Maney Publishing

General Effects of Ageing on Textiles

Author(s): Randall R. Bresee
Source: Journal of the American Institute for Conservation, Vol. 25, No. 1 (Spring, 1986), pp.
39-48
Published by: Maney Publishing on behalf of The American Institute for Conservation of Historic &
Artistic Works
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 GENERALEFFECTSOF AGEINGON TEXTILES
RandallR. Bresee*

ABSTRACT---General effectsof five types of ageing on textilesare examined.The types of ageing discussed are
physical, photochemical,thermal,chemicaland mechanical.Changes in the structureand propertiesof textiles
that resultfromeach type of ageingarediscussed in generalterms.Thispaperis expectedto provideconservators
of polymericmaterials(textilesin particular)with a basicunderstandingof some of the more importantchanges
in textilesthatresult fromageing.

INTRODUCTION
THEEMPHASIS of most fiber researchhas been on forming new fibers and understand-
ing their structuresand properties as opposed to examining aged fibers. Some work
concerning the structureand properties of fibers during or after use has been done in
an effort to predict performanceduring long-term use, but the fiber science research
literaturecontains little informationpertinentto aged fibers. The aim of this paper is to
discuss five types of fiber ageing and some general concepts that are useful to textile
conservators. In this paper, ageing is intended to include any process that alters the
original structureand/or properties of materials.
Nearly all textile fibers are organic, high molecularweight polymeric materials.
For example, cotton, flax and many other natural fibers are composed mostly of a
common high molecular weight carbohydrate polymer, cellulose, whereas many
other natural fibers such as silk and wool are composed mostly of high molecular
weight protein polymers. Most man-madefibers also are composed of high molecular
weight organic polymers. Textile fibers can be considered to be three-dimensional
rodshaped materials having enormous surface-to-volume ratios compared to most
materials, to be semicrystalline(partiallycrystallineand partiallynoncrystalline),and
to posess some amount of net polymer orientation (the alignment of polymer mole-
cules is not random). Textilefibers are physically complex materials.Chemically, they
may be either rather simple or quite complex when not aged, but all fibers can be
expected to become chemicallycomplex when aged.
The major structuralchanges expected to occur during ageing can be ascer-
tained from a structuralview of fibers. An ageing reactionmay occur homogeneously
throughout a fiber or may proceed heterogeneously, such as beginning at the fiber
surface and subsequently proceeding inward. In addition, ageing may occur with
morphologicalspecificity, such as only in noncrystallineregions of a fiber. An ageing
reaction may alter the molecular weight, crystallinity, or orientation of fibers. The
gross size or shape of fibers may change during ageing. Finally,the chemical composi-
tion of fibers may be altered, such as by alteringthe chemicalstructureof the polymer
or by the addition of soil.
There are many ways to classify the types of ageing in polymer materials. For
this review, five types are identified. In physical ageing, strictly physical structural
changes occur over time, and no additional energy needs to be supplied for physical

of Clothing,TextilesandInteriorDesign,KansasStateUniversity,Manhattan,KS
*Department
66506

