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DESIGN AND ANALYSIS OF CONVERGENT-DIVERGENT ROCKET NOZZLE

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DESIGN AND ANALYSIS OF CONVERGENT-DIVERGENT
ROCKET NOZZLE

A PROJECT REPORT

Submitted by

SIDDHARTH.N 412813114144
SIVA.S 412813114145
SURENDRAN.G 412813114154
SURESH KUMAR. R 412813114155

in partial fulfillment for the award of the degree

of

BACHELOR OF ENGINEERING
IN

MECHANICAL ENGINERRING

VALLIAMMAI ENGINEERING COLLEGE

ANNA UNIVERSITY: CHENNAI 600 025

APRIL 2017
 ANNA UNIVERSITY: CHENNAI 600025

BONA FIDE CERTIFICATE

Certified that this project report “DESIGN AND ANALYSIS OF ROCKET

NOZZLE(CONVERGENT- DIVERGENT)” is the bona fide work of
“SIDDHARTH. N, SIVA. S, SURENDRAN.G, R. SURESH KUMAR”, who
carried out the project work under my supervision.

SIGNATURE SIGNATURE

HEAD OF THE DEPARTMENT SUPERVISOR

DR. B. GNANA SUNDARA JAYARAJA DR. K. SIVAKUMAR

M.E., MBA, Ph.D. M.E.,Ph.D.

MECHANICAL ENGINEERING, MECHANICAL ENGINEERING,

VALLIAMMAI ENGINEERING COLLEGE, VALLIAMMAI ENGINEERING COLLEGE,
SRM NAGAR, SRM NAGAR,
KATTANKULATHUR, KATTANKULATHUR,
KANCHEEPURAM. KANCHEEPURAM.

Submitted for Viva voce held on _____________ .

INTERNAL EXAMINER EXTERNAL EXAMINER

2
 ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

We sincerely express our deep sense of gratitude to Dr. T. R. Paarivendhar,

chairman and Dr. T. P. Ganesan, director of Valliammai Engineering College for
providing all the necessary facilities to earn knowledge from the institution.

We convey our sincere thanks to our principal Dr. B. Chidhambararajan, M.E.,

Ph.D., Valliammai Engineering College, for his constant encouragement and kind
support extended throughout the course of our study.

We bestow our sincere thanks to Dr. B. Gnana Sundara Jayaraja, M.E., MBA,
Ph.D., Head of the Department, Mechanical Engineering, for his kind support and
facilities provided to complete our work on time.

We take this opportunity to express our deep sense of gratitude to our project
coordinator, Mr. G. Ananth, M.E., (Ph.D), for his excellent guidance continuous
motivation and constant encouragement which has stimulated us to take a remarkable
step into our project.

The inception and rudimentary concepts of our project are ascribable to our
guide Dr. K. Sivakumar, M.E., Ph.D., Associate Professor, Department of
Mechanical Engineering without whose invaluable guidance, patience and
constant encouragement anything wouldn’t have been materialized. We owe our
gratitude to him.

3
 ABSTRACT
The main focus of our project is to design and analyze a Convergent-

Divergent rocket nozzle, to reduce the cost of testing of a nozzle, yet predict the same

result as that of a supersonic wind tunnel, using alternate methods. Here the alternate

method used is “Open channel flow and compressible flow analogy”, or “Shallow water

analogy as named by a few, to create a water tunnel to analyze the flow. The design is

based on previous designs used as a benchmark for ours. In this age of increasing rocket

propulsion for various purposes such as manned missions or launching satellites into

orbit, a nozzle is an integral part that deserves attention. Keeping that clearly in mind, a

basic design is done using the knowledge of compressible flow and the thrust for the

same is calculated. Using the design obtained using manual calculations, the design is

converted to that suitable for the open channel flow. The test result for the same is

obtained by experimentation of the flow, preferably with the addition of a surfactant in

water. In addition, the validation of the calculations and the results obtained is done

using ANSYS Fluent software that uses the basic underlying principle of Computational

Fluid Dynamics (CFD). Finally, the three validations of the nozzle are complete

ascertaining the reduction in testing cost of a nozzle.

