WATER TREATMENT

1
 Module 2: Water Treatment

 Water softening methods: - Lime-soda,

Zeolite and ion exchange
 Specifications of water for domestic use
(ICMR and WHO)
 Processing Methods for (i) Municipality (ii)
Domestic
Disinfection methods
 Reverse Osmosis, Electrodialysis
 Methods of Softening and Demineralization
o Common modes of water treatments are

1. Internal treatment/ Internal conditioning

2. External treatment/ External conditioning

3. Desalination

1. Internal Conditioning: Internal conditioning is treating the water

after feeding into the boiler by adding chemicals (boiler
compounds).

Principle: To convert scale forming precipitate to sludge forming

precipitates which can be removed by blow down operation. To
increase the solubility of the impurities and prevent it from
precipitating
Example: Phosphate conditioning (Addition of Sodium phosphate), Calgon
(Sodium hexa meta phosphate), Colloidal (Tannin, Lignin, Kerosene etc)
 2. External Treatment/conditioning of water
External softening of hard water can be done by the following methods
1. Lime soda process
2. Zeolite methods
3. Ion exchange resin method
4. Mixed bed deionizer method

1. Lime soda process

It is a process in which Lime (Ca(OH)2) and soda (Na2CO3) are added to the hard
water to convert the soluble calcium and magnesium salts to insoluble compounds by
a chemical reaction. The CaCO3 and Mg(OH)2 so precipitated are filtered off and
removed easily.

It is further divided in to two types

1. Cold lime soda process
2. Hot lime soda process

4
 1a. Cold Lime Soda Process

Step 1
In this process a calculated quantity of Ca(OH)2 (lime) and Na2CO3 (soda) are
mixed with water at room temperature and added to the hard water. The following
reactions takes place depending on the nature of hardness

Chemical reactions

If it is permanent hardness and due to calcium salt

Ca2+ + Na2CO3 CaCO3 + 2Na+ (soda)
slimy suspended precipitate

If it is due to Magnesium salt

Mg2+ + Ca(OH)2 Mg(OH)2 + Ca2+ (lime)
slimy suspended precipitate

Ca2+ + Na2CO3 CaCO3 + 2Na+ (soda)

slimy suspended precipitate

5
 Chemical reactions contd..

If it is Temporary hardness and due to calcium salt

Ca(HCO3)2 + Ca(OH)2 2CaCO3 + 2H2O (lime)
slimy suspended precipitate

If it is due to Magnesium salt

Mg(HCO3)2 + 2Ca(OH)2 2CaCO3 + Mg(OH)2 + 2H2O (2Lime)
slimy suspended precipitates

Step 2

The precipitates CaCO3 and Mg(OH)2 are very fine and forms sludge like
precipitates in the boiler water and are difficult to remove because it does not
settle easily making it difficult to filter and the removal process. Finally reduces
the efficiency of the boiler.

Therefore, it is essential to add small amount of coagulant (such as Alum,

Aluminium sulfate, sodium aluminate etc) which hydrolyses to flocculent
precipitate of Al(OH)3 which entraps the fine precipitates.

NOTE: Particles finer than 0.1 µm (10-7m) in water remain continuously in motion due to electrostatic charge
(often negative) which causes them to repel each other. Once their electrostatic charge is neutralized by the use of
coagulant chemical, the finer particles start to collide and agglomerate (combine together) under the influence6 of
Van der Waals's forces. These larger and heavier particles are called flocs.
When coagulants are added flocculation takes place followed by the
formation of flocculants.

NaAlO2 + 2H2O NaOH + Al(OH)3

Coagulant Flocculent- Gelatinous
precipitate which
entraps the fine
precipitates of CaCO3
and Mg(OH)2

Al2(SO4)3 + 3 Ca(HCO3)2 2Al(OH)3 + CaSO4 + CO2

Aluminium Hard water
sulfate sample Flocculent- Gelatinous
precipitate which
entraps the fine
precipitates of CaCO3
and Mg(OH)2

The Al(OH)3 formed by the addition of coagulants initiates the process of

flocculation and entraps the fine precipitates and becomes heavy. The
heavier flocs then settles at the bottom and filtered off easily.