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40 RandallR. Bresee

ageing to occur. Photochemical degradation results from chemical changes when

additional energy is supplied to materialsthrough the absorption of electromagnetic
radiation (photons), such as visible or ultraviolet light. Thermal degradation occurs
when structuralchanges result from the absorptionof thermalenergy (heat). Chemi-
cal attackmay result in ageing when energy is supplied to materialsthrough attackby
external chemical species, such as when oxidation occurs from peroxide bleach.
Finally,ageing may occur through mechanicalstress, such as when the gross shape of
textiles changes as a result of sagging during display or storage.
Accelerated ageing conducted under laboratoryconditions usually attempts to
control most of these means of ageing while varying exposure to a limited number of
these ageing types (usually one). Natural ageing, on the other hand, results from
complex mixturesof many or all of these types of ageing. Consequently, the structures
and properties of naturallyaged textiles would be expected to be considerably more
complex than those from simple laboratoryageing. However, one or more means of
ageing might be expected to be eliminated in some cases during natural ageing so
changes in structureor properties may be dominated by a limited number of ageing
types. It is thus useful to examine the general effects of each ageing type on textile
structures and properties to provide general guidelines when working with textiles
during conservation.
TYPESOFAGEING
1. PhysicalAgeing
The chronological age of a materialis considered to be the time elapsed since
the materialwas formed. The physical age, on the other hand, is viewed as the time
elapsed since the glass transition temperatureof the material,Tg, was last exceeded.
The glass transitionoccurs in a fairlynarrowtemperaturerange and involves substan-
tial physical differencesin polymer propertiesabove and below the transitiontemper-
ature. At temperatures below the Tg, the noncrystalline segments of polymers are
brittlelike glass, whereas they are rubberyat temperaturesabove the Tg. The cause for
these differences is polymer segmental mobility. These properties result because at
temperatures below the Tg, mobility in relatively long segments of polymer chains
does not exist whereas above the Tg, mobility occurs freely. the glass transition is
strictly a physical phenomenon and applies to all polymeric materialswithout regard
to the source of a polymer. Thatis, fibers of both naturaland man-made origin exhibit
the glass transition.
All polymeric objects containing at least some noncrystallinematerialexisting
at a temperaturebelow the object'sTg have undergone some physical ageing. The last
crystallinematerialsexhibit the greatest changes in propertiesduring physical ageing.
Physical ageing occurs universally in the glassy state irrespective of the chemical
nature of a polymer. Physical ageing has been seen in a large variety of materials,
including fibers, sugar, and shellac.1
Since the glass transitiontemperaturesof most fiber-formingpolymers are well
above room temperatureand all fibers contain some noncrystallineareas, most fibers
would be expected to exhibit the effects of physical ageing from storage at room
temperature. These effects result from the ordering of noncrystallinepolymer chains
and include decreases in free volume, enthalpy and molecular mobility.',2 A fiber that
has physically aged can be expected to be harder, more dense, more stiff and to exhibit
increasing viscoelastic relaxation times compared to the same fiber that has not been
aged physically.

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 GeneralEffectsof Ageingon Textiles 41

One of the most interesting aspects of physical ageing is that it can be "erased"
simply by heating a materialto a temperaturethat exceeds its Tg. This may seem to be
a rather harsh thermal treatment for many of the natural fibers since they typically
have relatively high glass transition temperatures. For example, the Tg of wool is
reported to be around 1600C 3 and that of cotton around 230'C.4The Tg of polymers
can be depressed by the action of plasticizers,however, and most naturalfibersabsorb
large quantities of water which acts as an effective plasticizer. It has been demon-
strated experimentally,3or can be calculated theoretically5 that the Tg's of most
natural fibers are depressed to a temperature around room temperature by the
absorptionof water during wetting.
At least some of the improvement in properties resulting from wet cleaning
many aged textiles certainly must result from erasure of physical ageing and the
consequent decrease in hardness, density and stiffness. Although the conservator
must consider many other factors, the erasure of physical ageing constitutes a strong
argument favoring wet cleaning historic textiles. While the magnitude of the benefit
achieved from this practicewill vary depending on the age of the textile (more benefit
to more aged textiles), all physically aged textiles will become softer, less dense and
more pliable aftererasureof physical ageing. All textiles stored at temperaturesbelow
their glass transition temperatures (likely for nearly all natural fibers) will redevelop
symptoms of physical ageing during storage, but this ageing may again be erased at a
later date.
Textiles may be kept in environments that do not allow physical ageing to
occur. This would include any environment where the textile exists at a temperature
above its Tg. This condition is achieved for most naturalfibers around room tempera-
ture if they are wet. Many textiles have been recovered in remarkablygood condition
from wet environments. Although it has not been experimentallydemonstrated, one
would expect physical ageing of these textiles to be absent and this absence to have
contributed to their good condition. Of course, the elimination of air from wet
environments would be expected to contribute to the longevity of textiles since
chemical ageing is thus also reduced.
Another interesting aspect of physical ageing is that it proceeds predictablyand
measurablyin samples during ageing times as short as a few minutes or as long as a
few million years.1In one study, microscopicmeasurements of tensile creep (elonga-
tion under a constant load) were investigated as a means of determining the physical
age of short lengths of single fibers.6In favorablecircumstances, a textile's physical
age may be approximately equated to its chronological age (i.e. Tg has not been
exceeded since the fiber was formed), so the technique described may be used to
provide an estimate of the chronologicalage of textiles of unknown origin.