4
 LIST OF TABLES

S.NO CHAPTER CONTENT PAGE NO

1 4 Table 4.1 Analogy between 27
compressible flow and free surface
flow
2 6 Table 6.1 Benchmark design 31
Table 6.2 Basic design 32
Table 6.3 CFD values of basic 39
design
Table 6.4 CFD values of revised 42
design

5
 LIST OF FIGURES

S NO CHAPTER DESCRIPTION PAGE NO

1 1 Figure 1.1 Nozzle section 11
Figure 1.2 Rocket thrust equations 12
Figure 1.3 Nozzle relations 13
Figure 1.4 Exit variable relations 13
Figure 1.5 Pressure distance graph 14
Figure 1.6 Example nozzle geometry 15
Figure 1.7 Pressure-distance graph(Iteration 1) 15
2 2 Figure 2.1 High resolution CFD image of 16
nozzle flow
3 3 Figure 3.1 Open channel flow regimes 20
Figure 3.2 Capillary waves 21
Figure 3.3 Illustration of surface tension 22
4 4 Figure 4.1 Wetted perimeters for various CS 26
Figure 4.2 Regimes of free surface and 27
compressible flows
5 5 Figure 5.1 Parameters vs nozzle length graph 28
6 6 Figure 6.1 Setup under development 36
Figure 6.2 Open channel flow test(Water) 36
Figure 6.3 Open channel flow test( ) 37
Figure 6.4 Basic design- Density contour 38
Figure 6.5 Basic design- Pressure contour 38
Figure 6.6 Basic design- Temperature contour 39
Figure 6.7 Revised design- Pressure contour 40
Figure 6.8 Revised design- Temperature 40
contour
Figure 6.9 Revised design- Streamline+ 41
particle flow
Figure 6.10 Revised design- Velocity contour 41
Figure 6.11 Revised design- streamline 42

6
 LIST OF SYMBOLS
S.NO SYMBOL DESCRIPTION
1 Inlet diameter of nozzle
2 Exit diameter of nozzle
3 Critical diameter of nozzle
4 Ratio of specific heats
5 R Real gas constant
6 Static pressure at inlet
7 Static pressure at exit
8 Stagnation pressure
9 Static temperature at inlet
10 Static temperature at exit
11 Stagnation temperature
12 ρ Density
13 Inlet area of nozzle
14 Exit area of the nozzle
15 = Throat area of the nozzle
16 g Acceleration due to gravity
17 y Channel depth
18 Inlet Mach number
19 Exit Mach number
20 F Thrust
21 Exit velocity
22 a Velocity of sound in air
23 Fr Froude number

7
 TABLE OF CONTENTS

CHAPTER NO CONTENTS PAGE NO

ABSTRACT 4
LIST OF TABLES 5
LIST OF FIGURES 6
LIST OF SYMBOLS 7

1 INTRODUCTION 10
1.1 Problem statement 10
1.2 Solutions 10
1.3 Nozzle parameters 10
1.4 Gas dynamics overview 12
1.4.1 Normal shocks in nozzles 14
2 COMPUTATIONAL FLUID DYNAMICS 16
2.1 CFD analysis process 16
2.2 Mathematical models 17
2.3 Discretization process 17
2.4 Iterative solution strategy 17
2.5 CFD simulations 17
2.6 Verification of CFD codes 18
3 INTRODUCTION TO OPEN CHANNEL FLOW 19
3.1 Froude number and wave speed 19
3.2 Capillary waves 20
3.3 Surface tension 21
3.4 Surfactants 22
4 ANALOGY BETWEEN FREE SURFACE AND
COMPRESSIBLE FLOWS 23
4.1 Open channel flow analogy relations 25
4.2 Froude and Mach numbers 26
5 LITERATURE REVIEW 28
6 WORK METHODOLOGY, CALCULATION AND
RESULTS 31
6.1 Benchmark design 31
6.2 Basic design 32

8
 6.3 Design of water tunnel test section 34
6.4 Description of the setup 35
6.4.1 Results of testing 36
6.5 CFD analysis of basic design 38
6.6 CFD analysis of revised design 40
6.7 Theoretical calculation result and CFD 43
result comparison
7 REFERENCES 44
8 BIBLIOGRAPHY 45

9
 1. INTRODUCTION

1.1 Problem statement

Nozzle is used to convert pressure energy into kinetic energy in order

to produce thrust. Depending on the exit Mach number a suitable nozzle is
designed. In a CD nozzle, the flow is accelerated from low subsonic to sonic
velocity at the throat and further expanded to supersonic velocity at the exit. This
paper focuses on designing a nozzle to attain supersonic flow and optimizing it to
achieve maximum thrust without flow separation due to shock waves. For
maximum thrust and efficiency the flow direction must be parallel to the axis of
the nozzle. A nozzle is designed and analysed using CFD for various
performance parameters. The flow conditions were selected based on the pressure
and temperature of the air at the inlet of the nozzle. The solution must be found
with respect to the testing of this design which includes supersonic wind tunnel
testing, machining of the nozzle etc.

1.2 Solutions

The optimization of supersonic nozzle consists of many parameters.

Firstly, the minimization of length serves dual purpose; reduction of friction due
to surfaces in contact and reduction of weight. Second, maximization of exit
mach numbers to achieve greater speed and mass flow rate. Finally, achieving
superior finish while manufacturing the nozzle to reduce friction thus eventually
increasing the thrust.