7
 Continuous cold lime soda softener

Chemicals
Hard water
(soda+lime
feed
+coagulant)
feed
Softened
water
Wood fiber
filter

Stirrer
paddles

Sedimented sludge (CaCO3,

Mg(OH)2
8
 1b. Hot Lime Soda Process
In this process a calculated quantity of Ca(OH)2 (lime) and Na2CO3 (soda) are
mixed with hot water at a temperature range of 80 to 150oC and added to the hard
water. The following reactions takes place depending on the nature of hardness

Advantages of Hot Lime Soda Process

1. The reaction between hardness producing substance and lime soda proceeds at a faster
rate
2. The precipitates and sludges formed are settled at the bottom easily and hence No
coagulants are required
3. The dissolved gases such as CO2 escapes and the water becomes free from dissolved
gases
4. It produces soft water with the residual hardness of 15-30ppm in contrast to the cold lime
soda process which produces soft water with 50-60ppm of residual hardness

Hot lime soda Plant consists of three parts

1. Reaction tank: water, chemicals and steam are mixed

2. Conical sedimentation tank : sludge settles down
3. Sand filter : complete removal of sludge from the soft water is ensured 9
 Continuous Hot Lime soda Process

Hard water feed

Super heated steam

Chemicals feed (lime
and soda)

Reaction tank
Soft water

Conical sedimentation
tank

Precipitated sludge
(CaCO3, Mg(OH)2 Sludge
outlet

Filtered soft
water

10
Advantages of Lime soda process

1. It is very economical compared to other methods

2. Iron and manganese salts are also removed by this

process

3. It increases the pH of the softened water hence

corrosion is minimized also pathogenic bacteria

Disadvantages of Lime soda process

1. Disposal of large amount of sludge (insoluble

precipitates) poses a problem

2. This can remove hardness to the extent of 15ppm

which is not good for boilers 11
Calculation of lime and soda required for softening of hard water

Hardness producing Chemical reaction with lime and soda What is

substance needed
(Lime (L) or
Soda (S))
Permanent Hardness
Ca Salts CaCl2 + Na2CO3 CaCO3 + 2NaCl S

Mg salts MgSO4 + Ca(OH)2 Mg(OH)2 + CaSO4 L+S

CaSO4 + Na2CO3 CaCO3 +Na2SO4

Temp. Hardness
Ca(HCO3)2 Ca(HCO3)2 + Ca(OH)2 2CaCO3 + 2H2O L
Mg(HCO3)2 Mg(HCO3)2 + 2Ca(OH)2 2CaCO3 + Mg(OH)2 + 2H2O 2L

Acids
HCl 2H+ + Ca(OH)2 Ca2+ + 2H2O L+S
H2SO4 Ca2+ + Na2CO3 CaCO3 + 2Na+

HCO3- HCO3- + Ca(OH)2 CaCO3 + H2O + CO32- L-S

Calculation of lime and soda required for the softening of hard water by
the lime soda process 12
Reactions of Coagulants
Reaction of FeSO4
Fe2+ + Ca(OH)2  Fe(OH)2 + Ca2+ L + S
Fe(OH)2 + H2O + O2  2Fe(OH)3
Ca2+ + Na2CO3  CaCO3 + 2Na+

Reaction of Al2(SO4)3
2Al3+ + 3Ca(OH)2  2Al(OH)3 + 3Ca2+ L + S
3Ca2+ + 3Na2CO3  3CaCO3 + 6Na+

