Download as pdf or txt
Download as pdf or txt
You are on page 1of 45

This PDF includes a chapter from the following book:

American Design Ethic


A History of Industrial Design

© 1983 MIT

License Terms:
Made available under a Creative Commons
Attribution-NonCommercial-NoDerivatives 4.0 International Public License
https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0/

OA Funding Provided By:


National Endowment for the Humanities/Andrew W. Mellon Foundation Humanities
Open Book Program.

The title-level DOI for this work is:


doi:10.7551/mitpress/1227.001.0001

Downloaded from http://direct.mit.edu/books/book/chapter-pdf/1894193/9780262368100_c000200.pdf by guest on 08 May 2021


fXG h-z-xQG=

Downloaded from http://direct.mit.edu/books/book/chapter-pdf/1894193/9780262368100_c000200.pdf by guest on 08 May 2021


fXG EH—= -. F(H/Q/qz

nnn '254W5 W)Y5 )éé Ô25—5 j5Qjé5F H25{ )V5 ) WRj qWR”YXéK‘ »’Q »;Y; ;[é;zK;j KQ KYWj; »GK’
Y0>Ô/V5 QO .4Lé0—2I kWQÔÔ0—2I CV0—2I bV54W2I d/ÔW2 K’; ©RjGWR‘ WRj KQ ;‘KWq:G‘’ é:WRKWKGQR‘ WRj
A5VY)4— )4z k'5z5—s bVQY Ô20— jVQY0—W/Q/— OWRX­WzKXY;‘ K’WK »QX:j éYQ­GK K’;O‘;:^;‘ WRj
JV55zI Ô2)Ô V)W5 4Q' W)éé5z DY5V0W)4— 2)û5 K’;GY ‘éQR‘QY‘n S’; zQ:QR] K’WK K’; bQOéWR]
)V0—54s ss sH25V5 0— VQQY OQV 5û5V{JQz{ 04 ­QXRj;j WK 3WO;‘KQ»R »W‘ ;^;RKXW::] :;j q]
DY5V0W)s bWéKWGR 3Q’R UOGK’I ‘Q:jG;Y WRj Wj^;RKXY;YI
3n 6;zKQY UKn 3QWR j; bY;^;zQ;XYI a94l ylgI D9 »’Q‘; Y;éQYK »W‘ KQ q; j;‘zYGq;j :WK;Y q] F:;[G‘
j; SQz!X;^G::; W‘ qY;WK’GRE *K’WK WYjQXY ­QY
jG‘zQ^;Y]I K’WK ‘éGYGK Q­ ;RK;YéYG‘; »’Gz’ z’WYWz¡
S’; OQK’;Y zQXRKYG;‘ Q­ K’; CRGK;j UKWK;‘ R;^;Y K;YG$;j K’; O;R Q­ ’G‘ KGO;I »’;R K’; OWRR;Y‘
GOWEGR;j K’WK K’;GY zQ:QRG;‘ »QX:j jY;WO Q­ Q­ z’G^W:Y] »;Y; XRGK;j KQ $;W: ­QY zQOO;Yz;I WRj
GRj;é;Rj;Rz; WRj W‘éGY; QR; jW] KQ ‘’Wé; K’;GY OWj; ‘Xq‘;Y^G;RK KQ K’; Wz!XG‘GKGQR Q­ »;W:K’n"
Q»R j;‘KGR]n NQY »W‘ GK zQRz;G^Wq:; KQ K’;O K’WK y41I ©©I eu4
K’; ‘zWKK;Y;j ‘;KK:;O;RK‘ GR K’; »G:j;YR;‘‘ Q­
K’; N;» xQY:j »QX:j q; ­X‘;j GRKQ W R;» RWKGQR S’; O;OQGY‘ Q­ S’QOW‘ 3;­­;Y‘QR ‘’;j WjjG¡
q] K’; ­GY; Q­ W Y;^Q:XKGQRn kRE:WRjI ,YWRz;I WRj KGQRW: :GE’K QR K’; éY;QzzXéWKGQR »GK’ é;Y‘QRW:
UéWGR yK’; EY;WK kXYQé;WR éQ»;Y‘ Q­ K’; KGO; I EWGR Q­ K’; kRE:G‘’O;R »’Q zQ:QRG$;j K’; UQXK’h
W‘ »;:: W‘ 6Q::WRjI U»;j;RI 8;YOWR]I WRj QK’;Y *FK K’; KGO; Q­ K’; ­GY‘K ‘;KK:;O;RK Q­ K’; kRE:G‘’
zQXRKYG;‘I :QQ”;j XéQR K’; jG‘KWRK zQRKGR;RK W‘ GR 'GYEGRGWI »’;R :WRj »W‘ KQ q; ’Wj ­QY :GKK:; QY
W ^GYEGR ‘QXYz; Q­ »;W:K’ GR K’; ­QYO Q­ YWY; RQK’GREI ‘QO; éYQ^Gj;RK é;Y‘QR‘ ’W^GRE QqKWGR;j
O;KW:‘ WRj OGR;YW:‘ WRj ­QY;‘K WRj WRGOW: Y;¡ :WYE; EYWRK‘ Q­ GKI WRj q;GRE j;‘GYQX‘ Q­ OWGR¡
‘QXYz;‘I W‘ W é:Wz; KQ ;‘KWq:G‘’ é:WRKWKGQR‘ WRj KWGRGRE K’; ‘é:;RjQXY Q­ K’;GY ­WOG:G;‘I ;RKWG:;j
OWRX­WzKQYG;‘ KQ ‘Xéé:;O;RK K’Q‘; Q­ K’; ’QO;¡ K’;GY éYQé;YK] XéQR K’;GY j;‘z;RjWRK‘n S’; KYWR‘¡
:WRjI W‘ W éYQ‘é;zKG^; OWY”;K ­QY K’; ‘XYé:X‘;‘ OG‘‘GQR Q­ K’;‘; ;‘KWK;‘ ­YQO E;R;YWKGQR KQ
Q­ K’;GY Q»R GRjX‘KYGW: Y;^Q:XKGQR‘I WRj W‘ W E;R;YWKGQRI KQ O;R »’Q qQY; K’; ‘WO; RWO;I
j;éQ‘GKQY] ­QY K’;GY ‘QzGW: WRj Y;:GEGQX‘ ’Wj K’; ;­­;zK Q­ YWG‘GRE Xé W jG‘KGRzK z:W‘‘ Q­
jG‘‘Gj;RK‘n ­WOG:G;‘I »’QI éQ‘‘;‘‘GRE q] :W» K’; éYG^G:;E; Q­
é;Yé;KXWKGRE K’;GY »;W:K’I ­QYO;j q] K’;‘; O;WR‘
©K ‘;;O‘ GR;^GKWq:; K’WK K’; KGj; Q­ ’;Y;jGKWY] W ‘QYK Q­ éWKYGzGWR QYj;YI jG‘KGREXG‘’;j q] K’;
WYG‘KQzYWz] WRj ‘;zX:WY WRj Y;:GEGQX‘ WXKQzYWz] EYWRj;XY WRj :X[XY] Q­ K’;GY ;‘KWq:G‘’O;RK‘n"
K’WK zY;‘K;j GR kXYQé; GR K’; ‘;^;RK;;RK’ WRj y41I ©©I eag
;GE’K;;RK’ z;RKXYG;‘ ‘’QX:j ’W^; »W‘’;j K’;
‘;;j‘ Q­ GRj;é;Rj;Rz; QRKQ K’; ‘’QY;‘ Q­ NQYK’ S’; ‘;zQRj ‘’Gé jG‘éWKz’;j KQ K’; 'GYEGRGW
FO;YGzWn S’;Y; »;Y; K»Q EY;WK »W^;‘ Q­ zQ:QRGW:¡ zQ:QR] GR a1u4 qYQXE’K Q^;Y ­YQO MQRjQR é;Qé:;
G‘On S’; »W^; KQ K’; ‘QXK’ zWO; ­GY‘K KQ ‘;;” ‘”G::;j GR OWRX­WzKXY;‘n UQO; »;Y; éXK KQ »QY”
QXK WRj qYGRE qWz” K’; KY;W‘XY;‘ Q­ K’; R;» GR K’; ­QY;‘K‘ KQ éYQjXz; z:WéqQWYj‘I »WGR‘zQK¡
»QY:jJ K’; RQYK’;YR QR; K’WK !XGz”:] ­Q::Q»;j »W‘ GREI WRj QK’;Y »QQj j;YG^WKG^;‘ ‘Xz’ W‘ KWY WRj
QR; Q­ ‘;:­ ;[G:;j ;EW:GKWYGWR‘ ‘;;”GRE KQ é:WRK éGKz’ K’WK »;Y; GR ‘’QYK ‘Xéé:] WK ’QO;J QK’;Y‘
W éXY;Y ‘QzG;K] KQ K’; E:QY] Q­ 8Qjn ,QY ‘;^;YW: WKK;OéK;j KQ ‘O;:K GYQR QY;J QK’;Y‘ ;Y;zK;j W
j;zWj;‘I ;OGEYWRK‘ ­YQO QR; zQXRKY] QY WRQK’;Y *E:W‘‘ ’QX‘;" KQ OW”; E:W‘‘ ­YQO q;Wz’ ‘WRjn
zQOé;K;j ­QY K’;GY Q»R éWYK‘ Q­ NQYK’ FO;YGzWn CRj;Y zQR‘KWRK K’Y;WK ­YQO K’; ©RjGWR‘I ‘Xz’
6Q»;^;YI q] K’; OGj a1uu‘ K’; kRE:G‘’ zQ:QRG‘K‘ ;­­QYK‘ »;Y; ;^;RKXW::] WqWRjQR;jn m­ W:: Q­ K’;
WRj K’; :WREXWE; WRj OWRR;Y‘ Q­ K’;GY OQK’;Y ^;RKXY;‘ XRj;YKW”;R GR 'GYEGRGWI QR:] K’; é:WRKW¡
zQXRKY] éY;^WG:;jn KGQR‘ K’WK »;Y; ;‘KWq:G‘’;j GR K’; »WYO ’XOGj
z:GOWK; W:QRE K’; ;W‘K;YR ‘;WqQWYj ‘’Q»;j
S’; ­GY‘K MQRjQR bQOéWR] »W‘ z’WYK;Y;j éYQOG‘; Q­ ‘Xzz;‘‘n S’; zQ:QRG‘K‘« WKK;OéK‘ KQ
q] K’; bYQ»R GR a1u9 KQ ;[é:QY; WRj ;[é:QGK K’; YWG‘; K;[KG:; ­Gq;Y‘ WRj ;‘KWq:G‘’ ‘G:” zX:KXY; W‘
Y;‘QXYz;‘ Q­ 'GYEGRGW WRj KQ Y;KXYR KQ GK‘ ‘’WY;¡ K’;] »;Y; éY;‘‘;j KQ jQ q] K’;GY MQRjQR ‘’WY;¡
’Q:j;Y‘ W ­G­K’ Q­ W:: Q­ K’; YGz’;‘ ­QXRj QY OGR;jn ’Q:j;Y‘ »;Y; XR‘Xzz;‘‘­X:I qXK K’;] ­QXRj K’WK
S’; zQ:QRG$GRE qWRj GRz:Xj;j Wj^;RKXY;Y‘I
‘Q:jG;Y‘ Q­ ­QYKXR;I XRéYGRzGé:;j ]QXRE O;RI