1.3 Nozzle parameters

A nozzle is capable of transforming pressure energy into kinetic

energy and vice versa, Depending on shape of the nozzle above transformations
occur. De Laval nozzle which is a C-D nozzle is used to attain supersonic flow
speeds. An ideal de Laval nozzle is depicted in the figure-1. The inlet Mach
number is less than one, Convergent section accelerates it to sonic velocity at the
throat and further accelerated to supersonic velocities by the diverging section.

The flow through the de Laval nozzle is a compressible flow for higher mach
Numbers but the compression of flow is reversible. By second law of
thermodynamics reversible process has constant entropy thus the flow through
the de Laval nozzle is an isentropic flow. The following equations govern the
isentropic process

10
 Figure 1.1

The gases that exit the combustion chamber is different in composition than that
is taken by the compressor, The exhaust gas is composed of several other
constituents like water, carbon monoxide, hydrocarbons, nitrous oxides and
sulfur dioxides therefore the ‘γ’ ratio of specific heats takes a different value and
has to be considered during the analysis.

With an increased emphasis on rocket propulsion including the founding of

notable private space agencies and a noticeable increase in the number of
launches of satellites and other devices into space; improvements in rocket
propulsion are a necessary component in making the future of space exploration
more efficient. Specifically in regards to the profile, geometry, and pressure
distribution inside the nozzle, each application will have its own specific
optimized shape. These improvements, namely how pressure is distributed
throughout the nozzle will indicate whether the highest thrust is being achieved,
minimal boundary layer separation, and best flow properties are being achieved
for any given geometric shape which is being optimized for a given function.

11
These enhancements in the pressure distribution conditions inside the nozzle will
optimize the given propulsion system for whatever its given operating conditions
will be. Simultaneously, greatest efficiency will be achieved while also saving on
the cost from losses associated with previous less efficient designs. The outcome
is an expected maximization in efficiency while minimizing resources, such a
combination must be achieved if progression of private space enterprise is to be
sustained and expanded through the approaching decades.

1.4 Gas dynamics overview

Gas Dynamics is fundamental to the understanding of compressible

flows and their behavior in conditions where the Mach number is subsonic, sonic,
and supersonic. This entails principally the understanding of shockwave
formation and how pressure, temperature, density, Mach number, entropy
generated change over the mathematical discontinuity known as the shock wave.
During the modeling of compressible flows (flows in which Δ ≠0) there exist
three principal concepts for their mathematical expression. These mathematical
expressions are Quasi one-dimensional isentropic, Euler, and Navier-Stokes. The
quasi one-dimensional flow is the least complex of the group. Its modeling only
considers the velocity in the x-direction, adiabatic, isentropic, and no viscosity
term considered. The Euler equation increases complexity to include two-
dimensional turbulence and can include viscosity. Finally, the full Navier-Stokes
equation includes three-dimensional turbulence, heat transfer, viscosity, and
entropy changes. Due to the complexity of the fully defined Navier-Stokes
equation it is simpler and less time consuming to use the quasi one-dimensional
and Euler equations to obtain initial values.

Figure 1.2

12
Figure 1.3

Figure 1.4

13
1.4.1 Normal shocks in nozzles

There are only two pressure ratios that a converging-diverging nozzle can
operate at and satisfy the isentropic equations. These operating points are shown
by the end of the red and blue lines in the figure. The red line solution gives a
subsonic exit velocity while the blue line gives a supersonic exit velocity.

Figure 1.5

Associated with each condition is a very specific ratio between the exit and inlet
pressures. Operation of the nozzle at pressure ratios other than the two isentropic
ratios requires the nozzle to operate in a non-isentropic manner. Specifically, a
standing normal shock will be encountered in the diverging section.
The flow preceding the standing normal shock will follow the blue supersonic
isentropic solution until a normal shock is encountered. The normal shock is a
compressive shock and the flow will encounter a pressure increase while crossing
the shock. The flow on the other side of the shock can again be treated as
isentropic and will follow a solution similar to but offset from the subsonic
isentropic solution. Since there is a supersonic to subsonic transition associated
with the shock, the exit velocity will be subsonic. The exit to inlet pressure ratio
is between the two isentropic solution branches in the figure.

In a typical problem the diameter of the nozzle at various stations along its length
is known. Therefore, the area at each cross section can be computed. The inlet
thermodynamic state (pressure and temperature) is given along with an exit
pressure. The problem is to determine the axial position of the shock within the
nozzle. The shock wave will position itself at a location that will enable the exit
pressure to be achieved.

14
 Figure 1.6

There are four pressures that are used in determining the location of the shock.
The first pressure, P1, is the inlet pressure, while the second pressure, P2, is the
pressure at the upstream side of the shock. The third pressure, P3, is the pressure
on the downstream side of the shock, and P4 is the exit pressure.

