CHAPTER

37 Ceilings

CHAPTER OUTLINE
37.1 SELECTION CRITERIA FOR CEILING FINISH 37.3 CEILINGS ATTACHED TO THE
MATERIALS BUILDING STRUCTURE

37.2 NO CEILING FINISH—EXPOSED TO THE AREA 37.4 CEILINGS SUSPENDED FROM THE
ABOVE BUILDING STRUCTURE

Ceilings can be brought low and articulated to create intimate spaces, or they can be pushed
high to create awe-inspiring and dramatic spaces. They can be subtle in design or they can
be highly expressive. They can impede sound or amplify it, and they can direct light by
reflection or they can black it out. Whatever the requirements, ceilings can be used to
accomplish varied design intents.
Historically, ceilings were the underside of the floor or roof structure above; the ceilings
were either finished or the structure was left exposed. The several architects of St. Peter’s
Cathedral in Rome, Figure 37.1, placed an exquisitely detailed dome at the center of the

FIGURE 37.1 The smooth suspended gypsum ceiling (curved in plan, narrows in width from one end to the other, and barrel vault in profile)
in a contemporary foundation building on a college campus stands in contrast to, and is reminiscent of, St. Peter’s Cathedral in Rome. (Photo
of foundation building courtesy of HKS Inc.)

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building and consequently created one of the most awe-
inspiring buildings in the history of architecture. The ceil-
ing of another awe-inspiring ancient building, the Pantheon
in Rome, is coffered concrete that was originally covered in
stucco (see Figure 21.5).
Buildings today are far more complex and require space
for their utilities (ductwork for the distribution of heat and
cooling, electrical power, lighting, communications wiring,
fire protection piping, etc), as can be seen in Figure 37.2. In
most buildings, the space overhead is the preferred loca-
tion for many of these components; for that reason, ceiling
systems were developed to conceal these from view. Today
a vast number of products and materials are available for
this purpose.
In this chapter, we discuss the three primary strategies
for constructing ceilings. First, and the simplest to accom-
plish, is the one in which the underside of the structure
above forms the ceiling and any overhead mechanical and
electrical components are left exposed. Second, the ceiling FIGURE 37.2 In most buildings, there are usually many utilities located
overhead, as shown in this image. Because many of these utilities require
finish materials are attached directly to the overhead build- periodic access, an acoustical suspended ceiling is frequently selected.
ing structure to form a cover. Third, and most popular, (Photo courtesy of HKS Inc.)
ceiling finish materials are suspended from the overhead
building structure. In the second and third strategies, the
space between the ceiling and the floor or roof above is known as a plenum. When the ceil-
ing is on the exterior of a building, it is called a soffit.

37.1 SELECTION CRITERIA FOR CEILING

FINISH MATERIALS
Unless the ceiling is part of a fire-rated assembly (which is quite often the case), the reasons
for the ceiling are discretionary. In residential buildings, the ceiling is attached directly to
the structure, and in most commercial buildings the suspended ceiling strategy is used.
When ceilings are not included, the reason may be to reduce costs or to express the building
utilities as part of the design. At other times, suspended ceilings can be used creatively to
enhance the building’s design.
There are several factors that must be considered when determining the appropriate ceil-
ing type and finishes, and many of the principles discussed in Part I of the text apply. Fac-
tors unique to ceilings include the following:
• Aesthetic Expectations: Ceiling finish materials, heights, and profiles can create
inviting environments and can influence the way light interacts with the building’s
interior. Unlike floors, ceilings are not limited to a single horizontal plane; they
can be articulated at several elevations or can include vertical or sloped surfaces.
Ceilings are used to introduce a sense of scale and proportion to an interior space.
For example, if the area of the room is large, a high ceiling can create a grand
space; however, if the area is small and the ceiling is high, the room may simply
feel cavernous.
• Concealing the Building’s Utilities Overhead (mechanical and electrical equipment and
components): As previously discussed, the most common reason for a ceiling is to con-
ceal the building’s structure and overhead utilities, Figure 37.2.
• Wind Loading: Wind can impose an uplift load on the exterior soffit surface; there-
fore, wind-uplift resistance becomes an important consideration. In circumstances
when large areas of the building enclosure are regularly opened to the exterior, wind
can enter the building and exert a force on the ceilings.
• Volume of Occupied Space: Ceiling height is related directly to the volume of space
required to be heated and cooled.
• Humidity: Ceilings adjacent to openings in exterior walls, especially major openings
such as at a bank of frequently used doors, may be subjected to higher levels of humid-
ity than the ceilings in the remainder of the building. Because many materials, when
oriented horizontally, are vulnerable to sagging due to moisture absorption, the choice
of materials must be carefully considered.