DY5V0W)4 d5—0L4 .Ô20W

Downloaded from http://direct.mit.edu/books/book/chapter-pdf/1894193/9780262368100_c000200.pdf by guest on 08 May 2021


KQqWzzQ »W‘ WjOGYWq:] ‘XGK;j KQ K’; z:GOWK; WRj zW::;j ­QY W zQOé:;K; qY;W” q;K»;;R z’XYz’ WRj
zQOOWRj;j WR ;[z;::;RK éYGz; GR kXYQé;WR ‘KWK;n VX;;R k:G$Wq;K’ Y;‘;RK;j WR] !X;‘KGQR
OWY”;K‘n Q­ ’;Y WXK’QYGK] Q^;Y K’; z’XYz’ WRj X‘;j ’;Y
GR­:X;Rz; WRj K’WK Q­ ’;Y zQXYK GR WR WKK;OéK
S’; ‘Xzz;‘‘ Q­ K’; éWKYGzGWR‘ »W‘ WGj;j GR KQ qYGRE K’; U;éWYWKG‘K‘ GRKQ :GR; q] j;R]GRE K’;O
RQ ‘OW:: O;W‘XY; q] K’; GRKYQjXzKGQR Q­ ‘:W^;Y] Wzz;‘‘ KQ K’; ;‘KWq:G‘’;j WRj Y;‘é;zK;j éYQ­;‘¡
GR a1luI »’;R K’; ­GY‘K K»;RK] F­YGzWR‘ »;Y; éXK ‘GQR‘n F‘ W Y;‘X:KI K’; jG‘‘Gj;RK‘ »;Y; ­QYz;j
W‘’QY; QR K’; qWR”‘ Q­ K’; 3WO;‘ LG^;Yn y©K G‘ KQ ­Q::Q» K’; éYWzKGzW: K’;Q:QE] Q­ bW:^GR q] KXYR¡
WR GRK;Y;‘KGRE zQGRzGj;Rz; K’WK GR K’WK ‘WO; ];WY GRE ­QY ;zQRQOGz ‘XééQYK KQ K’; ‘zG;RKG­GzI GR¡
K’; ­GY‘K wXYGKWR‘ »;Y; :WRjGRE KQ K’; RQYK’ WK jX‘KYGW:I WRj O;YzWRKG:; éYQ­;‘‘GQR‘ K’WK »;Y;
w:]OQXK’ GR ‘;WYz’ Q­ GRjG^GjXW: ­Y;;jQOn S’; q;]QRj zQR^;RKGQRW: éQ:GKGzW: WRj ;zz:;‘GW‘KGz
zQOqGRWKGQR Q­ W^WG:Wq:; :WqQY WRj ‘Xzz;‘‘­X: zQRKYQ:n N;^;YK’;:;‘‘I K’; é;Y‘;zXKGQR zQRKGRX;jn
zYQé‘ y­GY‘K KQqWzzQJ :WK;Y zQKKQRI YGz;I WRj GRjGEQ S’; ­GY‘K qWRj Q­ wG:EYGO‘ yW‘ K’;] zW::;j K’;O¡
‘QQR zY;WK;j WR WEYWYGWR WYG‘KQzYWz] GR K’; ‘;:^;‘ ‘WG:;j GR a1u0 ­YQO RQYK’;YR kRE:WRj ­QY
UQXK’I »GK’ kRE:WRj W‘ GK‘ ­QzX‘n S’; ‘QXK’;YR 6Q::WRjn S’;] Y;OWGR;j GR ;[G:; GR M;]j;R XRKG:
zQ:QRG‘K‘ ‘;RK KQ kRE:WRj ­QY z:QK’GRE WRj ­QY a1luI »’;RI ;[éY;‘‘GRE W j;‘GY; KQ éY;‘;Y^; K’;GY
’QO; ­XYRG‘’GRE‘I WRj ‘’Géé;j K’;GY z’G:jY;R kRE:G‘’ ’;YGKWE;I »’Gz’ »W‘ GR jWRE;Y Q­ W‘‘GO¡
KQ kRE:WRj KQ q; ;jXzWK;j WRj GRjQzKYGRWK;j »GK’ G:WKGQR GR 6Q::WRjI K’;] »;Y; EYWRK;j W z’WYK;Y
pYGKG‘’ éQ:GKGzW: WRj ‘QzGW: é’G:Q‘Qé’]n S’; q] K’; bYQ»R KQ ;OGEYWK; KQ NQYK’ FO;YGzWn xG:¡
»;W:K’] ‘QXK’;YR;Y‘ zWO; KQ ^G;» K’;O‘;:^;‘ :GWO pY;»‘K;YI xG::GWO pYWj­QYjI WRj kj»WYj
W‘ WYG‘KQzYWK‘ »’Q‘; éQ‘GKGQR Qq:GEWK;j K’;O xGR‘:Q» :;j K’; ­GY‘K qWRj Q­ WqQXK agu wG:EYGO‘
KQ j;^;:Qé WR ;R^GYQRO;RK GR K’; N;» xQY:j K’WK QR K’; :QRE ^Q]WE; KQ FO;YGzWn vQ‘K »;Y; :;‘‘
»W‘ W‘ ;:;EWRK WRj ­W‘’GQRWq:; W‘ K’WK Q­ kR¡ K’WR eu ];WY‘ Q:j WK K’; KGO;n
E:WRjn ,YQO K’;GY ;‘KWK;‘ »;Y; KQ zQO; K’; éYQXj
R;» FO;YGzWR‘I “;W:QX‘ Q­ K’;GY YGE’K KQ ;zQ¡ S’; wG:EYGO‘ zWO; KQ K’; N;» xQY:j ‘’WYGRE W
RQOGz Y;»WYj‘I $;W:QX‘ GR K’;GY ­Y;;jQOI WRj é’G:Q‘Qé’] K’WK »W‘ WX‘K;Y; WRj W éYWzKGzW: ;K’Gz
”RQ»:;jE;Wq:; ;RQXE’ Q­ ’G‘KQY] WRj :W» KQ K’WK »QX:j RQK é;YOGK GRjX:E;Rz; GR :X[XY] WRj K’;
Y;W:G$; K’WK W XRG^;Y‘W: KGj; »W‘ YXRRGRE GR ­W^QY ­GR; WYK‘n S’;GY ­GY‘K qXG:jGRE »W‘ j;‘zYGq;j W‘
Q­ Y;éXq:GzWR ;!XW:GK]n ©K »W‘ 3;­­;Y‘QRI W ‘QXK’¡ W ‘KQY;’QX‘; »GK’ ‘G[ zWRRQR‘ QR K’; YQQ­ WRj
;YR éWKYGzGWRI »’Q KYWR‘éQ‘;j 3Q’R MQz”;«‘ W :Q»;Y éWYK K’WK »W‘ X‘;j W‘ W z’XYz’ QR UXR¡
é’YW‘; * :G­;I :Gq;YK]I WRj K’; éXY‘XGK Q­ éYQé;YK]" jW]‘n F:K’QXE’ K’G‘ ­GY‘K qWRj Q­ wG:EYGO‘ WRj
GRKQ * :G­;I :Gq;YK]I WRj K’; éXY‘XGK Q­ ’WééGR;‘‘I" QK’;Y‘ K’WK ‘QQR ­Q::Q»;j ’Wj qQK’ ‘;zX:WY WRj
»’Gz’ ’; zQR‘Gj;Y;j OQY; ;EW:GKWYGWR WRj K’;Y;¡ ;zz:;‘GW‘KGz jG­­;Y;Rz;‘I K’;] »;Y; qQXRj KQ¡
­QY; OQY; Wzz;éKWq:; KQ ’G‘ RQYK’;YR zQOéWKYGQK‘n E;K’;Y q] W zQOOQR :WREXWE; WRj ’Wj q;;R
p] K’; ;Rj Q­ K’; zQ:QRGW: ;YW K’; ‘QXK’;YR;Y‘ ‘Xq“;zK KQ K’; ‘WO; :W»‘ WRj éWYW::;: WzK‘ Q­ ‘Xé¡
»;Y; KQ Y;W:G$; K’WKI W:K’QXE’ K’;] ’Wj RQ K;RWRK éY;‘‘GQRn S’;] ‘’WY;j W éW‘‘GQRWK; j;‘GY; ­QY
z:W‘‘I K’;] »;Y; Y;W::] QR; é;Qé:; »GK’ K’; éQ:GKGzW: WRj Y;:GEGQX‘ ­Y;;jQOI WRj K’;] qYQXE’K
­Y;;O;R Q­ K’; NQYK’n »GK’ K’;O W ‘;R‘; Q­ zQOOXRGK] YX:; K’WK K’;]
’Wj ‘’WY;j XRj;Y K’; kRE:G‘’ éWYG‘’ ‘]‘K;OI W
S’; RQYK’;YR »W^; Q­ kRE:G‘’ ;OGEYWRK‘ »W‘ R;» OQYW:GK] qQYR QXK Q­ K’; L;­QYOWKGQRI WRj
OWj; Xé Q­ K’Q‘; jG‘;R­YWRz’G‘;j O;Yz’WRK‘ WRj W Y;‘é;zK ­QY GRK;::GE;RK GR!XGY] ­QY K’; EWK’;YGRE
jG‘;Rz’WRK;j ‘z’Q:WY‘ WRj ;zz:;‘GW‘KGz‘ »’Q ’Wj WRj Y;­GR;O;RK Q­ X‘;­X: ”RQ»:;jE;n ©RjG^GjXW:‘
jWY;j KQ ‘é;W” QXK WEWGR‘K K’; éYWzKGz;‘ WRj E;R;YW::] jGj RQK zQR‘Gj;Y K’;O‘;:^;‘ ‘Xé;YGQY
WXK’QYGK] Q­ K’; FRE:GzWR z’XYz’n S’Q‘; »’Q KQ QK’;Y‘n
zW::;j K’;O‘;:^;‘ wXYGKWR‘ !X;‘KGQR;j K’; GR­:X¡
;Rz; Q­ LQOWR bWK’Q:Gz YGKXW: WRj jQEOW GR kR¡ p] a1Dg OQY; K’WR luIuuu ËOGEYË‘ ’Wj Y;Wz’;j
E:WRj WRj GR‘G‘K;j QR K’;GY YGE’K KQ GRK;YéY;K K’; N;» kRE:WRjn vQ‘K »;Y; RQK U;éWYWKG‘K‘I qXK
»QYj Q­ 8Qj ­QY GRjG^GjXW: EXGjWRz;n S’;‘; YWK’;Y wXYGKWR‘ »’Q ‘QXE’K RQK ‘Q OXz’ KQ :;W^;
U;éWYWKG‘K‘I W‘ K’;] »;Y; ”RQ»RI »;Y; WEWGR‘K K’; FRE:GzWR z’XYz’ W‘ KQ z’WRE; GK ­YQO »GK’GR
WR] éQ:GKGzW: WééQGRKO;RK‘ KQ z’XYz’ Q­­Gz; WRj