2. Photochemical
Degradation
Since nearly every textile spends at least part of its life exposed to light,
contributions of photochemical reactions to textile ageing would be expected to be
common and to add significantly to textile deteriorationin some cases. The funda-
mental source of deteriorationof chemicalor physical propertiesare chemicalchanges
in polymer composition. In simple terms, chemical changes are those involving
destruction and formation of covalent bonds.
Unlike physical ageing, which occurs only in noncrystalline areas of polymer
materials, photochemical degradation occurs in both crystalline and noncrystalline
areas since electromagnetic radiation can penetrate both areas. One would expect

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42 RandallR. Bresee

photochemicaldegradationto begin at fiber surfaceswhich are directlyexposed to the

radiation source and then proceed inward subsequently. This has been shown to be
the case in several studies. For example, the number of surface flaws initiating fiber
fracturewere seen to increase with exposure to light in one study.7
The elucidation of specific reactionpathways in photochemicaldegradationhas
proven to be a difficult task.8 Consider, for example, the problem of wool fiber
yellowing that results from exposure to light. Numerous researchershave attempted
to determine the specific reactions responsible for this phenomenon, but none have
been completely successful. However, one can discuss the general effects of photode-
gradation on fibers and obtain a basic idea of what to expect in terms of general
structureand properties.
Polymer molecularweight changes commonly result from photochemical deg-
radation and substantially change the properties of fibers. The scission of bonds
results in a decreased average molecular weight. If a fiber suffers a net decrease in
molecular weight, one can expect major decreases in tensile strength and elasticity
and a moderate decrease in elongation-to-break.The deteriorationof these properties
makes handling textiles without fiberfailuredifficultsince the materialbecomes easily
deformed and breaks under low stress. In addition to deteriorationof these mechani-
cal properties, chain scission results in increased chemicalreactivitysince new chemi-
cal bonds are formed and the degraded materialis chemically more diverse. This can
be seen in increased solubility, sensitivity to chemicalreactionssuch as bleaching, and
enhanced sensitivity to subsequent photochemicaldegradation.
Whereas chain scission results in a decrease in polymer molecular weight,
crosslinking results in a major increase in molecular weight. In crosslinking, pre-
viously unconnected segments of polymer are connected by formation of new cova-
lent bonds between them. At low crosslinkinglevels, increases in strength, elasticity,
and toughness are observed, whereas high crosslinking levels result in further in-
creases in strength and elasticity but also embrittlement of the sample since the
elongation-to-breakdecreases greatly. In addition, crosslinking results in a general
decrease in chemical reactivity,which can be seen in decreased solubility and suscep-
tability to further reactions. A good example of the influence of crosslinking of fiber
properties can be obtained by comparingregularcotton with cotton that is crosslinked
by a durable press treatment. In this case, the crosslinked cotton is insoluble and
brittlecompared to the regularcotton fibers.
Since chain scission and crosslinkingresult in majorchanges in fiberproperties
and affectfibers in substantiallydifferentways, researchhas been conducted to define
conditions under which either chain scission or crosslinking is preferred over the
other. Studies have shown that chain scission predominates over crosslinking in
oxygen-rich environments whereas crosslinking predominates in oxygen-starved en-
vironments.9,10 With regard to fiber morphology, one study showed that crosslinking
efficiency greater in the crystallinethan in the noncrystallinesections of a polymer
is
material." This apparently results because polymer segments are closer together in
crystallites since the chain packing density is greater. In addition, studies have
revealed that scission of noncrystallinepolymer chains may result in stress cracking.12
These studies indicate that light affectsfiber propertiesin many deleterious ways and
thus should be avoided where possible.
Covalent bonds are composed of electrons being shared between at least two
atoms, and chemical changes resulting from photochemical degradation involve the
two basic steps of absorption of energy by the electrons followed by bond breakage
and new bond formation.