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FIGURE 37.3 The building structure, utilities, and lap-
idaries of a professional basketball and hockey stadium
are exposed as part of the architectural design. (Photo
courtesy of HKS Inc.)
FIGURE 37.4 A typical gypsum
board ceiling attached to the wood
framing in a residential application.
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• Flammability: Building codes sometimes require ceilings to be resistant
to fire propagation and spread.
• Seismic Activity: In seismically active areas, building codes require prod-
ucts, materials, and equipment installed overhead to resist the move-
ments caused by an earthquake. During seismic activity, support
structures and ceiling finish materials must not fall down, which would
cause injuries to people trying to vacate the building.
• Sound Absorption: Ceiling finish materials and their method of applica-
tion can help absorb sound generated within a room or space.
• Sound Isolation: Building codes sometimes require a floor-ceiling
assembly to help isolate sound from above. See the discussion of the
impact isolation class (IIC) in Chapter 8.
• Sustainability: Many ceiling products contain recycled content and can
make contributions to sustainability goals.
• Antimicrobial Resistance: In addition to normal maintenance, some
applications may require ceilings to be resistant to bacterial growth and
mold and mildew development.
• Light Reflectance: Ceilings can be used to reflect and/or diffuse light
from other sources in order to distribute it uniformly throughout a
space. Sometimes certain ceiling finish materials are selected
specifically to give the space a brighter appearance because indirect
lighting is the preferred lighting source. This is also an important
consideration when daylighting of an interior space is part of the
design.
• Maintenance: Some occupancies, such as healthcare facilities, require
ceiling finishes that can be regularly cleaned and scrubbed to remove
possible contaminants. Other occupancies may require ceilings to resist
soiling, scratching, and impact.
37.2 NO CEILING FINISH—EXPOSED
TO THE AREA ABOVE
One method of treating an interior space is not to have a ceiling, but rather to expose
the building structure and utilities. Although this may seem simple, it requires careful
design, detailing, and coordination of all exposed elements to produce a satisfactory
result, Figure 37.3. This approach can make it easier to access certain elements for rou-
tine maintenance.
37.3 CEILINGS ATTACHED TO THE
BUILDING STRUCTURE
In most residential buildings and some light-commercial buildings, lightweight ceiling fin-
ish materials are attached directly to the building structure. This is the most economical
approach in residential applications, especially when there are
few mechanical, plumbing, or electrical systems to be accom-
modated within the plenum. The most important consideration
for this type of ceiling is that the underside of the building
structure be specifically designed and located to provide surfaces
for attaching the finished ceiling. Ceilings attached directly to
the building structure do not usually require another structure,
as is needed for suspended ceilings.
The most common material attached to the building struc-
ture is gypsum board. It is either (a) nailed to the underside of
the wood framing, Figure 37.4, or (b) screwed to light-gauge
steel framing, as at the underside of the framing in Figure 20.24.
The gypsum board is subsequently taped, bedded, textured, and
painted. In addition, acoustical tiles can be attached with adhe-
sive to the gypsum board finish.
 PRACTICE QUIZ
Each question has only one correct answer. Select the choice that best c. department store.
answers the question. d. pharmacy.
e. warehouse.
1. All ceilings are formed by suspending a lightweight material from the
underside of the structure to provide the interior finish. 4. In a building where no ceiling is provided and the structure and
a. True b. False utilities are exposed,
a. mechanical and electrical subcontractors are allowed easy
2. The most common reason for a ceiling is to
access and freedom of choice in locating their work.
a. control heat and humidity.
b. all systems must be carefully designed.
b. provide a sculpted or multilevel surface overhead.
c. on-site coordination of construction is critical.
c. reflect light.
d. all of the above.
d. conceal the building structure and overhead utilities.
e. (b) and (c).
e. isolate sound.
5. The ceiling provides an excellent opportunity to modulate natural
3. Antimicrobial ceiling materials are most likely to be used in a
and artificial light.
a. university classroom.
a. True b. False
b. hospital or medical laboratory.