D
H25 GQéQ405—

Downloaded from http://direct.mit.edu/books/book/chapter-pdf/1894193/9780262368100_c000200.pdf by guest on 08 May 2021


GR ”;;éGRE »GK’ K’; éYGRzGé:;‘ Q­ K’; L;­QYOWKGQRn Q­ ”RQ»:;jE; zQX:j Y;‘X:K GR EWGR‘ K’WK »;Y;
6Q»;^;YI K’;GY jG‘KWRz; ­YQO K’; OQK’;Y z’XYz’ ;!XW: KQ K’Q‘; W^WG:Wq:; K’YQXE’ WYG‘KQzYWKGz
;^;RKXW::] :;j KQ W zQOé:;K; GRj;é;Rj;Rz;I jQOGRWRz; Q^;Y QK’;Y‘n * cG:GE;RK L;‘;WYz’;Y‘
WRj q] a1gu OWR] Q­ K’; FRE:GzWR z’XYz’;‘ GR WK ’QO;I" K;‘KG­G;j 3n kn kj»WYj‘ GR ‘XééQYK Q­ K’;
FO;YGzW ’Wj q;zQO; bQREY;EWKGQRW:n ,QY K’; wXYGKWR‘« zQOOGKO;RK KQ ”RQ»:;jE;I *WRj SYW^;:
OQ‘K éWYKI kRE:WRj »W‘ RQK jG‘é:;W‘;j q] K’; j;¡ GRKQ Y;OQK; bQXRKYG;‘ ’W^; éYQjXz;j N;» mq¡
éWYKXY; Q­ ’;Y Y;:GEGQX‘ jG‘‘Gj;RK‘n ©R ­WzKI ‘’; jGj ‘;Y^WKGQR‘ WRj L;OWY”‘I XR’;WYj Q­ cG‘zQ^;YG;‘
»’WK ‘’; zQX:j KQ ;RzQXYWE; OWR] Q­ K’;O KQ WRj ©R^;RKGQR‘n" yDu
:;W^; q] Q­­;YGRE K’;O W EY;WK;Y j;EY;; Q­ GRj;¡
é;Rj;Rz; K’WR jGj OWR] QK’;Y zQXRKYG;‘ K’WK S’; wXYGKWR‘« ‘;:­ GR­:GzK;j Y;éY;‘‘GQR‘ ‘KY;REK’¡
»;Y; ‘;;”GRE KQ ;‘KWq:G‘’ W ­QQK’Q:j GR FO;YGzWn ;R;j K’;O KQ ­Wz; K’; YGEQY‘ Q­ éGQR;;Y :G­;n H25
S’G‘ ‘KGOX:WK;j K’; j;^;:QéO;RK Q­ ‘;KK:;O;RK‘ G2V0—Ô0)4 d0V5WÔQV{ QO ­0W2 )4z ,)>Ô5V éXq:G‘’;j
K’WK »;Y; ‘KYQRE;Y GRK;YRW::] WRj :;j KQ EQ^;YR¡ GR MQRjQR GR a11gI j;‘zYGq;‘ K’; éYWzKGzW: ;K’Gz‘
O;RKW: GRRQ^WKGQR‘n x’;Y;W‘ QK’;Y zQXRKYG;‘ Q­ K’; wXYGKWR‘ WRj GR‘G‘K‘ K’WK K’;GY j;^QKGQR KQ
YX:;j K’;GY zQ:QRG;‘ »GK’ WR GYQR ’WRj K’YQXE’ W W ‘KY;RXQX‘ :G­; q;R;­GK;j K;z’RQ:QEGzW: j;^;:Qé¡
bYQ»R WééQGRK;j EQ^;YRQYI K’; kRE:G‘’ zQ:QRG;‘ O;RK WRj éYQjXzKGQRn S’; jGY;zKQY] G‘ Y;é:;K; »GK’
»;Y; ;‘KWq:G‘’;j ;GK’;Y q] :WRj EYWRK‘ yW‘ GR ’QOG:G;‘ QR GRjX‘KY]I K’YG­KI WRj ‘éGYGKXW: ‘W:^W¡
K’; zW‘; Q­ w;RR‘]:^WRGWI vWY]:WRjI N;» 3;Y‘;]I KGQRh *S’; éXq:Gz »;:­WY;I QY K’; EQQj Q­ OWR]I
WRj K’; bWYQ:GRW‘ K’WK é;YOGKK;j K’; Q»R;Y KQ G‘ KQ q; ^W:X;j WqQ^; QXY Q»Rn k^;Y] OWR G‘ K’;Y;¡
‘;:: :WRj WRj EQ^;YR W‘ ’; »G‘’;j XRj;Y K’; q;¡ ­QY; qQXRj KQ jQ W:: K’; EQQj ’; zWR KQ QK’;Y‘I
RGER ;]; Q­ K’; bYQ»RI QY ;:‘; q] é;YOGKKGRE K’; ;‘é;zGW::] ­QY K’; b’XYz’ WRj K’; bQOOQR¡
;OGEYWRK‘ KQ ­QYO W éQ:GKGzW: ‘QzG;K] XRj;Y K’; »;W:K’h FRj K’G‘ G‘ KQ q; jQR; RQK q] ©j:;R;‘‘I
éYQK;zKGQR Q­ K’; OQK’;Y zQXRKY] GR QYj;Y KQ EQ^¡ qXK q] :WqQYA n n n MWqQY RQK KQ q; YGz’h S’; O;WR¡
;YR K’;O‘;:^;‘ GR WR] »W] K’WK »W‘ RQK GR zQR¡ GRE G‘I K’WK ]QX OW”; RQK LGz’;‘ ]QXY z’G;­ ;Rjh
KYWjGzKGQR »GK’ ’;Y GRK;Y;‘Kn LGz’;‘ ­QY QXY ­:;‘’:] ;Rj‘ OX‘K RQK X:KGOWK;:]
q; GRK;Rj;j QY ‘QXE’Kn pXK GR ‘XqQYjGRWKGQR
©R ;­­;zKI K’; ­:Q» Q­ EQ^;YRO;RK GR K’; zQ:QRG;‘ KQ ’GE’;Y K’GRE‘ K’;] OW]J S’WK G‘I ]QX OW] :WqQY
»W‘ K’; GR^;Y‘; Q­ K’WK GR kRE:WRjn ©K YWR ­YQO K’; GR K’; OWRR;Y W‘ K;Rj;K’ OQ‘K KQ ]QXY ‘Xzz;‘‘
GRjG^GjXW: KQ K’; zQOOXRGK]I ­YQO K’; zQOOXRGK] WRj :W»­X: EWGRh n n n n 2QX OW] :WqQY KQ q; LGz’ ­QY
KQ K’; zQ:QR]I WRj ­YQO K’;Y; KQ K’; ‘KWK;n p] 8QjI K’QXE’ RQK ­QY K’; ­:;‘’ WRj ‘GRn" y9 S’;‘;
K’; OGj a1uu‘ ;^;Y] KQ»R‘’Gé GR N;» kRE:WRj Gj;W‘ »QX:j q; ;z’Q;j :;‘‘ K’WR W z;RKXY] :WK;Y
»W‘ WXKQRQOQX‘I WRj K’QXE’ ;Wz’ Wzz;éK;j K’; q] p;R“WOGR ,YWR”:GR GR -QQV ­0W2)Vz}— DéY)4)Ws
‘XéY;OWz] Q­ kRE:WRj K’; »W] KQ j;OQzYWz] »W‘
z:;WYn S’; zQ:QRG‘K‘ ’Wj éYQjXz;j W R;» ­QYO Q­ S’; wXYGKWR‘« ‘QzGW: éYGRzGé:;‘ ’;:é;j KQ ‘’Wé;
EQ^;YRO;RKI »GK’QXK éY;z;j;RKn K’; RQYK’;YR OGRj WRj »QXRj Xé K’; j]RWOGz
jYG^; K’WK ‘KG:: OQ^;‘ FO;YGzWR ;RK;YéYG‘;n S’;
©R WjjGKGQR KQ K’;GY R;» ­QXRj ­Y;;jQOI K’; ’QO;‘ Q­ K’; RQYK’;YR O;Yz’WRK‘ WRj qX‘GR;‘‘¡
kRE:G‘’ zQ:QRG‘K‘ Q­ K’; NQYK’I OWR] Q­ »’QO O;R »;Y; ‘QQR W‘ ­X:: Q­ :X[XYG;‘ W‘ K’Q‘; Q­ K’;GY
»;Y; W YG‘GRE OGjj:; z:W‘‘ K’WK ’Wj q;;R ;[zG‘;j WEYWYGWR ­YG;Rj‘ GR K’; UQXK’n F‘ W Y;‘X:KI K’;
­YQO K’; z;RK;Y Q­ WR WRzG;RK ­;XjW: ‘QzG;K]I K»Q »W^;‘ Q­ zQ:QRGW:G‘O zWO; GRKQ ;zQRQOGz
W:‘Q ­QXRj ^GYKX; GR ”RQ»:;jE;n S’;] »;Y; »;:: W‘ »;:: W‘ éQ:GKGzW: qW:WRz;n ©R K’; ;RjI qQK’ »;Y;
;jXzWK;j WRj ’Wj zQO; KQ K’; N;» xQY:j j;K;Y¡ KQ ‘Xq‘zYGq; KQ W ‘éGYGK Q­ ;!XW:GK] qW‘;j QR W
OGR;j KQ ;‘KWq:G‘’ WRj RQXYG‘’ WR GRK;::;zKXW: YWKGQRW:G‘O GR »’Gz’ ‘;Y^Gz; KQ OWR G‘ KW”;R W‘
zQOOXRGK]n S’;] KW[;j K’;O‘;:^;‘ KQ ­QXRj K’; éYQé;Y éWK’ KQ é;Y‘QRW: zQO­QYK WRj ‘;zXYGK]n
‘z’QQ:‘ WRj zQ::;E;‘ KQ éYQ^Gj; ;jXzWKGQRW:
QééQYKXRGKG;‘ ­QY K’;GY z’G:jY;R K’WK zQX:j QR:] S’; R;» FO;YGzWR »W‘ W ‘]RK’;‘G‘ Q­ W:: Q­
’W^; q;;R Wz!XGY;j q] GR’;YGKWRz; GR kRE:WRjn K’; ‘KYXEE:;‘ ­QY GRK;::;zKXW: WRj ‘éGYGKXW: ­Y;;jQO
S’; E;R;YW: ;[éWR‘GQR Q­ ”RQ»:;jE; K’WK WRj ;zQRQOGz QééQYKXRGK] K’WK ’Wj q;;R zQR¡
­Q::Q»;j éYQ^;j K’WK j;^QKGQR KQ K’; Wz!XG‘GKGQR KWGR;j ­QY z;RKXYG;‘ q;R;WK’ K’; ’WYj;R;j WRj
éQ:G‘’;j ‘XY­Wz;‘ Q­ K’; ;‘KWq:G‘’;j ‘QzGW: WRj