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 GeneralEffectsof Ageingon Textiles 43

General principles concerning absorptionof electromagneticenergy (photons)

by electrons apply. Firstof all, electrons can only absorbphotons of relativelyfew and
very specific energy values. Second, one can approximatelypredictabsorptionfor any
molecule of interest using some simple rules of thumb: single bonds in organic
molecules have little or no absorption in the visible and atmospheric ultraviolet
regions of the electromagneticspectrum; isolated double bonds in organic molcules
have no absorption in the visible region but may absorb in the ultraviolet region;
conjugated double bonds in organic molecules may absorb strongly in the visible or
ultravioletregions of the spectrum;and inorganiccompounds may absorbstrongly in
the visible or ultravioletregions of the spectrum.
Considerationof these rules of thumb leads one to expect little photochemical
degradation of organic polymers which are entirely singly bonded. Examplesinclude
polyethylene and polypropylene. Materials made of these polymers are known to
suffer severely at times from photochemical degradation, however. This has been
blamed on the presence of inorganic compounds such as polymerization catalysts,
terminators, and pigments which are incorporatedinto the polymer materialduring
polymerization.
The applicationof this point to historictextile conservationis that the presence
of soil on textiles probablywill result in the textiles being more sensitive to photoche-
mical degradation than they would be if the soil was removed. This is an argument
favoring the cleaning of historic textiles. In addition, it is an argument in favor of
multiple rinsing during wetcleaning, using a good quality water that contains little or
no impurities.
Considerationof the general rules concerning absorptionof light also leads one
to expect possible photochemicaldegradationby ultravioletlight of any fiber contain-
ing isolated double bonds. The poor light resistanceof wool, silk, nylon and polyester
illustratethis problem, as all of these polymers contain double bonds in the form of the
carbonylmoiety. The use of ultravioletfilters over light sources in buildings housing
textile collections has been shown to decrease the damage caused by photochemical
degradation.
Finally,one would expect molecules containing conjugateddouble bonds, such
as most dyes, optical brighteners and some polymers to absorb visible light. These
materialswould be expected to be very unstable in the presence of light.
An object that has been somewhat degraded photochemicallymay be expected
to be more sensitive to further light damage than the same object if not previously
degraded. This arises because bonds are broken and new bonds are reformed during
photochemical degradation, and the degraded object thus is chemicallymore diverse
than the undegraded object. Since bonds absorb relatively few and very specific
wavelengths of light, an object can absorb a greater number of wavelengths of
electromagneticradiationwhen degraded than if not degraded: a greater number of
bond types are present in a more chemicallydiverse object. In other words, the object
becomes more sensitive to further photochemical degradation as it degrades. In
general, this would justify requiring greater protection from both ultraviolet and
visible light for historic artifactsthan for similarnew objects.
Once photochemical energy is absorbed by some chemical bond in an object,
the bond may break. Although it has not generally been shown how many bonds
must be broken in typical fibers to produce an observable amount of deterioration of
the fiber properties, a surprisingly small number of polymer skeletal bonds need to be
broken to produce a decrease in the strength of some materials. In one study, only 4%
of the amide linkages in Kevlar 49 fibers had to be broken to produce zero strength.13

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44 RandallR. Bresee

Bonds that do not absorb electromagneticradiation themselves may become

involved in chemical reactions and be broken. This occurs because once a particular
bond is broken, the radical fragments are extremely reactive and react with many
other chemical species. If molecular oxygen is present, it is a convenient species for
reaction, and many reactions collectively called photooxidation occur. The photooxi-
dation of many polymers has been studied in detail and has been shown to be quite
complex. 14
One would expect textiles housed in oxygen-starved environments to have
undergone little photooxidation. These environments include air-tighttombs, under-
ground burials in impermeable clay soils, and cold water. Of course, some of these
environments also completely exclude elctromagneticradiationso that photochemical
ageing is completely eliminated while stored in the dark environment. Many textiles
have been recovered in remarkablygood condition from environments where photo-
chemical ageing has been eliminated.