An iterative solution technique will be used to determine these pressures. The

technique will assume a value for P2 and then compute P3 and P4. If the value of
P4 matches the exit pressure, then the guess for P2 was correct and the solution
has converged. If the value of P4 does not match the exit pressure, a new value
will be chosen and the process repeated until convergence is achieved.

Figure 1.7

The equations used in each step are shown in the figures. The reason for
guessing P2 is so that the pressure ratio needed to find the Mach number at
location 2 can be computed. Once the Mach numbers at locations 1 and 2 are
known, the area ratio can be computed. This area ratio is compared to those of
the actual nozzle to determine the location of the shock. At this point, the
location is based on a guess and the process must converge before the real
location can be found.

15
 2. COMPUTATIONAL FLUID DYNAMICS
Fluid (gas and liquid) flows are governed by partial differential
equations which represent conservation laws for the mass, momentum, and
energy. Computational Fluid Dynamics is the art of replacing such PDE systems
by a set of algebraic equations which can be solved using digital computers.
Computational Fluid Dynamics provides a qualitative (and sometimes even
quantitative) prediction of fluid flows by means of mathematical modeling
(partial differential equations) numerical methods (discretization and solution
techniques) software tools (solvers, pre- and post-processing utilities) CFD
enables scientists and engineers to perform ‘numerical experiments’ in a ‘virtual
flow laboratory’. CFD gives an insight into flow patterns that are difficult,
expensive or impossible to study using traditional (experimental) techniques.

Figure 2.1

2.1 CFD analysis process

1. Problem statement information about the flow

2. Mathematical model IBVP = PDE + IC + BC
3. Mesh generation nodes/cells, time instants
4. Space discretization coupled ODE/DAE systems
5. Time discretization algebraic system Ax = b
6. Iterative solver discrete function values
7. CFD software implementation, debugging
8. Simulation runs parameters, stopping criteria
9. Post processing visualization, analysis of data
10. Verification model validation / adjustment

16
2.2 Mathematical model

 Choose a suitable flow model (viewpoint) and reference frame.

 Identify the forces which cause and influence the fluid motion.
 Define the computational domain in which to solve the problem.
 Formulate conservation laws for the mass, momentum, and energy.
 Simplify the governing equations to reduce the computational effort:
 Add constitutive relations and specify initial/boundary conditions

2.3 Discretization process

The PDE system is transformed into a set of algebraic equations

1. Mesh generation
• Structured or unstructured, triangular or quadrilateral?
• CAD tools + grid generators (Delaunay, advancing front)
• mesh size, adaptive refinement in ‘interesting’ flow regions
2. Space discretization
• Finite differences/volumes/elements
• High- vs. low-order approximations
3. Time discretization
• Explicit vs. implicit schemes, stability constraints
• Local time-stepping, adaptive time step control

2.4 Iterative solution strategy

The coupled nonlinear algebraic equations must be solved iteratively. The

coefficients of the discrete problem are updated using the solution values from
the previous iteration so as to get rid of the nonlinearities by a Newton-like
method and solve the governing equations in a segregated fashion. The resulting
sequence of linear sub-problems is typically solved by an iterative method
because direct solvers are prohibitively expensive. It is necessary to check the
residuals, relative solution changes and other indicators to make sure that the
iterations converge.

2.5 CFD simulations

The computing times for a flow simulation depend on the choice of

numerical algorithms and data structures, linear algebra tools, stopping criteria

17
for iterative solvers, discretization parameters, cost per time step and
convergence rates for outer iterations, programming language and many other
things. The quality of simulation results depends on the mathematical model and
underlying assumptions, approximation type, stability of the numerical scheme,
Mesh, time step, error indicators, stopping criteria etc.

2.6 Verification of CFD codes

Verification amounts to looking for errors in the implementation of the

models by examining the computer programming by visually checking the source
code, documenting it and testing the underlying subprograms individually.
Examining iterative convergence by monitoring the residuals, relative changes of
integral quantities and checking if the prescribed tolerance is attained. Examining
grid convergence: as the mesh and/or and the time step are refined, the spatial
and temporal discretization errors, respectively, should asymptotically approach
zero. At last by comparing the computational results with analytical and
numerical solutions for standard benchmark configurations.

18
 3. INTRODUCTION TO OPEN CHANNEL FLOW
Open channel flows refer to liquid flows that are confined to rivers or
open channels by the action of gravity. They involve an upper free surface
exposed to a gaseous environment and may therefore feature the propagation of
waves.Open-channel flows are characterized by the presence of a liquid-gas
interface called the free surface.In an open channel, Velocity is zero on bottom
and sides of channel due to no-slip condition, velocity is maximum at the mid
plane of the free surface. In most cases, velocity also varies in the stream wise
direction. Therefore, the flow is 3D. Nevertheless, 1D approximation is made
with good success for many practical problems.