2
DY5V0W)4 d5—0L4 .Ô20W

Downloaded from http://direct.mit.edu/books/book/chapter-pdf/1894193/9780262368100_c000200.pdf by guest on 08 May 2021


;zQRQOGz ‘KYXzKXY;‘ Q­ K’; m:j xQY:jn S’G‘ O;z’WRGzI WRj ;^;Y] ’QO; »W‘ W OWRX­WzKQY]
éYQKQK]é; zGKG$;R Q­ K’; N;» xQY:j »W‘ KYX‘KGRE GR »’Gz’ WjX:K‘ WRj z’G:jY;R »QY”;j KQE;K’;Y
qXK RQK EX::Gq:;I ’QR;‘K qXK ‘’Y;»jI ­YG;Rj:] ];K KQ ‘;Y^; K’;GY Q»R R;;j‘n FRj W ­WOG:] K’WK »W‘
zWXKGQX‘I WRj W‘ !XGz” »GKK;j W‘ ’; »W‘ j;:Gq;Y¡ OQY; jG:GE;RK QY ”RQ»:;jE;Wq:; GR QR; ’QO;
WK;n 6; OW] ’W^; q;;R éQQYI qXK ’; »W‘ RQ GRjX‘KY] QY WRQK’;Y zQX:j qWYK;Y QY ‘;:: GK‘ ‘XYé:X‘
:QRE;Y ­;KK;Y;j KQ :WRj WRj :WRj:QYjn 6; »W‘ éYQjXzK‘ KQ QK’;Y‘n
éYQXj Q­ K’; zQXYWE; K’WK ’Wj ‘;K ’GO XéQR K’G‘
jG‘KWRK :WRj WRj “;W:QX‘ Q­ K’; ­Y;;jQO K’WK ’; MWK;YI F:;[WRj;Y 6WOG:KQR j;‘zYGq;j K’; RWKGQR
’Wj zQO; KQ z:WGOn FRjI ;^;R K’QXE’ K’; E:Q»GRE W‘ *W ^W‘K ‘z;R; Q­ ’QX‘;’Q:j OWRX­WzKXY;‘I"
;Oq;Y‘ Q­ ­WOG:GWY ’WqGK‘ WRj WRzG;RK zX‘KQO‘ WRj SQz!X;^G::; Y;zQERG$;j ^;Y‘WKG:GK] W‘ W ‘é;¡
OGE’K q; ­WRR;j GRKQ ­:WO; »’;R;^;Y ’; éWX‘;j zGW: WRj ;^;R XRG!X; !XW:GK] Q­ K’; zQ:QRGW:‘n
KQ Y;‘K QY Y;­:;zKI K’; ’WY‘’ Y;W:GKG;‘ Q­ K’; ‘KYXEE:; F:K’QXE’ ’; Wz”RQ»:;jE;j K’WK //K’G‘ zGYzXO¡
KQ ‘XY^G^; GR WR ;R^GYQRO;RK K’WK »W‘ W‘ ’Q‘KG:; ‘KWRz; G‘ éY;“XjGzGW: KQ K’; ;[z;::;Rz; Q­ K’;
W‘ GK »W‘ WqXRjWRK KWXE’K ’GO KQ Y;‘é;zK WRj »QY”I" SQz!X;^G::; ‘WGj K’WK GK *éQ»;Y­X::] zQR¡
j;é;Rj XéQR ’G‘ Q»R é’]‘GzW: WRj GRK;::;zKXW: KYGqXK;‘ KQ W»W”;R K’; GRK;::GE;Rz; Q­ K’; »QY”¡
éQ»;Y‘n ©R zQRKYW‘K KQ K’; ;[QYqGKWRK zQR‘XOéKGQR OWR" WRj K’WK * G­ K’; FO;YGzWR q; :;‘‘ é;Y­;zK
Q­ K’; ;R;YE] Q­ K’Q‘; »QY”O;R GR kXYQé; »’Q GR ;Wz’ zYW­K K’WR K’; kXYQé;WRI WK :;W‘K K’;Y;
:WqQY;j GR é;RXY] WRj é;QRWE; GR K’; ‘;Y^Gz; G‘ ‘zWYz;:] WR] KYWj; »GK’ »’Gz’ ’; G‘ XKK;Y:] XR¡
Q­ éQ:GKGzW: WRj Y;:GEGQX‘ WYG‘KQzYWzG;‘I K’; zQ:QRGW: Wz!XWGRK;jn" y41I ©I gau S’X‘I K’; R;» FO;YGzWR
­Y;;OWR ’Wj :GOGK:;‘‘ YGz’;‘ :WGj QXK q;­QY; ’GO ­QXRj ’G‘ ‘;zXYGK] ;R‘XY;j RQK q] W :G­;KGO;
G­ ’; QR:] ’Wj K’; GRE;RXGK] WRj ;R;YE] KQ z:WGO zQOOGKO;RK KQ W ‘GRE:; zYW­K QY ‘”G::I qXK q] W ^;Y¡
K’;On ‘WKG:GK] K’WK Y;jXz;j K’; jWRE;Y Q­ QzzXéWKGQRW:
;R‘:W^;O;RKn 6G‘ ;[é;YG;Rz;‘ W:QRE K’; ­YQRKG;Y
S’; YGEQY‘ Q­ K’; ­YQRKG;Y jGj RQK ;RzQXYWE; ‘KGOX:WK;j K’; !XW:GKG;‘ Q­ ‘;:­ Y;:GWRz; WRj
K’; jG‘‘GéWKGQR Q­ ;R;YE] K’WK »W‘ RQK OWK;YGW::] ­WGK’ GR GRj;é;Rj;RK WzKGQRn
Y;»WYjGREn ©K G‘ XRj;Y‘KWRjWq:; K’WK ‘QO; é;Qé:;
YQOWRKGzG$; K’; ;WY:] ­YQRKG;Y ‘;KK:;Y‘ W‘ j;é;R¡ S’; ­YQRKG;Y ‘;KK:;Y‘ Y;W:G$;j !XGz”:] K’WK zQXYWE;
j;RK XéQR ’XOq:; ’WRjGzYW­K‘I ‘XEE;‘KGRE K’WK WRj WR GRj;é;Rj;RK ‘éGYGK »QX:j RQK GR K’;O¡
K’;] »;Y; XRW»WY; Q­ K’; K;z’RQ:QE] Q­ K’; ‘;^;R¡ ‘;:^;‘ ;R‘XY; ‘Xzz;‘‘n F:K’QXE’ K’; GOé:;O;RK‘
K;;RK’ z;RKXY]n 6Q»;^;YI K’;Y; »W‘ RQ EY;WK EWé qYQXE’K ­YQO kXYQé; OW] ’W^; q;;R WééYQéYG¡
GR W^WG:WqG:GK] Q­ GOé:;O;RK‘ WRj OWz’GR;‘ q;¡ WK; ­QY K’; ‘OW::;Y é:QK‘ Q­ :WRj WRj K’; :GOGK;j
K»;;R K’; YXYW: zYW­K‘OWR WRj K’; XYqWR WYKG‘WRn »QQj‘ Q­ kRE:WRj WRj K’; bQRKGR;RKI K’;] éYQ^;j
pQK’ ”R;» WRj X‘;j KQQ:‘ WRj OWz’GR;‘ KQ :;‘‘ K’WR Wj;!XWK; GR K’; FO;YGzWR »G:j;YR;‘‘n
‘Xéé:;O;RK ’XOWR WRj WRGOW: OX‘z:; »GK’ K’; cYG^;R q] K’; éY;‘‘ Q­ ‘XY^G^W: WRj K’; éYQOG‘;
RWKXYW: ­QYz;‘ Q­ »GRj WRj »WK;Yn Q­ RWKXYW: YGz’;‘ KQ q; ’Wj ­QY K’; KW”GREI K’;
zQ:QRG‘K‘ »;Y; Qq:GE;j KQ WjWéK K’;GY KQQ:‘ WRj
F»W] ­YQO K’; OQY; ‘Qé’G‘KGzWK;j KYWj;‘ Q­ »;WéQR‘n
K’; zQ:QRGW: KQ»R‘I K’; éGQR;;Y FO;YGzWR :;WYR;j
!XGz”:] K’WK ‘XY^G^W: GR K’; »G:j;YR;‘‘ j;é;Rj;j S’; ­GY‘K GOé:;O;RK‘ KQ ‘’Q» K’; GR­:X;Rz; Q­ K’;
XéQR ”RQ»:;jE; Q­ K’Q‘; KYWj;‘ K’WK »;Y; ;‘¡ R;» ;R^GYQRO;RK »;Y; K’; »;WéQR‘ K’WK »;Y;
‘;RKGW: KQ ­YQRKG;Y :G^GREI ‘Xz’ W‘ ’XRKGREI ­G‘’GREI ;‘‘;RKGW: ­QY j;­;R‘; WRj K’; ’XRKI K’; GOé:;¡
­WYOGREI :XOq;YGREI WRGOW: ’X‘qWRjY]I q:Wz” O;RK‘ K’WK »;Y; R;z;‘‘WY] ­QY z:;WYGRE K’; :WRj
‘OGK’GREI WRj zWYé;RKY]n 6; »W‘ Qq:GE;j KQ z:;WY WRj »QY”GRE K’; ‘QG:I WRj K’; KQQ:‘ R;;j;j KQ
WRj é:WRK ’G‘ Q»R :WRjI KQ zQR‘KYXzK W ‘’;:K;YI qXG:j ‘’;:K;Y‘I éY;éWY; ­QQjI WRj OW”; z:QK’GREn
KQ ­WqYGzWK; WRj Y;éWGY ’G‘ Q»R GOé:;O;RK‘I WRj x’;R WR GOé:;O;RK KXYR;j QXK KQ q; GRWj;!XWK;I
KQ OW”; ’WYR;‘‘;‘ ­QY ’G‘ WRGOW:‘ WRj ‘’Q;‘ ­QY »W‘ qYQ”;R GR X‘;I QY ‘GOé:] »QY; QXKI GK »W‘
’GO‘;:­ WRj ’G‘ ­WOG:]n 6; ‘’;WY;j »QQ: WRj EY;» Y;é:Wz;j »GK’ W R;» QR; éWKK;YR;j W­K;Y K’; QYGE¡
­:W[ ‘Q K’WK K’; »QO;R­Q:” zQX:j ‘éGR WRj »;W^; GRW:n k^;Y] KGO; K’G‘ »W‘ jQR;I K’; Y;é:Wz;O;RK
:GR‘;] »QQ:‘;] WRj QK’;Y ’QO;‘éXR ­WqYGz‘ ­QY »W‘ OQjG­G;j GR QR; »W] QY WRQK’;Y GR Y;‘éQR‘;
z:QK’GRE WRj :GR;R‘n k^;Y] ­WYO;Y »W‘ ’G‘ Q»R KQ ;[é;YG;Rz; ‘Q K’WK GK zQX:j ‘;Y^; q;KK;Y »GK’