37.4 CEILINGS SUSPENDED FROM

THE BUILDING STRUCTURE
By far the most common ceiling in commercial buildings is one that is suspended from the
building structure overhead.

P RINCIPLES OF C EILING S USPENSION S YSTEMS

A suspended ceiling system is a relatively simple concept. A lightweight metal grid structure
is suspended from the building’s overhead structure to provide support for the ceiling finish
products as well as to establish the ceiling height. This grid structure consists of main run-
ners, suspended from above by steel wire, and interconnecting cross runners spaced uni-
formly to support the ceiling finish products.
There are three types of metal suspension systems, Figure 37.5. The type of suspension
system used for a particular application depends on the structural requirements to support
the ceiling finish products and other components that will be mounted on or attached to
the grid structure, Table 37.1.

S USPENDED A COUSTICAL C EILINGS

The most common commercial ceiling consists of modular acoustical panels laid in a direct-
hung suspension system known as an inverted-tee grid. The acoustical panels are typically
24 in. square, or 24 by 48 in., and are laid on the horizontal legs of the inverted tees, lower
image in Figure 37.6.
This grid structure is composed of corrosion-resistant steel or extruded aluminum
inverted tees (upside-down T-shape). The main runners and cross runners are in the same
plane and are assembled by interlocking the pieces to form a unified, modular grid struc-
ture, usually on some increment of 12 in. The main runners have slots and holes that have
been prepunched in the web at regular spacings to receive the end clips that are on each end
of the cross tees.

TABLE 37.1 METAL SUSPENSION SYSTEMS—DUTY CLASSIFICATIONS

AND STRUCTURAL CAPACITIES
Minimum load-carrying capacity
(pounds per square foot)

Duty Carrying capacity Direct Hung Indirect Hung Furring Bar

Light Supports only the finish material itself 5.0 2.0 4.5
Intermediate For ordinary ceilings, supports finish material and lightweight 12.0 3.5 6.5
components such as light fixtures and ceiling diffusers/grilles
Heavy Greatest capacity to support finish material and other ceiling- 16.0 8.0 N/A
mounted components

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 DIRECT-HUNG SUSPENSION SYSTEM
Main runners Steel hanger wires are attached to the under-
suspended from side of the structure above at the required
structure above Cross runners spacing, with the ends hanging longer than will
on hanger wires span between be necessary.
main runners
The hanger wires are looped through the holes in
the main runners and tied.

Cross runners are snapped into and interlocked

with the main runners.

Acoustical lay-in panels are laid in each opening

to create the finished ceiling.

Acoustical lay-in panel

INDIRECT-HUNG SUSPENSION SYSTEM

Carrying channels
are suspended from Steel hanger wires are attached to the under-
structure side of the structure above at the required
Cross runner spacing, with the ends hanging longer than will
Main runner spans between
clipped to be necessary.
main runners
carrying channels
The hanger wires are looped around the carrying
channels and tied.

Main runners are attached to the carrying

channels using wire clips. Cross runners are
snapped into and interlocked with the main
runners.

Concealed-spine acoustical panels are installed

Spline on the cross runners, and splines are used to
frame the panels and distribute the load to the
cross runners.
Acoustical panel

Steel hanger wires are attached to the under-

FURRING BAR SUSPENSION SYSTEM

Carrying channels
are suspended from side of the structure above at the required
structure with spacing, with the ends hanging longer than will
hanger wires be necessary.

The hanger wires are looped around the carrying

channels and tied.

Furring bars are attached to the carrying

channels by looping around the intersection
several times with tie wire.

Gypsum board is screw attached to the furring

bar, and then acoustical panels (or another
Furring bar ceiling finish) are adhered.

Acoustical panel adhered

to gypsum board

FIGURE 37.5 Three types of ceiling suspension systems, with various components indicated.