3.1 Froude number and wave speed

Important parameter in study of OC flow is the wave speed c0, which is the speed
at which a surface disturbance travels through the liquid.

Derivation of c0 for shallow water:

Continuity equation (b = width)

= ( - ( + )

Momentum equation

Combining the momentum and continuity relations and rearranging gives

For shallow water, where dy<< y,

19
 Figure 3.1

The liquid level drops gradually in the flow direction in subcritical flow, but a
sudden rise in liquid level, called a hydraulic jump, may occur in supercritical
flow (Fr>1) as the flow decelerates to subcritical (Fr<1) velocities.

In order to obtain exact results in open channel flow, the formation of capillary
waves must be eliminated.

3.2 Capillary waves

A capillary wave is a wave traveling along the phase boundary of a

fluid, whose dynamics are dominated by the effects of surface tension.
Capillary waves are common in nature, and are often referred to as ripples. The
wavelength of capillary waves in water is typically less than a few centimeters,
with a phase speed in excess of 0.2 meter/second.

When generated by light wind in open water, a nautical name for them is cat's
paw waves, since they may resemble paw prints. Light breezes which stir up such
small ripples are also sometimes referred to as cat's paws. On the open ocean,

20
much larger ocean surface waves (seas and swells) may result from coalescence
of smaller wind-caused ripple-waves.

Figure 3.2

A gravity–capillary wave on a fluid interface is influenced by both the effects of

surface tension and gravity, as well as by fluid inertia. Thus in order to eliminate
the formation of capillary waves, the surface tension of the working fluid must be
reduced.

3.3 Surface tension

Surface tension is the elastic tendency of a fluid surface which

makes it acquire the least surface area possible. Surface tension allows insects,
usually denser than water, to float and stride on a water surface.

At liquid-air interfaces, surface tension results from the greater attraction of

liquid molecules to each other (due to cohesion) than to the molecules in the air
(due to adhesion). The net effect is an inward force at its surface that causes the
liquid to behave as if its surface were covered with a stretched elastic membrane.
Thus, the surface becomes under tension from the imbalanced forces, which is
probably where the term "surface tension" came from. Because of the relatively
high attraction of water molecules for each other through a web of hydrogen
bonds, water has a higher surface tension (72.8 millinewtons per meter at 20 °C)
compared to that of most other liquids. Surface tension is an important factor in
the phenomenon of capillarity.

21
 Figure 3.3

3.4 Surfactants

Surface tension is visible in other common phenomena, especially

when surfactants are used to decrease it.

Soap bubbles have very large surface areas with very little mass. Bubbles in pure
water are unstable. The addition of surfactants, however, can have a stabilizing
effect on the bubbles. Note that surfactants actually reduce the surface tension of
water by a factor of three or more.

Emulsions are a type of colloid in which surface tension plays a role. Tiny
fragments of oil suspended in pure water will spontaneously assemble themselves
into much larger masses. But the presence of a surfactant provides a decrease in
surface tension, which permits stability of minute droplets of oil in the bulk of
water. In our experiment we used copper sulfate to reduce the surface tension of
water thus eventually eliminating the formation of capillary waves.

22
 4. ANALOGY BETWEEN FREE SURFACE AND
COMPRESSIBLE FLOWS

Free surface flows (open channel flows) and compressible flows have
many similarities. Probably the strongest similarity is that between the hydraulic
jump in open channel flow and the normal shock wave in compressible flow.
Both are strongly dissipative phenomena that occur over a relatively short
distance. Both are extremely complicated in detail but can be satisfactorily
analyzed by the control volume approach. Both convert the flow from one state
(supercritical, supersonic) to another (subcritical, subsonic).

Another similarity is the phenomena of wave motions and their relevant

dimensionless parameters. Weak free-surface gravity waves in open channel flow
are similar to sound waves in compressible flow. The flow state is classified by
the Froude number in open channel flow and Mach number in compressible flow.
For Froude or Mach numbers less than unity, disturbances at a point are
propagated to all parts of the flow, but for Froude or Mach numbers greater than
unity, disturbances propagate downstream only.

A final illustration of the similarities between open channel flow and

compressible flow is the comparison between the response of a frictionless open
channel to a change of bottom elevation and the response of an isentropic gas
flow to area change. If there is a formal analogy, we can interpret measurements
or analysis in one type of flow in terms of the other type. We can demonstrate the
formal analogy by considering the equations of continuity, momentum, and
energy. Consider liquid flow in a rectangular open channel and gas flow in a
closed passage.

The continuity equations are

Channel flow:

Gas flow:

Or differentiating each we have

23
For isentropic gas flow, the differential energy and momentum equations are
identical. The energy momentum equation is

Using

We have for the energy/momentum equation for isentropic gas flow

For open channel flow, the specific energy is

For frictionless flow in a horizontal channel, E=constant and

Using

Reduces the open channel energy equation to

Comparing first four equations suggest the following analogy between isentropic
flow of a gas and frictionless flow in a horizontal rectangular channel.