Reaction of NaAlO2
NaAlO2 + 2H2O  Al(OH)3 + NaOH -L

13
Dissolved Salt/ion Molar Mass MF for eq. CaCO3
Ca(HCO3)2 162 100/162
Mg(HCO3)2 146 100/146
CaSO4 136 100/136
MgSO4 120 100/120
MgCl2 95 100/95
MgCO3 84 100/84
CO2 44 100/44
Ca(NO3)2 164 100/164
Mg(NO3)2 148 100/148
HCO3- 61 100/(61x2) 100/122
OH- 17 100/(17x2) 100/34
CO32- 60 100/60
NaAlO2 82 100/(82x2) 100/164
Al2(SO4)3 342 100/(342/3) 100/114
FeSO4.7H2O 278 100/278
H+ 1 100/(1x2) 100/2
HCl 36.5 100/(36.5x2) 100/73
Rules to be followed
Rules
1. If Ca(HCO3)2 and Mg(HCO3)2 are considered as ions (Ca2+ + 2HCO3-) and (Mg2+ + 2HCO3-)
respectively then the calculation result will be the same based on the ability of the ions to
take up bicarbonate ions
2. If treated water found to contain excess of OH- and CO32- ions these are formed from excess
equivalent each of Ca(OH)2 and Na2CO3 and hence these excess amounts should be added
to the calculation (in temp. hardness and perm. hardness)
3. When the impurities are given as CaCO3 and MgCO3 present in water it should be
considered as due to bicarbonates of calcium and magnesium respectively
4. Substances like NaCl, KCl, Na2SO4, SiO2, Fe2O3 etc do not contribute to hardness and
therefore, they do not consume any soda or lime and hence if these present need not be
taken in to consideration during calculation.
5. Soda (Na2CO3) neutralizes only permanent hardness

Molecular weight of lime = 74

Molecular weight of soda = 106
Molecular weight of CaCO3 = 100

Therefore, 100 parts by mass of CaCO3 are equivalent to

(i) 74 parts by mass of Ca(OH)2
(ii) 106 parts by mass of Na2CO3 15
 Therefore, Lime requirement for softenening

= 74 T.H of Ca2++ 2 x T.H of Mg2+ + P.H of (Mg2+ + Fe2+ + Al3+) + CO2 + H+ +

100 HCO3- - NaAlO2
X Vol .of water (L)

T.H = temporary hardness X (% of purity)

P.H = Permanent Hardness

llIly, Soda requirement for softenening

= 106 P.H of (Ca2+ + Mg2+ + Fe2+ + Al3+) + H+ - HCO3- X Vol .of water (L)
100

X (% of purity)

100% purity has to be considered, if the purity

is not given in the problem. Then the % of purity
becomes 1 16
 Problem 1
Calculate the amount of lime required for softening 5,000 litres of hard water
containing 72 ppm of MgSO4 (mol wt = 120) Ans = 222g

Solution

Step 1 List out the given data

Given data : Hardness 72 ppm due to MgSO4; water qty = 5000 litres; mol. wt. MgSO4 = 120

Step 2 calculate the CaCO3 equivalent

Hardness producing Quantity (ppm) Multiplication factor CaCO3 equivalent

substance hardness (ppm or
mg/L)
MgSO4 72 100/120 72 X (100/120) = 60

Step 3 calculation of lime requirement

Lime required = 74/100 (hardness due to MgSO4) x vol. of water

= 74/100 (60 mg/L) x 5000 L

= 222,000 mg
17
= 222 g
Problem 2
Calculate the amount of lime and soda required for softening 50,000 litres of hard water containing:
MgCO3 = 144 ppm, CaCO3 = 25 ppm, MgCl2 = 95ppm, CaCl2 = 111ppm, Fe2O3 = 25ppm and Na2SO4 =
15ppm

Solution

Step 1 List out the given data

Given data : MgCO3 = 144 ppm, CaCO3 = 25 ppm, MgCl2 = 95ppm, CaCl2 = 111ppm, Fe2O3 =
25ppm and Na2SO4 = 15ppm