g
H25 GQéQ405—

Downloaded from http://direct.mit.edu/books/book/chapter-pdf/1894193/9780262368100_c000200.pdf by guest on 08 May 2021


LSD qSIHHDVGD (z \?>*M*IH
MV 'SD yDì J(>HA8 MVqH?AZ
MVG 'SD qHDI>MVG (z 'SD ìMHZ
AD>VD\\ IVA 'SD ’?MHAMVG
(z I S(UD8 DVq(?>IGDA
MV*DV'M*DVD\\ IVA ADZ
UIVADA *D>\I'MHM'Ì6 u(HZ
HDq'M(V (z yDì B(>; C?’HMq
bM’>I>Ì6
t*D>Ì z>(V'MD> S(UD ìI\ I
UIV?zIq'(>Ì6 J(UDV \)?V
ì((H (V 'SD G>DI' ìSDDH
IVA ì(?VA M' (V 'SD >DDH8
(> \)?V zHI» '( ’D ì(Z
*DV MV'( HMVDV qH('S6 LSD
ì((ADV U(>'I> ìI\ ?\DA
'( )(?VA q(>V MV'( 'SD
UDIH 'SI' '((; 'SD )HIqD
(z ìSDI' zH(?>6 6WYé;Y«‘
vQRK’:]I ,IV?I>Ì 5ehh6

(
DY5V0W)4 d5—0L4 .Ô20W

Downloaded from http://direct.mit.edu/books/book/chapter-pdf/1894193/9780262368100_c000200.pdf by guest on 08 May 2021