• Mach number is analogous to Froude number

• Density is analogous to depth
• Area is analogous to channel width

24
• Mach waves/angles are analogous to Froude waves/angles
• Hydraulic jumps/bow waves are analogous to shock waves

Since the governing equations have identical form, the analogy is complete and
formally correct. This analogy is put to use in a water table or water tunnel in
which a free surface flow of water is used to simulate compressible flow of a gas.
A water table can be used for flow visualization with hydraulic jumps
representing shock waves and depth representing density. Depth measurements in
a water table can be used to deduce densities in the analogous compressible flow.
A water table or tunnel is much cheaper to build than a supersonic wind tunnel
and it is generally much easier to see what is occurring visually.

4.1 Open channel flow analogy relations

Like pipe flow, OC flow can be laminar, transitional, or turbulent

depending upon the value of the Reynolds number.

Note that Hydraulic Diameter was defined in pipe flows as

It is observed with the above relations that open channel flow depends on the
wetted perimeter, and the depth of the flow.

This characteristic enables the flow of water to change depth, hence volume, like
how density changes in compressible flow. That is the very theme that is chosen
in this project to prove that the analogy between the two flows holds good. The
various images for the wetted perimeters is as on the next page.

25
 Figure 4.1

The wetted perimeter does not include the free surface. Examples of for
common geometries shown in figure.

4.2 Froude and Mach Numbers

In water, the velocity of propagation of long gravity waves, c, is given by (gD

when depth D is small compared to wave length. This velocity is analogous to
velocity of sound wave. Signals are carried by long gravity waves on the surface
of an open channel where gravity is the restoring force in very much the same
way as sound waves where elasticity is the restoring force. Surface tension
waves, which are also present, do not, however, play any role in the analogy.

26
Two Dimensional Gas flow Water flow
Density ratio, / Water depth ratio, D /
Temperature ratio, Water depth ratio, D /
Pressure ratio (Water depth ratio)2 , (D /
Velocity of sound, a = ( γP/ρ Wave velocity, c = (gD
Mach No., M = V/a Froude Number, Fr = V/c
Subsonic flow, M<1 Streaming water, Fr<1
(subcritical)
Sonic flow, M=1 Critical flow, ( Fr = 1)
Supersonic flow, M > 1 Shooting Water, (Fr >
1)(supercritical)

Table 4.1

Figure 4.2

27
 5. LITERATURE REVIEW
When nozzles were invented, their purpose was primarily to change the
characteristic of the flow such as an increase in pressure or velocity. In 1890
Swedish engineer and inventor Karl Gustaf Patrik de Laval developed a
convergent-divergent nozzle that had the capacity to increase a steam jet to a
supersonic state. This nozzle was termed as de Laval nozzle and later was used
for rocket propulsion.

An American engineer Robert Goddard would be the first to integrate a de Laval

nozzle in connection with a combustion chamber, increasing efficiency and
achieving supersonic velocities in the region of Mach 7.

Figure 5.1

The typical uses for a de Laval nozzle fall under the category of rocket
propulsion; however, there has been an increase for the use of the supersonic
nozzle in other areas. The American military has been using rocket nozzles to
apply high velocity particles, which are a combination of metals, ceramics, and
polymeric materials, onto the surfaces of weapon systems

As the use of de Laval nozzles in rocket design have become prominent, so have
the parameters of the nozzle. Several research papers and works have been done

28
to optimize the nozzle to meet certain criteria more effectively. Due to the multi-
objective optimization of this project, this survey is focused on de Laval nozzle
simulation and optimization.

In 2012 Karla Quintano published a master thesis that detailed work in adjusting
the shape parameters of the de Laval nozzle in order to find an optimal setup for
making the gas flow exiting the condi-nozzle more uniform. Several software
programs were used for the work. A FORTRAN code was used to develop 40
different nozzle shapes. ANSYS and mode Frontier were used to optimize
specified parameters of the shapes, and to run simulations on flow and heat
transfer. The thesis results showed that the shape of the nozzle had a significant
impact on exit flow formation

Jean-Baptiste Mbuyamba published a dissertation regarding nozzle design for a

cold gas dynamic spray. While not directly related to rocket nozzles, the
dissertation considers de Laval nozzles for design. It also describes several
theoretical elements regarding compressible gas flow in a convergent-divergent
nozzle as well as methods to simulate and calculate specific parameters