Step 2 calculate the CaCO3 equivalent

Hardness producing Quantity (ppm) Multiplication factor CaCO3 equivalent

substance hardness (ppm or
mg/L)
MgCO3 144 100/84 144 x(100/84) = 171.4
CaCO3 025 100/100 25 x (100/100) = 25.0
MgCl2 095 100/95 95 x (100/95) = 100.0
CaCl2 111 100/111 111 x (100/111) = 100.0
Fe2O3 025 (does not cause hardness)
Na2SO4 015 (does not cause hardness)

Ca(HCO3)2 + Ca(OH)2 2CaCO3 + 2H2O; Mg(HCO3)2 + 2Ca(OH)2 2CaCO3 + Mg(OH)2 + 2H2O

MgCl2 + Ca(OH)2 Mg(OH)2 + CaCl2 ; CaCl2 + Na2CO3 CaCO3 + Na2SO4

18
What happens when lime is treated with CaCl2?
 Step 3 calculation of lime requirement

Lime required = 74/100 ( {2 x MgCO3} + CaCO3 + MgCl2 in terms of CaCO3 eq) x vol. of water

= 74/100 (2 x 171.4 + 25.0 +100.0) mg/L x 50,000 L

= 74/100 (467.8) mg x 50,000
= 17, 309,000 mg
Answer = 17. 31 kg

Step 4 calculation of soda requirement

soda required = 106/100 ( MgCl2 + CaCl2 in terms of CaCO3 eq) x vol. of water

= 106/100 (100 +100.0) mg/L x 50,000 L

= 106/100 (200) mg x 50,000
= 10, 6,00,000 mg
Answer = 10. 6 kg

Attention: Please refer more examples given in the text books (Jain and
Jain) which may contain more critical parameters like coagulants, acids and
19
carbonate ions involvement.
Calculate the quantity of lime and soda required for
softening 50,000 litre of water containing the
following salt per litre Ca(HCO3) 2 = 8.1 mg/L ;
Mg(HCO3)2 = 7.5 mg/L ; CaSO4 = 13.6 mg/L ;
MgSO4 = 12.0 mg/L ; MgCl2 = 2.0 mg/L ; and NaCl =
4.7 mg/L.
Mg: 24, Ca:40, S:32, Na: 23, Fe:56, Cl:35.5
Constituent Multiplication CaCO3 equivalent
factor
Ca(HCO3)2 = 8.1 mg/L 100/162 8.1 × 100/162 = 5.0 mg/L

Mg(HCO3)2 = 7.5 mg/L 100/146 7.5 × 100/146 = 5.14 mg/L

CaSO4 = 13.6 mg/L 100/136 13.6 × 100/136 = 10.0 mg/L

MgSO4 = 12.0 mg/L 100/120 12 × 100/120 = 10.0 mg/L

MgCl2 = 2.0 mg/L 100/95 2.0 × 100/95 = 2.11 mg/L

Lime requirement for softening 50,000 L of hard water
= 74/100 [Ca(HCO3)2 + 2 × Mg(HCO3)2 + MgSO4 + MgCl2
as CaCO3 eq] × Vol. of
water
= 74/100 [5.0 + 2 × 5.14 + 10.0 +2.11] mg/L ×
50,000 L
= 74/100 [27.39 mg/L] × 50,000L =
10,13,430 mg
= 10,13,430 mg × 10-6 Kg/mg = 1.0134 Kg
Soda requirement for 50,000 L water
= 106/100 [CaSO4 + MgSO4 + MgCl2 as CaCO3 eq] × Vol.
of water
= 106/100 [10.0 + 10.0+ 2.11] mg/L ×
50,000 L
= 106/100 [22.11] mg/L × 50,000 L =
9,06,830 mg
= 9,06,830 mg 10-6 Kg/mg = 0.9068 Kg
Explain with chemical equations and calculate the amount of
lime and soda needed for softening 1,00,000 litres of
water containing the following: HCl = 7.3 mg/L, Al2(SO4)3 =
34.2 mg/L, MgCl2 = 9.5 mg/L, NaCl = 29.25 mg/L
Purity of lime is 90% and that of soda 98%. 10% of
chemicals are to be used in excess in order to complete
the reaction quickly. Mg: 24, Ca:40, S:32, Na: 23, Fe:56,
Cl:35.5, Al:26.9
Solution: Calculation of CaCO3 equivalent:
Constituent Multiplication CaCO3 equivalent
factor
HCl = 7.3 mg/L 100/73 7.3 × 100/73 = 10 mg/L