GOéYQ^;j zQO­QYKI OQY; ;­­GzG;Rz] WRj ‘é;;jI S’; W[;I K’; ‘z]K’;I WRj K’; YG­:; WY; QR:] K’Y;;
QY :;‘‘ Q­ W é’]‘GzW: j;OWRjn S’G‘ :;j KQ WR Q­ K’; OWR] éYQjXzK‘ K’WK »;Y; Y;­GR;j q] K’;
XRj;Y‘KWRjGREI qW‘;j XéQR é;Y‘QRW: ;[é;YG;Rz;I zQ:QRG‘K‘n ,YQO K’; ^;Y] q;EGRRGRE Q­ zQ:QR¡
Q­ K’; »W] ­XRzKGQR zWR q; GOéYQ^;j q] K’; Y;¡ G$WKGQRI K’; FO;YGzWR‘ »;Y; éYWzKGzGRE ;XK’;RGz‘I
­GR;O;RK Q­ ­QYOn K’; j;^;:QéO;RK Q­ ’XOWR »;:: q;GRE WRj ;­­G¡
zG;RK ­XRzKGQRGRE K’YQXE’ K’; GOéYQ^;O;RK Q­ K’;
S’; ‘KXqq] KY;; ­;::GRE W[; Q­ kXYQé; »W‘ QR; ;R^GYQRO;RKn c;‘GER? K’; zQRK;OéQYWY] ;OqQj¡
Q­ K’; ­GY‘K KQQ:‘ KQ q; W:K;Y;j q] K’; FO;YGzWR GO;RK Q­ K’G‘ éYGRzGé:;? G‘ zQRz;YR;j »GK’ K’;
»QQj‘OWRn 6; GRzY;W‘;j K’; »;GE’K Q­ K’; éQ:: ’XOWR; !XW:GK] Q­ K’; OWR OWj; ;R^GYQRO;RKn ©K
yK’; q:XRK ;Rj Q­ K’; ’;Wj ­QY q;KK;Y qW:WRz; ­XYK’;Y W‘‘XO;‘ K’WK K’;Y; G‘ W jGY;zK zQYY;:WKGQR
‘Q K’WK K’; W[; zQX:j q; ‘»XRE OQY; ­Y;;:] WRj q;K»;;R K’WK !XW:GK] WRj K’; ;:;EWRz; Q­ K’; ­QYO
WzzXYWK;:]I WRj GR ‘QO; zW‘;‘ ’; Y;é:Wz;j K’; K’WK GK KW”;‘n p;R“WOGR ,YWR”:GR ’Wj WRKGzGéWK;j
éQ:: »GK’ W ‘;zQRj zXKKGRE ;jE; K’WK ;RWq:;j ’GO K’; éYGRzGé:; Q­ ­XRzKGQRW:G‘O W‘ K’; Y;:WKGQR Q­
KQ »QY” K»Gz; W‘ :QRE GR K’; ­QY;‘K »GK’QXK ’W^GRE q;WXK] KQ XKG:GK] »’;R ’; »YQK; KQ b’WY:;‘ xG:‘QR
KQ ‘KQé KQ Y;‘’WYé;Rn 6; W:‘Q :;REK’;R;j WRj w;W:; K’WK *K’; GR^;RKGQR Q­ W OWz’GR; QY K’;
Y;‘’Wé;j WRj zXY^;j K’; ’WRj:; ‘Q K’WK ’; zQX:j GOéYQ^;O;RK Q­ WR GOé:;O;RK G‘ Q­ OQY; GOéQY¡
’WRj:; K’; GRzY;W‘;j »;GE’K »GK’ EY;WK;Y éQ»;YI KWRz; K’WR W OW‘K;YéG;z; Q­ LWé’W;:n n n n RQK’GRE
zQO­QYKI WRj ;­­GzG;Rz]n S’; FO;YGzWR W[; G‘ EQQj QY q;WXKG­X: qXK GR K’; O;W‘XY; K’WK GK G‘
q;zWO; Y;RQ»R;j ­QY GK‘ ­XRzKGQRW: é;Y­;zKGQRn X‘;­X:n n n n" y99I D xGK’ K’WK ‘GOé:; ;[éY;‘‘GQR
,YWR”:GR zWéKXY;j K’; ;‘‘;Rz; Q­ K’; FO;YGzWR
S’; ‘’QYKI ‘KG­­ ‘z]K’; Q­ kXYQé; »W‘ OQjG­G;j j;‘GER ;K’Gz K’WK ’W‘ é;Y‘G‘K;j RQ» ­QY OQY; K’WR
q] K’; FO;YGzWR ­WYO;Y ‘Q K’WK ’; zQX:j ‘KWRj K»Q z;RKXYG;‘n ,YWR”:GR »W‘ XRjQXqK;j:] ­WOG:GWY
‘KYWGE’K;Y GR K’; ­G;:j WRj »QY” :QRE;Y »GK’QXK »GK’ K’; Qq‘;Y^WKGQR Q­ ’G‘ zQYY;‘éQRj;RK xG::GWO
KGYGREn 6; :;REK’;R;j WRj zXY^;j K’; q:Wj; ‘Q 6QEWYK’ GR K’; ;‘‘W] *FRW:]‘G‘ Q­ p;WXK]"
K’WK ’; zQX:j Y;Wz’ WRj ’Q:j OQY; ‘KW:”‘ Q­ EYWGR yMQRjQRI a9ge K’WK * GR RWKXY;«‘ OWz’GR;‘ ’Q»
­QY zXKKGREn S’; FO;YGzWR ‘z]K’; q;zWO; W »QRj;Y­X::] jQ »; ‘;; q;WXK] WRj X‘; EQ ’WRj
EYWz;­X: GOé:;O;RK K’WK zQOé:;O;RK;j K’; ­WYO¡ GR ’WRjn" NQ éYGRzGé:; Q­ j;‘GER GR FO;YGzW G‘
;Y«‘ RWKXYW: ‘»;;éGRE OQKGQR WRj ;RWq:;j ’GO ‘Q ‘KYQRE W‘ K’WK WR Qq“;zK Wz’G;^;‘ q;WXK] KQ K’;
KQ zXK W z:;WR;Y WRj »Gj;Y ‘»WK’n ©R K’; ;GE’¡ ‘WO; j;EY;; KQ »’Gz’ GK ‘;Y^;‘ GK‘ ­XRzKGQRn p]
K;;RK’ z;RKXY] W zYWj:; »W‘ Wjj;j ‘Q K’WK K’; zXK K’G‘ é’G:Q‘Qé’] GK OW] q; W‘‘XO;j K’WK ;^;Y]
EYWGR zQX:j q; :WGj W‘Gj; GR R;WK YQ»‘ KQ q; EWK’¡ éYQjXzK G‘ zQR‘KWRK:] ‘KYG^GRE KQ Wz’G;^; K’;
;Y;j OQY; ;W‘G:] »GK’ :;‘‘ :Q‘‘n é;Y­;zK WRj K’;Y;­QY; q;WXKG­X: K]é;­QYO Q­ GK‘
p] K’; OGj a9uu‘I 8;YOWR EXR‘OGK’‘ GR z;RKYW: ‘é;zG;‘n
w;RR‘]:^WRGW ’Wj zY;WK;j W YG­:; »GK’ WR XR¡ S’; éYGRzGé:; Q­ q;WXK] W‘ K’; RWKXYW: q] éYQjXzK
X‘XW::] :QRE qWYY;: K’WKI »GK’ W qW:: »YWéé;j GR Q­ ­XRzKGQRW: Y;­GR;O;RK »W‘ EG^;R WjjGKGQRW:
W EY;W‘;j éWKz’I éYQ^Gj;j K’; WzzXYWz] K’WK »W‘ O;WRGRE q] K’; ‘éWYKWR zGYzXO‘KWRz;‘ Q­ K’;
R;;j;j KQ qYGRE EWO; jQ»R WK :QRE YWRE; GR K’; zQ:QRGW: ;R^GYQRO;RKn ©R K’; »G:j;YR;‘‘ WRj K’;
j;R‘; ­QY;‘Kn S’G‘ ‘KYWRE; ‘KGz” Q­ W »;WéQR R;» ‘;KK:;O;RK‘ Q­ FO;YGzWI K’; zQ:QRG‘K »W‘
Qq‘Q:;K;j K’; ‘’QYK;YI ‘OQQK’ qQY; OX‘”;K‘ Q­ Qq:GE;j KQ W^QGj K’; j;^QKGQR KQ YGz’ j;KWG: WRj
K’; jW] K’WK »;Y; ­GY;j OQY; QY :;‘‘ YWRjQO:] WK ;:WqQYWK; QYRWO;RK K’WK ‘;Y^;j GR K’; Q:j;Y WYG‘¡
W KWYE;K GR K’; ’Qé; K’WK K’;] »QX:j ’GK ‘QO;¡ KQzYWzG;‘ KQ ;[WEE;YWK; K’; ^W:X; Q­ éYQjXzK‘
K’GREI QY G­ R;z;‘‘WY] ­YGE’K;R GK W»W]n S’; R;» K’YQXE’ K’; ;[KYW^WEWRK zQR‘XOéKGQR Q­ ;R;YE]n
»;WéQR KYW^;:;j »;‘K»WYj »GK’ K’; ­YQRKG;Y‘O;R S’;Y;­QY;I »’WK;^;Y ;‘K’;KGz Y;»WYj K’; FO;YG¡
WzYQ‘‘ K’; FééW:Wz’GWR‘ KQ q;zQO; K’; ­WO;j zWR »W‘ KQ j;YG^; ­YQO ’G‘ éYQjXzK‘ ’Wj KQ q;
T;RKXz”] YG­:; K’WK ‘;zXY;j K’; »W] ­QY K’; ­QXRj GR K’; ;zQRQO] Q­ O;WR‘ WRj K’; éXYG¡
‘;KK:;Y‘ WRj zQRKYGqXK;j ‘Xq‘KWRKGW::] KQ K’; zWX‘; ­GzWKGQR Q­ ­QYO KQ éXYéQ‘; WRj ­YQO K’; ‘QXRj¡
Q­ K’; zQ:QRG‘K‘ GR K’; xWY Q­ ©Rj;é;Rj;Rz;n R;‘‘ Q­ éYQéQYKGQR WRj K’; z:WYGK] Q­ ‘]OqQ:Gz
­QYO K’WK GR;^GKWq:] Y;‘X:Kn S’; RWKXYW: K;[KXY;
Q­ ’G‘ OWK;YGW:‘ WRj K’; ’QR;‘K OWY”‘ Q­ ’G‘ KQQ:‘

9
H25 GQéQ405—

Downloaded from http://direct.mit.edu/books/book/chapter-pdf/1894193/9780262368100_c000200.pdf by guest on 08 May 2021


bVQ4Ô05V—Y54 YQz0O05z Ô25
./VQj5)4 O5éé04L )>5 OQV
YQV5 5OO0W054Ô W/ÔÔ04L 04
Ô25 z54—5 OQV5—Ô— QO NQVÔ2
DY5V0W)s GQ/VÔ5—{ QO
.——5> C4—Ô0Ô/Ô5 k)é5Y
’)——)W2/—5ÔÔ—s
H25 —2QVÔt2)4zé5z JVQ)z
)>5 ')— —2)j5z '0Ô2 )4
QOO—5Ô Jé)z5 )4z )4 )4Lé5z
2)4zé5 ÔQ 54)Jé5 Ô25
J/0éz5V ÔQ 2)4zt25' éQL—
04ÔQ —8/)V5 Ô0YJ5V— OQV
WQ4—ÔV/WÔ0Q4s C4z5> QO
DY5V0W)4 d5—0L4 N)Ô0Q4)é
A)éé5V{ QO DVÔs

)
DY5V0W)4 d5—0L4 .Ô20W

Downloaded from http://direct.mit.edu/books/book/chapter-pdf/1894193/9780262368100_c000200.pdf by guest on 08 May 2021


H25 ./VQj5)4 —W{Ô25 ')—
YQz0O05z /4Ô0é 0Ô ')— )z$
Y0V)Jé{ —/0Ô5z ÔQ 4)Ô/V)é
JQz{ YQû5Y54Ô—s C4 Ô25
45>Ô W54Ô/V{ ) WV)zé5
'Q/éz J5 )zz5z ÔQ 04$
WV5)—5 5OO0W054W{s G)Ô)$
éQL QO d046—Q4td)û0z—Q4
v)Vz')V5 GQYj)4{s
H25 B54Ô/W6{ V0Oé5 Q'5z
0Ô— QV0L04 ÔQ Ô25 2/4Ô04L
L/4 JVQ/L2Ô ÔQ -544—{é$
û)40) J{ A5VY)4 0YY0$
LV)4Ô—s CÔ— éQ4L J)VV5é
jVQû5z YQV5 )WW/V)Ô5 OQV
L)Y5 2/4Ô04L 04 Ô25 z54—5
OQV5—Ô— QO DY5V0W)s Hs ’s
kÔ045 GQéé5WÔ0Q4 kY0Ô2$
—Q40)4 C4—Ô0Ô/Ô0Q4s

7
H25 GQéQ405—

Downloaded from http://direct.mit.edu/books/book/chapter-pdf/1894193/9780262368100_c000200.pdf by guest on 08 May 2021


