samples that are small result in the escape of the neutrons, which breaks the
chain
Nuclear Reactors
• Produce about 20% of the electricity generated in the U.S. using the fission
of U-235
• Light-water reactor
• Increased amounts of heat turns water to steam which allows a turbine to
produce electricity
• Ordinary water is used to cool the reaction and to slow the neutrons produced by
fission
Heavy-Water Reactors
• Canadian reactors (Advanced CANDU)

• Use lightly enriched uranium, similar to light water reactors
• Use of D2O allows the use of natural uranium without enrichment
Figure 18.10 - Pressurized Water Reactor
Nuclear Accidents and Disposal of Radioactive
Waste
• Nuclear accidents
• Accidents at Three Mile Island, Pennsylvania, in 1979 had a negative effect on
public opinion in the U.S.
• Explosion at Chernobyl, Ukraine led to the permanent shutting down of all the
reactors at Chernobyl
• Disposal of radioactive waste
• Applies the NIMBY (Not in my backyard) attitude
• U.S. government has developed a nuclear burial site at Yucca Mountain, Nevada,
for burying 70,000 metric tons of nuclear waste
Nuclear Fusion (1 of 2)
• Light nuclei such as those of hydrogen are unstable with respect toward
fusion into heavier isotopes
• Energy available is greater than that given off in the fission of an equal mass
of a heavy element
• Calculate ΔE, in kilojoules per gram of reactants, in a fusion reaction

2
1 H + 21H → 42 He
• Calculate ΔE, in kilojoules per gram of reactants, in a fission reaction
235
92 U→ 90
38 Sr + 144
58 Ce + 1
0 n + 4 0
–1e
• Strategy
• Find Δm for the reaction as written by using the nuclear masses in Table 18.4
• Find Δm for one gram of reactant
• Substitute into equation 18.3 to determine ΔE
• Solution - Fusion reaction

• m /2 mol H-2
m = (mass He-4) − 2(mass H-2)

= 4.00150 g − 2(2.01355 g)
= −0.02560 g
• m /g H-2
−0.02560 g 2mol H - 2
m = 
2mol H - 2 2(2.01355 g)
= −0.006357 g/g H - 2
Example 18.7 - Solution
• Δm
kJ −6.357  10 −3
E = 9.00  10 
10
g 1 g H- 2
= −5.72  108 kJ/g H - 2
• Fission reaction
• m /mol U-235
m = mass(Sr-90) + mass(Ce-144) + mass( 01n ) + 4[mass( –10e)] − mass(U-235)

= [89.8869 + 143.8817 + 1.00867 + 4(0.00055)g] – 234.9934 g = −021393g
• Δm/g U-235
–0.2139 g 1mol U - 235
m = 
mol U - 235 235.0 g
= −9.102  10 –4 g/g U - 235
• ΔE
−4
kJ − 9.102  10 g
E = 9.00  1010 
g 1 g U - 235
= −8.19  107 kJ/g U - 235
• End point
• Comparing the answers to fusion and fission, it appears that the fusion reaction
produces about seven times as much energy per gram of reactant
(57.2  107 versus 8.19  107 kJ) as does the fission reaction
• This factor varies from about 3 to 10, depending on the particular reaction chosen
to represent the fission and fusion processes
Nuclear Fusion (2 of 2)
• Advantages
• Light isotopes are more abundant than the heavy isotopes required for fission
• Disadvantages
• High activation energies
• Generating electricity requires developing equipment in which high temperatures
are maintained for long durations
Figure 18.11 - Laser Fusion
Key Concepts
• Determine the more stable isotope or nucleus

• Write balanced nuclear reactions
• Relate activity to rate constant and number of atoms
• Relate activity to age of objects
• Relate Δm and ΔE in a nuclear reaction
• Calculate binding energies

Met9 Nuclear Chemistry

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Met9 Nuclear Chemistry

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Chapter 18

• (18.1) Nuclear stability

• Result from changes taking place within atomic nuclei

• Use nuclear symbols

• Characteristic of atomic nuclei at the short distances of separation involves

• For each pair of nuclei, list which nucleus is more stable

• Decomposition of unstable isotopes

• An ordinary Helium nucleus is given off

• Gamma radiation: Comprises high-energy photons

• Promethium (Z = 61) is essentially nonexistent in nature; all of its isotopes

• Solution - Pm-142 decomposition by positron emission

• Reaction Pm → 01e + 142

• Solution - Pm-147 decomposition by beta emission

• Reaction Pm → −01e + 147

• Solution - Pm-150 decomposition by alpha emission

• Prepare isotopes per element ranging from 1 to 34 in which a stable nucleus

• Charged particles can be accelerated to high velocities in electric and/or

• Possess an atomic number greater than that of uranium

• Neutron activation analysis

• Radioactive decay is a first-order process rate = kX

• Rate of decay of atoms per unit time

• The half-life of radium-226 is 1.60  103 y = 5.05  1010 s

• What is the activity in curies of a 1.00-g sample of Ra-226?

1 Ci = 3.700  1010 atoms/s

A = (1.37  10 −11 s−1 )(2.66  10 21 atom)

• Professor W.F. Libby of the University of Chicago in the 1950s devised a

• Intake of radioactive carbon stops when an organism dies

• Scrolls date back to the first century A.D

• Sample of 0.1 g of the Shroud of Turin was analyzed by a recently developed

• Energy change accompanying a nuclear reaction can be calculated from the

• Products weigh less than the reactants in a spontaneous nuclear reaction

• Useful form of the equation E = c 2 m is obtained by substituting for the

• Calculating the energy change in joules requires conversion factors

• For the radioactive decay of 226

• Nucleus weighs less than the individual protons and neutrons

• The difference in quantity is called the mass defect

• Calculating the difference in energy

• Calculate the binding energy of C-14, in kilojoules per mole

• Find Δm using table 18.4

• Indicates the stability of a nucleus

• Nuclear fission - Single nucleus splits into smaller nuclei, accompanied by an

• Isotopes of heavy elements undergo fission when bombarded with high-energy

• Require the sample to be sufficiently large to capture maximum neutrons

• Canadian reactors (Advanced CANDU)

• Calculate ΔE, in kilojoules per gram of reactants, in a fusion reaction

• Solution - Fusion reaction

m = (mass He-4) − 2(mass H-2)

m = mass(Sr-90) + mass(Ce-144) + mass( 01n ) + 4[mass( –10e)] − mass(U-235)

• Determine the more stable isotope or nucleus

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