Al2(SO4)3 = 34.2 mg/L 100/114 34.2 × 100/114 = 30 mg/L

MgCl2 = 9.5 mg/L 100/95 9.5 × 100/95 = 10 mg/L

Lime requirement
= 74/100 [HCl + Al2(SO4)3 + MgCl2 as CaCO3 eq] ×
Vol. of water × (100 / %purity)
= 74/100 [10 + 30 + 10] mg/L × 100,000=
3,700,000mg x 100/90 = 4.111 kg
Lime required (using 10% excess) = 4.111 x 110/100
= 4.522 kg
Soda required
= 106/100 [HCl + Al2(SO4)3 + MgCl2 as CaCO3 eq] ×
Vol. of water × (100 / % purity)
= 106/100 [10 + 30 + 10] mg/L × 105 L
= 5,300,000 mg = 5.3 Kg x 100/98 (98 %)
= 5.406 Kg
Soda required (using 10% excess): 5.949Kg
A water sample on analysis gave the following
data:
Ca2+ = 30 mg/L ; Mg2+ = 24 mg/L ; CO2 = 24 mg/L
; HCl = 50 mg/L ; K+ = 10 mg/L
Calculate the quantities of lime (90%) pure and
soda (94% pure) required to soften one million
litres of Calculation
Solution: water sample.
of CaCO3 equivalent:
Constituent Multiplication factor CaCO3 equivalent
Ca2+ = 30 mg/L 100/40 30 × 100/40 = 75.0 mg/L

Mg2+ = 24 mg/L 100/24 24 × 100/24 = 100 mg/L

CO2 = 24 mg/L 100/44 24 × 100/44 = 54.5 mg/L

HCl = 50 mg/L 100/73 50× 100/73 = 68.5 mg/L

Lime requirement = 74/100 [Mg2+ + CO2 + HCl as
CaCO3 eq] × Vol. of water x (100 / % purity)
= 74/100 [100 + 54.5 + 68.5] mg/L ×
106 L
= 165020000 mg
= 165.02 Kg x 100/90 (90 % of lime)
Soda = 181.53 Kg (100 %)
required
= 106/100 [Ca2+ + Mg2+ + HCl as CaCO3 eq]
× Vol. of water × (100 / % purity)
= 106/100 [75 + 100 + 68.5] mg/L × 106 L
= 106/100 [243.5 mg/L] × 106 L
= 258110000 mg
= 258.11 Kg(94.0 %) 273.5966 Kg
 Zeolite (Permutit) method of Softening of Water
Zeolite is a Hydrated Sodium Alumino Silicate (HSAS),
capable of exchanging reversibly its sodium ions for
hardness producing ions in water.

The general chemical structure of zeolite is given

below Na2O.Al2O3.xSiO2.yH2O (x = 2-10 and y = 2-6)

Why synthetic zeolite is better than natural zeolite for the

softening of water?
Micro pores of Zeolite

oSynthetic zeolites are more porous, glassy

particles having higher softening capacity
compared to green sand.
oThey are prepared by heating china clay
(hydrated aluminium silicate), feldspar
Porous Structure of zeolite
(KAlSi3O8-NaAlSi3O8 – CaAl2Si2O8) are a
group of rock-forming tectosilicate minerals
which make up as much as 60% of the
26
earth’s crust) and soda ash (Na2CO3).
Natural Zeolite

Natrolite
 Artificial Zeolite
Used for softening purpose. These are porous and
glassy and have greater softening capacity. They
are prepared by heating together with china clay,
feldspar and soda ash.