3. ThermalDegradation
One may classify thermal effects into two general classes. One class involves
purely physical structuralchanges in the fiber substrate whereas the other involves
chemical reactions. Since heat may penetrate throughout, structuralchanges would
be expected to occur in both crystallineand noncrystallineareas of fibers.
One must examine the major thermal transitions of polymer materials to
understand changes in fibers that are purely physical. Although there are many
transitions that can be identified in most polymer materials, the two most important
ones are the glass transition, which pertains to noncrystalline segments of polymer,
and melting (or the reverse process, crystallization, which pertains to crystalline
polymer.
The phenomenon of the glass transition has great consequences for textile
conservatorsbecause it occurs at a low enough temperaturefor most fibers that it can
be exceeded under fairly common conditions. One important consequence is that
textiles that are too brittleto handle uner normal conditions may be handled easier by
temporarilychanging them from the glassy state to the rubberystate so they are less
brittle. This is done by subjectingthem to conditions where they exist above their Tg.
As mentioned previously, this may be accomplishedby heating them to a temperature
slightly above their Tg or by plasticizingthem with water, for example, so that their Tg
is depressed to a lower temperaturenear room temperature.
Another important consequence of the glass transition is that the increased
segmental mobility exhibited by polymer materials at temperatures above the Tg
allows much greaterdiffusion of molecules through the polymer matrixthan when at
temperatures below the glass transition. In other words, molecules such as dyes or
finishes may diffuse out of fibers more easily, or other molecles such as bleaches, oils,
soils, or detergents may diffuse into fibersmore easily. This, of course, is the source of
dye bleeding in some textiles during wet cleaning.
Similarly, one must guard against the diffusion of harmful substances out of
other polymeric materialswhen they are above their Tg. Forexample, it was recently
determined that an antioxidant was released from polyethylene film (Tg = -85 C)
which was used to store garments at room temperature, and the antioxidant caused
yellowing of the garments.16 Similar problems may result from adhesives, reinforce-
ments and other polymer materials used in conjunction with historic textiles.
A third consequence of the glass transition that is of concern to textile conser-

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 GeneralEffectsof Ageingon Textiles 45

vators is that polymers essentially do not crystallizebelow but may crystallize above
the Tg. Although this usually is not a problem with well crystallized polymer mate-
rials, it may be a problem with crystallizablematerials of low crystallinity, such as
some rayon fibers. An increase in crystallinity will result in increases in stiffness,
hardness and many other changes in properties.
The other importantpolymer thermal transitionis melting (its reverse process
is crystallization).These are phenomena that pertain to crystallineparts of fibers and
involve the physical transformationbetween crystalline polymer segments and non-
crystalline segments with consequent changes in stiffness and hardness. Although
these processes occur at higher temperatures than the glass transition, they are
nevertheless encountered sometimes when handling textiles. For example, the glaz-
ing of polyester/cotton fabric during ironing at too high a temperature involves the
melting of crystallitesin some of the polyester fibers. Although melting usually occurs
through a quite broad temperaturerange, a melting point is defined for most poly-
mers.4The melting point always occurs at a temperaturewell above the glass transi-
tion temperature,the usual relationshipbeing 17
Tg = 2/3 Tm
where Tg and Tm represent the glass transition and melting temperatures, respec-
tively, and both are expressed in Kelvin.
For many fibers, such as the protein and cellulose fibers, the melting point
exists at a temperatureabove which the polymer undergoes thermal decomposition
involving chemical changes. Consequently, although a melting point exists for these
polymers, they chemicallydecompose at temperaturesbelow their Tm's.
While the example involving glazing polyester fibers is rathersevere, note that
melting actually may begin at lower temperatures.The lower temperaturelimit is the
temperatureat which segmental mobility is achieved, Tg, since segmental mobility is
required for melting. In other words, whenever a polymer material is heated to a
temperature above its Tg, small, imperfect crystallitespotentially may melt and this
occasionally may present problems in the treatment of textiles. One effect of melting
oriented materials is that it usually is accompanied by polymer disorientation and
decreasing orientation results in decreases in strength as well as changes in many
other mechanicalproperties.
The same temperaturelimit applying to the glass transitionapplies to crystalli-
zation; that is, the Tg is the lower limit of crystallization. Consequently, one must
watch for melting or crystallizationof any crystallizablepolymer materialwhen it is at
a temperaturethat exceeds the Tg. Of course, this applies to other materialsbesides
fibers. It should be noted that many compromises usually must be made in regard to
structural considerations during conservation treatments. For example, although it
has not been investigated experimentally, one might anticipate problems during
physical age erasure of fibers whose crystalline structureis severely degraded, since
improvements of mechanical properties resulting from physical age erasure could be
offset by deteriorationof mechanical properties resulting from melting and polymer
disorientation.

4. ChemicalAttack
Some fibers are relatively stable to chemical attack. For example, some high
performance fibers actually are spun from concentrated sulfuric acid. This certainly
indicates exceptional chemical stability. Other fibers, however, are susceptible to
attack by a multitude of chemical species.

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46 RandallR. Bresee

Reactivitygenerally increases as the chemical diversity of molecules increases.