»;Y; QYRWO;RK ;RQXE’ ­QY K’; ‘;KK:;Yn S’; ­GRE;Y¡ K’; W^WG:WqG:GK] Q­ zWYé;RK;Y‘n 3;­­;Y‘QR »YQK; Q­
éYGRK GR K’; z:W]I K’; ‘zWY Q­ K’; Wj$; QR K’; »QQj;R ’QO;‘ K’WK * GK G‘ GOéQ‘‘Gq:; KQ j;^G‘;
»QQj;R q;WOI K’; ­Wz;K‘ Q­ K’; ’WOO;Y QR K’GRE‘ OQY; XE:]I XRzQO­QYKWq:; WRjI ’WééG:]I
O;KW:I WRj K’; »WYé WRj »;­K Q­ K’; :QQO W:: éYQ¡ OQY; é;YG‘’Wq:;n" 6; q;:G;^;j K’WK qXG:jGRE‘
^Gj;j K’; j;OQzYWKG$GRE :GR” K’WK qQXRj OW”;Y OWj; Q­ é;YOWR;RK OWK;YGW:‘ Wjj;j é;YOWR;RK
WRj zQR‘XO;Y KQ éYQjXzKn S’G‘ éY;­;Y;Rz; ­QY ^W:X; KQ K’; ‘KWK;I »’;Y;W‘ K’Q‘; qXG:K Q­ é;YG‘’¡
*RWKXYW:" K;[KXY;‘ W‘ K’; *’QR;‘K" ‘XY­Wz;‘ Wq:; »QQj jGj RQKn ©K G‘ GRK;Y;‘KGRE KQ ‘é;zX:WK;
Q­ O;KW:I »QQjI ‘KQR;I qYGz”I WRj ­WqYGz G‘ ‘KG:: »’;K’;Y K’; FO;YGzWR zQRz;éK Q­ Qq‘Q:;‘z;Rz;
éY;­;YY;j KQ WYqGKYWY] éWKK;YRGRE GR FO;YGzWn UXz’ W‘ ;^Gj;Rz; Q­ éYQEY;‘‘ OW] RQK ’W^; q;;R
QK’;Y j;zQYWKG^; ;:;O;RK‘ W‘ OW] Wéé;WY ­YQO Y;:WK;j KQ K’; zQ:QRG‘K‘« j;é;Rj;Rz; XéQR »QQj
KGO; KQ KGO; zWYYG;j W j;;é;Y ‘]OqQ:Gz O;WRGRE W‘ K’; éYGOWY] OWK;YGW: ­QY j»;::GRE‘ WRj Qq“;zK‘n
q;]QRj K’; ^G‘XW: ;RK;YKWGRO;RK K’WK K’;] OW]
éYQ^Gj; KQjW]n S’; ‘éWY; XKG:GKWYGWR Qq“;zK‘ WRj K’; XR‘Qé’G‘¡
KGzWK;j ­Q:” WYK‘ Q­ K’; YXYW: zQ:QRG‘K‘ »;Y; Q­K;R
©K G‘ XRj;Y‘KWRjWq:; K’WK OXz’ Q­ K’; K;z’RQ:QE] j;O;WR;j q] K’; éWKYGzGWR‘ Q­ FO;YGzW WRj
Q­ zQ:QRGW: FO;YGzW ‘’QX:j ’W^; q;;R qW‘;j QR kRE:WRj W‘ *zQXRKY] OWj;" WRj K’;Y;­QY; j;^QGj
»QQjn S’;Y; »W‘ W RWKXYW: Y;:WKGQR‘’Gé q;K»;;R Q­ W;‘K’;KGz ^W:X;n S’; ­WzKI ’Q»;^;YI G‘ K’WK W
K’; ^W‘KR;‘‘I ^WYG;K]I WRj ^;Y‘WKG:GK] Q­ »QQj j;OQzYWKGz WYK ­QYO »W‘ q;EGRRGRE KQ ;O;YE;
WRj K’; WOQXRK WRj !XW:GK] Q­ ;R;YE] K’WK K’; GR K’; Y;‘;Y^; Q­ zQ:QRG‘K‘« qXG:jGRE‘ WRj ­XYRG‘’¡
zQ:QRG‘K R;;j;j KQ »QY” K’G‘ WqXRjWRK OWK;YGW:n GRE‘I K’; ‘GOé:; ;:;EWRz; Q­ K’;GY GOé:;O;RK‘I
S’; ‘Q­K »QQj‘ ‘Xz’ W‘ éGR;I ­GYI WRj z;jWY WRj K’; jGY;zK GRRQz;Rz; Q­ K’;GY ‘GER‘ WRj
éYQ^Gj;j qXG:j;Y‘ »GK’ W :GE’K ];K ‘KG­­ OWK;YGW: K’WK ‘]OqQ:‘n
»W‘ Y;WjG:] ‘’Wé;j GRKQ zQR‘KYXzKGQR OWK;YGW:‘
WRj W‘‘;Oq:;j GRKQ éXq:Gz qXG:jGRE‘ WRj éYG^WK; S’; ­GY‘K ‘KY;WO Q­ FO;YGzWR j;‘GER zQR‘zGQX‘¡
j»;::GRE‘n S’; :;WR KQ‘ Q­ K’; kRE:G‘’ wG:EYGO‘I R;‘‘ »W‘ YQQK;j GR ‘Xz’ ;OéGYGzW: WRj XRéY;K;R¡
K’; :QE zWqGR‘ Q­ K’; U»;jG‘’ GOOGEYWRK‘I WRj KGQX‘ WjWéKWKGQR‘ KQ K’; ;[GE;RzG;‘ Q­ :G­; W:QRE
OQ‘K Q­ K’; :WK;Y ‘KYXzKXY;‘ Q­ K’; zQ:QRG;‘ »;Y; K’; ­YQRKG;Y‘ Q­ K’; N;» xQY:jn vQY;Q^;YI W‘ K’;
qXG:K »GK’ »QQjn xQQj »W‘ Q­K;R X‘;j W‘ W ‘Xq¡ zQ:QRG‘K‘ q;zWO; jG‘;Rz’WRK;j »GK’ K’; ;zQ¡
‘KGKXK; ­QY OW‘QRY]J ­QY ;[WOé:;I K’; 8;YOWR RQOGz WRj éQ:GKGzW: q;’W^GQY Q­ K’; pYGKG‘’ GK
GOOGEYWRK‘ KYWR‘­QYO;j K’; ‘KQR; qWYR‘ Q­ K’;GY q;zWO; GRzY;W‘GRE:] éWKYGQKGz ­QY K’;O KQ j;é;Rj
RWKG^; :WRj GRKQ K’; OWERG­Gz;RK »QQj;R qWYR‘ XéQR RWKG^; Gj;W‘ WRj ;[éY;‘‘GQR‘ Q­ ’XOq:;Y
K’WK ‘KG:: EYWz; K’; w;RR‘]:^WRGW zQXRKY]‘Gj;n QYGEGRn MWK;Y K’; N;» kRE:WRj SYWR‘z;Rj;RKW:G‘K‘
bWqGR;KOW”;Y‘ WRj “QGR;Y‘ qXG:K ­XYRGKXY; K’WK »QX:j W­­GYO K’; éYGRzGé:; K’WK K’; KYX; FO;YGzWR
OWj; ;[z;::;RK X‘; Q­ K’; ‘KY;REK’I zQ:QYI WRj ;[éY;‘‘GQR OX‘K zQO; ­YQO »GK’GR YWK’;Y K’WR
EYWGR Q­ ’WYj »QQj‘ ‘Xz’ W‘ OWé:;I z’;YY]I WRj q; EWYq;j GR qQYYQ»;j YWGO;RKn
»W:RXKn SQXE’ WRj ‘GR;»] »QQj‘ ‘Xz’ W‘ W‘’I x’G:; 3;WR 3Wz!X;‘ LQX‘‘;WX y»’Q‘; é’G:Q‘¡
’Gz”QY]I WRj QW” »;Y; ­QXRj KQ q; é;Y­;zK ­QY Qé’] »W‘ »;:: ”RQ»R KQ zQ:QRGW: GRK;::;zKXW:‘ WRj
:GE’K;Y ­XYRGKXY;I ­WYO GOé:;O;RK‘I WRj zWYK‘n S’; QK’;Y kXYQé;WR ‘QzGW: é’G:Q‘Qé’;Y‘ Q­ K’; KGO;
bQR;‘KQEW »WEQR‘ Q­ w;RR‘]:^WRGWI K’; ‘z’QQ¡ »;Y; ­QYOX:WKGRE K’;QYG;‘ qW‘;j QR K’; éY;OG‘;
R;Y‘ WjWéK;j KQ FO;YGzWR »GRj‘ WRj »WK;Y‘I WRj
K’; *KQé‘WG:" ^;‘‘;:‘ ­QY Qz;WR KYW^;: »QX:j R;^;Y K’WK QR:] W Y;KXYR KQ K’; RWKXYW: OWR WRj W ‘GO¡
é:;Y »W] Q­ :G­; »QX:j YGj zG^G:G$WKGQR Q­ GK‘ jG‘KQY¡
’W^; q;;R qXG:K GR ‘Xz’ !XWRKGKG;‘ GR K’; zQ:QRG;‘ KGQR‘ WRj Y;:;W‘; WR;» K’Q‘; éYGOWY] ^GYKX;‘
»;Y; GK RQK ­QY K’; W^WG:WqG:GK] Q­ »QQjn XéQR »’Gz’ W EQQj WRj ‘QXRj ‘QzG;K] j;é;Rj‘I
UKG::I ‘QO; FO;YGzWR‘ »;Y; zQRz;YR;j Q^;Y K’;GY zQRz;éK‘ »;Y; q;GRE éXK KQ K’; K;‘K GR¡
K’; K;Rj;Rz] KQ OW”; ;^;Y]K’GRE QXK Q­ »QQjn ‘KGRzKG^;:] GR K’; jG‘KWRK »G:j;YR;‘‘ WRj ‘;KK:;¡
S’QOW‘ 3;­­;Y‘QR j;é:QY;j K’; * XR’Wéé] éY;“X¡ O;RK‘n x’G:; K’; K’;QYG‘K‘ »;Y; »WYRGRE K’WK K’;
jGz;" Q­ K’; KGO; K’WK ‘KQR; WRj OW‘QRY] ’QO;‘ WYK‘ ’Wj q;zQO; j;zWj;RK GR K’; ‘;Y^Gz; Q­ j;‘¡
»;Y; XR’;W:K’] KQ :G^; GR W‘ W zQR^;RG;RK é’G¡ éQKG‘O WRj é:;WjGRE K’WK QR:] W Y;KXYR KQ K’;
:Q‘Qé’] K’WK Y;­:;zK;j K’; z’;WéR;‘‘ Q­ »QQj WRj ‘GOé:;Y ­QYO‘ Q­ RWKXY; »QX:j YGj zG^G:G$WKGQR Q­

94
DY5V0W)4 d5—0L4 .Ô20W

Downloaded from http://direct.mit.edu/books/book/chapter-pdf/1894193/9780262368100_c000200.pdf by guest on 08 May 2021