Acoustical panels and tiles are composed of a variety of materials, including mineral wool,
mineral fibers, fiberglass, and/or perlite, which are combined with fillers, binders, and water
and then formed into sheets (and cut into panels or tiles) or molded into pans. There are
several surface finishes available, including paint, membrane overlay, fabric, and thin metal
sheets. Surface textures and patterns include perforations, fissures, embossings, printings,

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 STANDARD NARROW 9/16- BUTT SLOT SCREW SLOT
15/16-in. FACE in. FACE

Acoustical lay-in panels

Main runner suspended

from structure above on
hanger wire

Wall molding

Cross runner spans

between main runners

FIGURE 37.6 Suspended acoustical ceiling components and typical profiles for inverted tees.

and scorings. Finally, panels can have one of several edge treatments, Figure 37.7. Once the
grid structure is assembled, Figure 37.8, and the panels and tiles are installed, no other fin-
ishing work is necessary. SQUARE
When an acoustical ceiling without an exposed grid is desired, a variation of the
inverted-tee grid structure is used. In addition to a suspended grid, metal splines are
inserted in the edges of acoustical tiles, usually 12 in. square, which are, in turn, supported
on a suspended grid.

TAPERED
S USPENDED G YPSUM B OARD C EILINGS REVEAL
The second most common commercial suspended ceiling consists of gypsum board sheets
screw-attached to an inverted-tee grid structure. The gypsum board is then finished like
other gypsum board surfaces. Suspended gypsum board ceilings are versatile because they
can be integrated with stud framing hung from the building structure above to form ceil-
ings that have various profiles vertically and horizontally.
SQUARE EDGE
The suspended inverted-tee grid structure for gypsum board ceilings is very similar to REVEAL
the grid structure used for suspended acoustical ceilings, except that the bottom surface
of the horizontal tee flange is embossed to improve the grip on the gypsum board, Fig-
ures 37.9 and 37.10.

S USPENDED G YPSUM P LASTER C EILINGS STEPPED EDGE

AND P ORTLAND C EMENT P LASTER S OFFITS REVEAL
Portland cement and gypsum plasters are heavier than acoustical products and materials
and thus require the use of a channel grid structure. Wire lath is attached horizontally to FIGURE 37.7 Various acoustical
the main and cross runners using steel wire, Figure 37.11; then the plaster is applied. lay-in panel edge types.

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Part 2
Materials and Systems
of Construction

(a)

(c) (b)

FIGURE 37.8 Installation of a

suspended grid. (Photos of Vaden’s
Acoustical & Drywall, Inc. by Gary
Yancy of USG Building Systems).
(a) Attaching steel hanger wire to (d) (e)
the steel structural joist above. In
this case, the hanger wire is tied to
the steel joist. When a concrete slab
or metal deck is present, a hanger
wire, with an integral clip angle, is
usually powder-fastener attached.
Hanger wires are always attached to
the building structure, not to build-
ing utilities. (b) Layout begins by
establishing the location of the main
runners. For most ceilings, installers
will use stilts to assist in installation
or will use a rolling scaffold.
(c) Using string and a laser level (see
(e)), installers establish main runner
locations. (d) Until permanent at-
tachments can be made, installers
clamp intersecting tees together.
(e) Continuing with installation;
notice the laser level at the wall.
(f) Final suspended grid installation,
including openings for light fixtures. (f)

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 FIGURE 37.9 Suspended gypsum
board ceiling components.
Main runner suspended from
structure above on hanger wires

Wall molding
Gypsum board screw
attached to suspended
main and cross runners Cross runner spans
between main runners

FIGURE 37.10 A sculpted suspended

gypsum board ceiling in the dining
room of an office building. (Photo cour-
tesy of HKS Inc.)

FIGURE 37.11 Suspended portland

cement plaster ceiling/soffit compo-
nents. Gypsum plaster components
would be similar; however, gypsum
board lath would be used in lieu of
wire mesh lath.

Carrying channel suspended from

structure above on hanger wires

Portland cement plaster

over wire mesh
Furring channel wire tied
to carrying channels

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Part 2
Materials and Systems
of Construction

FIGURE 37.12 Suspended wood

panel ceiling. (Photo courtesy of
Armstrong Ceiling Systems.)