China clay
 Zeolite softener

Hard water in

Hard water spray

Zeolite bed
Gravel

Injector

Softened water
NaCl storage To
sink

29
 Process of softening by Zeolite method

For the purification of water by the zeolite softener, hard water is passed through the zeolite bed
at a specified rate. The hardness causing ions such as Ca2+, Mg2+ are retained by the zeolite bed
as CaZe and MgZe respectively; while the outgoing water contains sodium salts. The following
reactions takes place during softening process

To remove temporary hardness

Na2Ze + Ca(HCO3)2 CaZe + 2NaHCO3 Scale formation

Hardness

Na2Ze + Mg(HCO3)2 MgZe + 2NaHCO3

To remove permanent hardness water

Na2Ze + CaCl2 CaZe + 2NaCl

Na2Ze + MgSO4 MgZe + Na2SO4

Regeneration of Zeolite Bed

CaZe (or) MgZe + 2NaCl Na2Ze + CaCl2 (MgSO4)

Used 10% brine Regenerated Washings

Zeolite solution Zeolite drained

30
Limitations of Zeolite process

1. If the water is turbid ---- then the turbidity causing particles clogs the pores of the Zeolite
and makes it inactive
2. The ions such as Mn2+ and Fe2+ forms stable complex Zeolite which can not be regenerated
that easily
3. Any acid present in water (acidic water) should be neutralized with soda before admitting the
water to the plant

Advantages of Zeolite process

1. Soft water of 10ppm can be produced by this method

2. The equipment occupies less space
3. No impurities are precipitated, hence no danger of sludge formation in the treated water
4. It does not require more time and more skill

Disadvantages of Zeolite process

1. Soft water contains more sodium salts than in lime soda process
2. It replaces only Ca2+ and Mg2+ with Na+ but leaves all the other ions like HCO3- and CO32-
in the softened water (then it may form NaHCO3 and Na2CO3 which releases CO2 when
the water is boiled and causes corrosion)
3. It also causes caustic embitterment when sodium carbonate hydrolyses to give NaOH 31
32
Ion-Exchange Resin (or) Deionization (or) Demineralization Process

Ion exchange resin

Ion exchange resins are insoluble, cross linked,

long chain organic polymers with a microporous
structure, and the functional groups attached to
the chain is responsible for the “ion-exchange”
Cation Resin after properties.
exchange Resin treatment 33
III. Ion-Exchange resin (or) deionization
In general the resins containing acidic functional groups (-COOH, -
SO3H etc) are capable of exchanging their H+ ions with other
cations, which comes in their contact; whereas those containing
basic functional groups ( -NH2, =NH as hydrochlorides) are capable
of exchanging their anions with other ions, which comes in their
contact.

Based on the above fact the resins are classified into

two types
1. Cation exchange resin (RH+)
2. Anion Exchange resin (ROH-)

34
 Structure of Cation and Anoin exchange resins

Cation exchange resin Anion exchange resin

¯H SO3¯H
SO3 +
+
RH+ ROH-

SO3 ¯H SO3¯H
+
+

Copolymer of Styrene-divinyl benzene

Copolymer of Styrene-divinyl benzene
with sulphonation or carboxylation
with quaternary ammonium ions
35
 Ion-Exchange Purifier (or) Softener

Hard
water

Gravel
Cation exchange Resin Anion exchange Resin bed

Injector
Injector

Acid
solution for Wastages to
regeneratio sink Alkaline solution for
n of resin Wastages to
regeneration of resin
sink
pump

36
Soft water
H2O

37
 Process of softening

Reactions occurring at Cation exchange resin

2 RH+ + Ca2+ (hard water) R2Ca2+ + 2 H+

2 RH+ + Mg2+ (hard water) R2Mg2+ + 2 H+

Reactions occurring at Anion exchange resin

2 ROH- + SO42- (hard water) R2SO42+ + 2 OH-

2 ROH- + Cl- (hard water) R2Cl- + 2 OH-

At the end of the process

H+ + OH- H2O

38
Regeneration of ion exchange resins

Regeneration of Cation exchange resin

R2Ca2+ + 2H+ (dil. HCl (or) H2SO4) 2 RH+ + Ca2+ (CaCl2, washings)