The process of optimization began with a detailed literary research in

order to find all relevant information on supersonic nozzles. This project had a
large emphasis on the behavior of flow consisting primarily of compressible
fluids. Modeling the flow of air as an ideal cold gas was done using a variety of
software platforms such as ANSYS fluent, and a LOCI FORTRAN program.
Furthermore, a hot-gas application was modeled following the exact testing
conditions as the cold gas while utilizing software programs to analyze different
fluid gradients such as pressure, temperature, density, and velocity. A Computer
Aided Engineering (CAE) program, mode Frontier, was run to optimize the
supersonic nozzle using a variety of geometric configurations

The nozzle shape is fundamental in the design process of a CD nozzle the walls
have number of parabolas governed by partial differential equations. These
partial differential equations are reduced to ordinary differential equations by
methods of characteristics. Contour nozzle was chosen was expansion region due
to its ability to expand efficiently and it took only 80 percent of length taken by
conical nozzle to provide same area ratio. G.V.R. Rao determined that parabola
was a good approximation for contour curve and can be tangent to the exit, this
allows the parabola to be determined by simple geometric analysis. The throat
approach radius of 1.5 rt and throat expansion radius of .4 rt were used for
plotting the de Laval nozzle

29
In order to the study the behavior of bodies immersed in a supersonic gas stream
in respect to shock wave patterns, wake patterns etc, a water channel has been
designed and set up at Chemical Engineering laboratories, Prototype
Development Section (PDS), Chemical Engineering and Technology group,
BARC

The aerodynamic design, and performance evaluation of two exhaust nozzles that
could be employed on a vehicle operating over a flight profile beginning with a
subsonic launch and accelerating to a flight Mach number exceeding 4. These
requirements were set forth by the Air Vehicle Base Line (AVBL) study
commissioned by the Office of Naval Research (ONR), relating to the time
critical strike mission. This flight profile is very similar to that considered by the
NASA Revolutionary Turbine Accelerator(RTA) development effort

30
 6. WORK METHODOLOGY, CALCULATION AND
RESULTS

6.1 Benchmark design

Parameters Values

Inlet diameter( ) 12.75 cm

Throat diameter( ) 4.58 cm

Exit diameter ( ) 7.5 cm

Static pressure ( ) 6.4 bar

Static pressure ( ) 1 bar

Stagnation Pressure 7 bar

( )
Exit Mach number 1.927

Exit velocity 527 m/s

Stagnation temperature 303 K

( )
Exit temperature ( ) 173.8 K

Mass flow rate 10.4 kg/s

Thrust F 5286 N

2.682

1.75

Table 6.1

31
6.2 Basic design

Using previously mentioned gas dynamics relations the following parameters of

the nozzle are calculated.

Parameters Values

Inlet diameter 6.25 cm

Throat Diameter 5.84 cm

Exit Diameter 9.5 cm

Static Pressure 13 bar

Static Pressure 1 bar

Stagnation Pressure 17 bar

Exit Mach Number 2.5

Exit velocity 585 m/s

Stagnation Temperature 303 K

Exit Temperature 134.6 K

Mass flow rate 9.9 kg/s

Thrust F 5815.3 N

2.636

1.435

Entry Mach Number 0.64

Table 6.2

32
From the previous research,

Stagnation pressure = 17 bar

Stagnation temperature = 303 K
Inlet Diameter = 6.25 cm
Entry Mach number = 0.64

Required Exit Mach number = 2.5

Exit Temperature 134.6 K

For = 0.64, (from isentropic tables)

Here, =

Therefore =

= 26.81

Throat Diameter, = 5.84

= 0.759 * 17

Static Pressure at Inlet,

For = 2.5,

Here,

Therefore

Throat Diameter, = 9.5

= 0.0585 * 17

33
Static Pressure at Exit,

Exit Velocity, = = 2.5

= 585 m/s

Thrust F= m* = 9.9 * 585

F = 5815.3 N

6.3 Design of the water tunnel test section

The following assumptions are made before designing the test section

1. Flow area of nozzle equals flow area of open channel

2. Depth of the flow is maintained constant

Where,
D – Diameter of the nozzle
– Width of the channel
Height of the channel

Throat section

 Diameter= 5.84cm (From compressible flow calculation)

 Depth of flow at throat= 1.5 cm
 Width of throat= 17.86 cm

Exit section

 Diameter= 9.5 cm (From compressible flow calculation)

 Depth of flow at exit= 1.5 cm
 Width at exit= 47.25 cm

Exit Area

34
 = 5.84

Taking

70.88

Throat Area = 26.81

= 5.84

Put

26.81

6.4 Description of the Setup

The water channel has been designed for a Froude number of 2.5, which
is analogous to a Mach number of 2.5. The system essentially consists of a two
dimensional De- Laval Nozzle, which receives water from a reservoir at
subcritical condition, accelerates the free surface flow to a supercritical condition
of Fr =2.5 through a critical throat, and discharges into a sump where from water
is pumped back to the reservoir. The test section is downstream of the throat and
models are kept by means of proper fixtures. Adjustable dam creates back
pressure.