The channel grid structure is used for ceilings that are heavier than acoustical or gypsum
board materials. Using galvanized-steel channel shapes, main runners and cross runners are
overlapped, and each intersection is tied with steel wire. Unlike the inverted-tee grid, the
spacing of the channels can be adjusted to fit the application conditions, the applied finish,
and the component loading.

S USPENDED S PECIALTY C EILINGS

AND S OFFITS
As with so many other building products, a wide variety of specialty ceiling and soffit fin-
ishes and materials is available, limited only by the designer’s imagination. These systems
can be flat planes, squared with corners, curved vertically or horizontally, or formed into
the appearance of waves. They can be continuous or broken into sections. Lighting fixtures
can be above, within, or below the systems. The following discussion describes just a few
suspended specialty ceilings and soffits.
• Canopy ceilings appear as floating ceilings because they emphasize the negative
space above and at the sides of suspended ceiling shapes. The materials involved are
usually metals, and an almost infinite number of shapes and combinations can be
achieved.
• Decorative grids use rectangular main runners and
cross runners that are combined and formed into an
interlocking grid that is uniform in appearance.
• Transparent-finished wood panels (very much like
wall paneling) can be formed into panels laid into an
exposed grid structure or into planks attached to a
specialized suspension system, Figure 37.12.
• Acoustical metal facings, with or without acoustical
backings, can be formed into panels or tiles and
placed in suspension systems. The surface can be
perforated in a variety of patterns, or it can be
unperforated.
• Sheet metals can be formed into linear strips that
resemble planks, which are attached to a specialized
suspension system to achieve a directional look within
a space, Figure 37.13. The spaces between the strips
can be left open or covered.
• Luminous ceilings combine overhead lighting with
FIGURE 37.13 A suspended linear metal ceiling in an area where streets either open or translucent (opaque) ceilings to create
and drives pass under a building. dramatic effects, Figure 37.14.

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 Chapter 37
Ceilings

FIGURE 37.14 A luminous ceiling,

imitating a basketball, in a profes-
sional basketball team’s locker room.
(Photo courtesy of HKS Inc.)

PRACTICE QUIZ
Each question has only one correct answer. Select the choice that best c. are snapped into extruded plastic shapes.
answers the question. d. do not affect the overall pattern of the ceiling.
e. all of the above.
6. In a suspended ceiling system, steel hanger wires are supplied by the
manufacturer already cut to length. 11. Gypsum board is a commonly used finish material. It is typically
a. True b. False a. attached directly to a structural metal or wood light-frame.
b. attached directly to a suspended metal frame.
7. The strongest metal suspension system is always a properly installed
c. designed to rest on the metal suspension system.
direct-hung system.
d. all of the above.
a. True b. False
e. (a) and (b).
8. In suspended acoustical ceilings, the grid structure is made of
12. The design of a ceiling in a large office building calls for a multilevel
a. a hardwood such as oak or maple.
series of ceiling planes finished with gypsum board. The most likely
b. extruded aluminum tees.
method for attaching the ceiling to the structure is to
c. corrosion-resistant steel tees.
a. nail gypsum board directly to the wood light-frame structure.
d. all of the above.
b. screw the gypsum board directly to a suspended metal
e. (b) and (c).
framework.
9. Acoustical panels and tiles are fabricated using c. use lay-in acoustical tile.
a. mineral wood, mineral fibers, fiberglass, and/or perlite.
13. It is not possible to use lath and plaster with a suspended ceiling
b. fillers, binders, and water.
structure.
c. (a) and (b).
a. True b. False
d. none of the above.
14. Ceiling materials are essentially limited to drywall, lath and plaster,
10. The edges of acoustical panels
a. are designed to rest on the metal suspension system. and acoustical tiles.
b. are available in three different profiles. a. True b. False

REVIEW QUESTIONS
1. Diagram and describe the difference between a ceiling that is attached to the building structure and one that is sus-
pended from the building structure.
2. Examine the ceiling in one of your classrooms. What type of ceiling is it? Do a section sketch illustrating the parts of
the system.
3. Use a section sketch and notes to illustrate a direct-hung suspended ceiling.
4. Use a sketch and notes to illustrate two methods of attachment when gypsum board is used as a finish ceiling material.

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