Regeneration of Anion exchange resin

R2SO42- + 2OH- (dil. NaOH) 2 ROH- + SO42- (Na2SO4, washings)

Advantages
1. The process can be used to soften highly acidic or alkaline waters
2. It produces water of very low hardness of 2ppm. So the treated waters by
this method can be used in high pressure boilers

Disadvantages
1. The setup is costly and it uses costly chemicals
2. The water should not be turbid and the turbidity level should not be more
than 10ppm 39
 Softening of Water by Mixed Ion Bed Deionizer
Description and process of mixed bed deionizer
1. It is a single cylindrical chamber containing a mixture of anion and cation exchange resins bed

2. When the hard water is passed through this bed slowly the cations and anions of the hard water
comes in to contact with the two kind of resins many number of times

3. Hence, it is equivalent to passing the hard water many number of times through a series of cation and
anion exchange resins.

4. The quality of water obtained from mixed bed is appreciably higher than the water produced from two
bed plants.

5. The soft water from this method contains less than 1ppm of dissolved salts and hence more suitable
for boilers
Hard water

c a c a Anion exchange
resin
c Mixed bed Mixed
a deionizer a resin bed
a
c a cc Cation exchange
resin

40
Demineralised
The outgoing water from the mixed-bed contains even less than 1 ppm
of dissolved salts

41
Regeneration of Mixed Bed
NaOH wash
R
C
C C
C
RC R R
R C R
H2SO
R
C
R
C

C
R
C

R
C C

R
C
R
C

C C C

R
C
C C C R C C
RCC C C R
R
C

C R R R R
RCC
R
C

R
C
RR C R C RCC

R
C

R
C
R C R C

R
C

R
C
RR

R
C
R R R RR
R
Compressed Air
Back wash water

Forcing with
R
C

C C
C Compressed air
RC R
for mixing
R
C

R
R
R
C
R
C

C
C
R
C

R
C
R C C
C C R
R R
R
C

C C RCC

R
C
C R C

R
C
R
C
RCC
R
C

C R R RR
R
R
C

R RR
After wash it is regenerated
Regenerated Mix bed read for use
 Regeneration:
The mixed bed is back washed by forcing water in the upward
direction. This separate the cation and anion exchanges from
the mixed bed. Being lighter the cation resin occupies upper
part and the denser on at the bottom.
Now they layers will be washed with NaOH and H2SO4
respectively to regenerate anion and cation exchange resins.
After regeneration again they are mixed by forcing compressed
air.
Generally soften water (eg RO, etc) will be further purified by this method

43
Advantages & Disadvantages of ion-exchange
process
o Advantages:
- Can be used for highly acid and highly alkaline water
- Residual hardness of water is as low as 2 ppm.
- Very good for treating water for high pressure boilers

o Disadvantages:
- Expensive equipment and chemicals
- Turbidity of water should be < 10 ppm. Otherwise output will
reduce; turbidity needs to be coagulated before treatment.
- Needs skilled labour

44
Specifications of different materials in drinking water (ICMR
and WHO)
S.No. Parameter/Material WHO Standards/ppm ICMR/BIS
Standards/ppm
1 Colour Clear Clear
2 Odour Pleasant Pleasant
3 Turbidity 2.5 2.5
4 pH 6.0 – 8.5 6.0 – 8.5
5 TDS 300 500
6 Total Hardness as 200 300
CaCO3
7 Calcium 75 75
8 Chlorides 200 200
9 Sulphates 200 200
10 Fluoride 0.5 1.0
11 Mercury 0.006 0.001
12 Cadmium 0.003 0.01
13 Arsenic 0.01 0.02
14 Chromium as hexavalent 0.01 0.1
15 Lead 0.01 0.01
16 E.Coli No colony Should be present No colony Should be
in 100 mL water present in 100 mL water