Guidelines, the challenge involved in the design of such system lies in drawing
concepts from two different fields, i.e. Hydraulics and Aerodynamics, and
successfully blending them to cast into a suitable design technique. This water
channel is presently operational and has proved to be a very potent tool for
supersonic flow investigations.

35
 Figure 6.1

Since qualitative agreement between the phenomena is good, the water channel is
an excellent piece of demonstration apparatus as the photographs indicate. It is of
value, therefore, for indicating shock wave pattern to be expected in any new
system; for example, oblique shock entries for supersonic diffusers.

6.4.1 Results of testing

Figure 6.2

36
 Figure 6.3

The velocity of flow was calculated using the following method. The distance
between subsequent points of observation is known. In this case, it is 40 cm. The
time to cover the distance is known by capturing multiple images using a good
quality camera whose shutter speed is known and adjustable. In this case, it is
0.5 s.

Distance = 40 cm
Time taken = 0.5 s

Therefore, the velocity of the flow = 0.8 m/s

Using the relation for Froude number depicted earlier, the Froude number was
calculated to be Fr = 2.1

37
6.5 CFD analysis of basic design

The density contour of the basic design of the nozzle is obtained using ANSYS
FLUENT as below

Figure 6.4

The pressure contour for the basic design of the nozzle was obtained using
ANSYS FLUENT as below

Figure 6.5

38
The temperature contour for the basic design of the nozzle was obtained using
ANSYS FLUENT as below

Figure 6.6

The parameters of the basic design of the nozzle, at the exit, are summarized in a table below.

S.No Content Value

1. Exit density 0.69
2. Exit pressure 4.594x
3. Exit temperature 2684 K

Table 6.3

The velocity plot was not included because the obtained design has a shock or
back pressure in the nozzle in the divergent portion. It thus needs another
iteration, and hence the plots for the revised design are what follow.

39
6.6 CFD analysis of revised design

The pressure contour for the revised design of the nozzle was obtained using
ANSYS FLUENT as below

Figure 6.7

The temperature contour for the revised design of the nozzle was obtained using
ANSYS FLUENT as below

Figure 6.8

40
The streamline contour for the revised design along with the particles in the flow
of the nozzle was obtained using ANSYS FLUENT as below

Figure 6.9

The velocity contour for the revised design of the nozzle was obtained using
ANSYS FLUENT as below

Figure 6.10

41
The streamline contour for the revised design of the nozzle was obtained using
ANSYS FLUENT as below

Figure 6.11

The parameters of the basic design of the nozzle, at the exit, are summarized in a table below.

S.No Content Value

1. Exit density 0.69
2. Exit pressure 3.814x
3. Exit temperature 1468 K
4. Exit velocity 2257

Table 6.4

42
6.7 Theoretical calculation result and comparison with CFD result

From the velocity contour obtained above and the gas dynamics relations, the
Mach number for the revised nozzle is M= 2.7

Now by theoretical calculation,

Stagnation pressure = 40 bar

Stagnation temperature = 3677 k
Inlet Diameter = 10 cm
Exit Diameter = 20 cm
Throat Diameter = 5 cm
Entry Mach number = 0.32
Exit Temperature 1468 K

Upon calculations as illustrated above the theoretical calculation of Mach number

is
M = 2.93

The theoretical result is greater than the results by CFD as expected.

43
 7. REFERENCES
1. A comprehensive project report titled “Computational analysis of a
supersonic nozzle”, by TEAM18
2. Quintao, Karla K, “Design and optimization of nozzle shapes for maximum
uniformity of exit flow”[2012].FIU electronic theses and dissertations. Paper
779
3. Mbuyamba, Jean-Baptiste Mulumba, “Calculation and design of supersonic
nozzles for cold gas dynamic spraying using MATLAB and ANSYS
FLUENT”[2013]
4. Hagemann, Gerald, Hans Immich, Thong Nguyen and Gennady Dunmov,”
Advanced Rocket nozzles”, Journal of propulsion and power 14.5(1998).
5. “Water channel for supersonic flow investigation”, Chemical Engineering and
Technology group, Bhabha Atomic Research centre
6. “Design and optimization of de Laval nozzle to prevent shock induced flow
separation”, Aeronautical Engineering Department, Hindustan University

44
 8. BIBLIOGRAPHY

1. “Modern Compressible Flow”, Anderson. J. D

2. “Fundamentals of compressible flow”, Yahya. S. M
3. “Computational fluid dynamics”, Anderson J. D
4. “Introduction to computational fluid dynamics” Versteeg and Malalasekara
5. “Flow in open channels”, Subramanya. K
6. “Open Channel flow”, Hanif Chaudhry. M

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