On this basis, cellulose fibers are less susceptible to chemicalattackthan protein fibers
and polyethylene fibers are even less reactive. In addition, susceptibility to chemical
attack increases as degradation in a fiber increases since the chemical diversity of a
materialmore than likely increases as degradationproceeds.
Another general rule is that susceptibility to chemical attack increases with
decreasing crystallinity.This occurs since chemicalspecies attackinga materialcan not
directly penetrate the dense structureof crystallitesand can penetrate the less dense
noncrystallineareas considerablyeasier. Given enough time, however, crystallitescan
be destroyed by attack at the crystal surfaces with the destruction then slowly
proceeding inward as each crystalline layer is destroyed consecutively. Flax is more
resistant to chemical attack than viscose rayon since the latter is significantly less
crystallinethan the former, even though both are cellulosic.
A final rule governing chemical attack is that the rate of chemical reactions
generally increase with increasing temperature.Consequently, chemical degradation
can be decreased by minimizing temperatureswhen textiles are exposed to reactive
chemical species.

5. MechanicalStress
It is instructive to discuss this topic in terms of the viscoelastic nature of
polymers. That is, polymer materialsrespond to stress on two different time scales.
Responses that essentially are instantaneous are called elastic whereas responses that
are delayed in time are called viscous. The most fundamental point to keep in mind
with regard to the viscous nature of fibers is that their response is time dependent. In
other words, the mechanicalresponse to a stress depends upon the rate of stress. This
phenomenon has numerous implicationsfor the textile conservator.
For example, consider a historic textile that is folded and stored in that condi-
tion for a long time. Folding causes stress to be placed upon fibers near each fold, and
during storage the fibers respond to this stress by straining over time until complete
stress relaxationhas occurred(stress reaches zero). If a stress equal and opposite to the
initial stress plced on a fold is applied to the textile in an attempt to unfold it, it will
require the same amount of time for relaxationof the new stress (removal of the fold)
as was required for complete relaxationof the original stress. Increasing the magni-
tude of the second stress, of course, will decrease the time requiredfor fold removal,
but reversibilityof the procedureis not as complete in mechanicalterms since polymer
chain scission, changes in gross size and shape, or fiber fracturemay occur.
One way to decrease the time required for fold removal is to increase the
mobility of the polymer molecules so the rate of stress relaxationassociated with fold
removal is increased. A convenient means of doing this is to heat the polymer or to
plasticize it, especially if the glass transition is reached so that a major increase in
polymer segmental mobility is obtained. The most familiarexample of this involves
applying steam (heat and plasticizer)to modern wool garments to remove wrinkles.
Similarly,wet cleaning involves plasticizationand depression of the Tg so mechanical
relaxationsoccur much faster than if the same stress is applied to the dry textile.
Considering the influence of soil on the mechanical behavior of textiles is
important for conservators. At least some soil adheres to more than one fiber and thus
decreases the mobility of the fibers with respect to one another. If a textile is stressed,
such as when folded or unfolded, the flexibility of the fabric is decreased compared to
an unsoiled textile since the fibers can not reorder as much to reduce the local stress by

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 GeneralEffectsof Ageingon Textiles 47

distributing it over many fibers. Consequently, stress remains concentrated on some

fibers and some fibers strain much more than others. This results in an increased
incidence of fiber breakage compared to the same fabric if not soiled. This argument
favors cleaning soily textiles if they are to be subjected to mechanical stress such as
unfolding.

SUMMARY
FIVETYPESOF AGEINGwere identified, and the general effects of each of them on textile
structures and properties were discussed. Each of these types of ageing affect textiles
in different ways. The structure and properties of historic textiles would be expected to
vary considerably since exposure to each of the types of ageing would be expected to
vary substantially among the population of naturally aged textiles. Conservators
should take these considerations into account and vary treatments considerably for
different textiles.
Many trade-offs are encountered with conservation treatments. For example,
wet cleaning erases physical ageing and removes soil from fibers. This would result in
decreases in stiffness, hardness and viscoelastic relaxation times as well as less
polymer chain scission, fiber deformation and fracture during handling. However,
potential for loss of dye or finish from fibers, crystallization, and diffusion into fibers of
surfactants or soil removed from the textile increases.
By being conscious of the general effects of ageing on textiles, one is more able
to become aware of the general chemical and physical nature of the object being dealt
with. In addition, one is alerted to potential benefits and dangers that accompany
various conservation treatments.

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