C4 O/4WÔ0Q4)é OQVY Ô25
GQ45—ÔQL) ')LQ4 OVQY
-544—{éû)40) ')— Ô25
50L2Ô554Ô2tW54Ô/V{ 58/0û$
)é54Ô QO YQz5V4 ÔV)0é5V
2QY5—s C4z5> QO DY5V0W)4
d5—0L4 N)Ô0Q4)é A)éé5V{
QO DVÔs

oo
H25 GQéQ405—

Downloaded from http://direct.mit.edu/books/book/chapter-pdf/1894193/9780262368100_c000200.pdf by guest on 08 May 2021


fXG EH—= -. uxB(=—HJ

GK‘ jG‘KQYKGQR‘I K’; ­QXRjWKGQR ­QY W ‘GOé:;Y ;EW:G¡ CO '5 Q4W5 LV)4Ô Ô25 jV04W0jé5 QO Ô25 z0û0—0Q4 QO
KWYGWR ‘QzG;K] »W‘ q;GRE :WGj GR NQYK’ FO;YGzWn é)JQ/V Ô254 0Ô OQééQ'— Ô2)Ô Q45 Y)4 W)4 é0û5 Q4é{
S’; R;» FO;YGzWR‘ ’Wj W:Y;Wj] q;EXR KQ ;[’GqGK J{ O04z04L Q/Ô '2)Ô QÔ25V Y54 ')4Ô
K’;GY XRG!X; WqG:GK] KQ Y;WzK ;OéGYGzW::] KQ K’; FYRQ:j SQ]Rq;;I a44e y49I g1
;[GE;RzG;‘ Q­ K’;GY ;R^GYQRO;RKI WRj »;Y; RQK
XR»G::GRE KQ :;W^; GK KQ QK’;Y‘ KQ ­QYOX:WK; K’;QYG;‘
KQ ;[é:WGR K’;GY WzKGQRn S’;Y; G‘ W é;Y‘G‘K;RK K;Rj;Rz] KQ YQOWRKGzG$;
K’; zQ:QRGW: ;YW W‘ W é;YGQj »’;R XRG!X; Qq“;zK‘
FRQK’;Y ‘QzGW: é’G:Q‘Qé’;Y Q­ K’; KGO;I 3Q’WRR »;Y; ­WqYGzWK;j q] ’XOq:; zYW­K‘O;R ;Oé:Q]GRE
6;Yj;YI éYQéQ‘;j K’WK K’; ­GR; WYK‘ OX‘K ‘éYGRE !XWGRK O;K’Qj‘ YQQK;j GR WRKG!XGK]n ©K G‘ OQY;
q] éXYG­GzWKGQR ­YQO K’; éQéX:WY WYK‘n S’G‘ q;:G;­ WzzXYWK; KQ RQK; K’WK K’; zQ:QRGW: WYKG‘WR‘ »;Y;
K’WK OWR OWj; ­QYO‘ OX‘K q; Y;‘é;zK;j Wz¡ W‘ j;K;YOGR;j KQ éXK K’; OQ‘K Y;z;RK K;z’RQ:QEG¡
zQYjGRE KQ K’;GY j;^QKGQR KQ ’XOWR R;;j‘ q;­QY; zW: jG‘zQ^;YG;‘ KQ éYWzKGzW: X‘; W‘ K’;] »;Y; KQ
K’;] OW] q; Y;^;Y;j W‘ W;‘K’;KGz ;[éY;‘‘GQR G‘ WjQéK K’; :WK;‘K ‘K]:;‘ ­QY K’;GY éYQjXzK‘n S’;]
;RKGY;:] zQR‘G‘K;RK »GK’ K’; WKKGKXj; Q­ FO;YGzWR‘ »;Y; E;R;YW::] W»WY; K’WK K’; ”RQ»:;jE;
KQ»WYj K’; Qq“;zK‘ K’WK ‘;Y^; K’;Oh K’WK K’; Wz!XGY;j ­YQO K’; ;O;YEGRE ‘zG;Rz;‘I G­ Wéé:G;j
jWG:] WYK‘ WRj ­Q:” ;[éY;‘‘GQR OX‘K Y;KWGR K’;GY KQ K’;GY zYW­KI zQX:j GRzY;W‘; K’;GY zWéWzGK] ­QY
RWG^;KËI K’WK WR] WKK;OéK KQ KYWR‘­QYO K’;O GRKQ éYQjXzKGQR WRj W::Q» KGO; KQ GOéYQ^; K’;GY O;K’¡
­GR; WYK j;‘KYQ]‘ K’; ;:Q!X;RK ­YWEG:GK] K’WK EW^; Qj‘ Q­ »QY” GR QYj;Y KQ éYQjXz; q;KK;Y éYQjXzK‘
K’;O K’;GY ^W:X; GR K’; ­GY‘K é:Wz;I WRj K’WK K’;Y;¡ OQY; ;zQRQOGzW::] WRj KQ ‘;WYz’ ­QY K’Q‘; R;»
­QY; K’;] zWR ’W^; ^W:X; QR:] KQ K’; j;EY;; KQ éYQjXzK‘ KQ OWRX­WzKXY; K’WK éYQOG‘;j W EY;WK;Y
»’Gz’ K’;] Y;OWGR ^W:Gj GR ‘QXYz;I éXY; GR j;‘GERI Y;KXYR QR K’;GY GR^;‘KO;RK Q­ ;R;YE] WRj
WRj XRWjX:K;YWK;j q] OW‘‘ éYQjXzKGQRn Y;‘QXYz;‘n
x’;R UGY ,YWRzG‘ pWzQR ‘KWK;j GR a1lu K’WK K’;
Qq“;zK Q­ ”RQ»:;jE; »W‘ KQ z’WRE; K’; ‘’Wé; Q­
OWR«‘ »QY:jI ’; EW^; ­QYO KQ K’; z;RKYW: K’;O;
Q­ K’; GRjX‘KYGW: Y;^Q:XKGQRn xGK’GR K»Q ];WY‘
pWzQR«‘ ­Q::Q»;Y‘ ’Wj ­QXRj;j K’; LQ]W: UQzG;K]
Q­ MQRjQRI *KQ éYQOQK; K’; »;:­WY; Q­ K’; FYK‘
WRj UzG;Rz;‘I" WRj ’Wj ;‘KWq:G‘’;j W jG‘KGRzKGQR
q;K»;;R K’; Wz!XG‘GKGQR WRj QYj;YGRE Q­ ”RQ»:¡
;jE; WRj K’; Wéé:GzWKGQR Q­ K’WK ”RQ»:;jE; KQ
GRjX‘KY]n S’; GOéWzK Q­ K’WK Y;^Q:XKGQR »W‘ RQK
:Q‘K QR K’; zQ:QRG;‘I j;‘éGK; pYGKG‘’ E;R;YW:¡
G$WKGQR‘ K’WK FO;YGzWR K;z’RQ:QE] j;é;Rj;j qXK
:GKK:; XéQR K’; ‘Qq;Y Y;W‘QRGRE Q­ ‘zG;Rz;n F‘
;WY:] W‘ a10uI éYG^WK; ;^;RGRE ‘z’QQ:‘ ’Wj q;;R
;‘KWq:G‘’;j GR N;» 2QY” KQ K;Wz’ K’; WééY;RKGz;‘
­QY »’QO K’; OW‘K;Y‘ »;Y; Qq:GEWK;j KQ éYQ^Gj;
WR ;:;O;RKW: ;jXzWKGQRn S’;‘; ‘z’QQ:‘ OX:KGé:G;j
W‘ WR GRzY;W‘GRE WYKG‘WR éQéX:WKGQR ‘QXE’K
WjjGKGQRW: :;WYRGREI RQK QR:] GR Y;WjGREI »YGKGREI
WRj WYGK’O;KGz qXK W:‘Q GR E;QO;KY]I KYGEQRQO;KY]I
WRj OWR] Q­ K’; OQY; ‘é;zGW:G$;j KYWj;‘n
vQ‘K Q­ K’; OW‘K;Y zYW­K‘O;R Q­ K’; KGO; »;Y;
:GK;YWK; WRj »;Y; W^Gj Y;Wj;Y‘ Q­ E;R;YW: R;»‘¡
éWé;Y‘ WRj éWOé’:;K‘n S’;] W:‘Q ‘QXE’K KQ
­XYK’;Y K’;O‘;:^;‘ q] Y;WjGRE QR ‘Xz’ ‘Xq“;zK‘
W‘ WYz’GK;zKXY; WRj qXG:jGREI zWqGR;KOW”GREI

91
DY5V0W)4 d5—0L4 .Ô20W

Downloaded from http://direct.mit.edu/books/book/chapter-pdf/1894193/9780262368100_c000200.pdf by guest on 08 May 2021


GYQR»QY”I WRj K’; QK’;Y X‘;­X: WYK‘n S’Q‘; »’Q WE;I ‘WG:‘I WRj O;KW: ­GKKGRE‘ »;Y; GOéQYK;j ­YQO
zQX:j RQK W­­QYj KQ qXG:j :GqYWYG;‘ Q­ K’;GY Q»R kRE:WRjI EYWjXW::] W:: Q­ K’;‘; zWO; KQ q; OWj;
q;zWO; O;Oq;Y‘ Q­ ‘Xq‘zYGéKGQR :GqYWYG;‘ ‘Xz’ GR K’; zQ:QRG;‘n p] K’; KGO; Q­ K’; L;^Q:XKGQR
W‘ K’Q‘; QYEWRG$;j q] K’; FO;YGzWR w’G:Q‘Qé’G¡ W:OQ‘K W K’GYj Q­ K’; pYGKG‘’ O;Yz’WRK ‘’Gé‘ »;Y;
zW: UQzG;K] GR w’G:Wj;:é’GW WRj K’; pW:KGOQY; v;¡ FO;YGzWR qXG:KI W‘ »;Y; K’; OW“QYGK] Q­ K’; ‘’Gé‘
z’WRGz‘ bQOéWR]n ©R zQRKYW‘K KQ K’; z:Q‘;:] Q»R;j WRj ‘WG:;j q] K’; FO;YGzWR‘ GR zQOé;KG¡
EXWYj;j O]‘K;YG;‘ Q­ K’; kXYQé;WR EXG:j‘I K’; KGQR »GK’ K’; pYGKG‘’n
FO;YGzWR WYKG‘WR‘ Y;W:G$;j K’WK G­ K’;] ‘’WY;j
”RQ»:;jE; ­Y;;:] »GK’ QR; WRQK’;Y K’; E;R;YW: S’; zYW­K Q­ zQWz’OW”GRE ‘;Y^;‘ W‘ WR ;[z;::;RK
‘KWK; Q­ GRjX‘KY] »QX:j q; Wj^WRz;jn qWYQO;K;Y Q­ zQ:QRGW: W­­:X;Rz;n S’; ­GRWRzGW:
WRj ’XOWR Y;‘QXYz;‘ R;z;‘‘WY] KQ qYGRE KQ¡
k^;R K’QXE’ K’; éYWzKGzW: Wéé:GzWKGQR Q­ ”RQ»:¡ E;K’;Y K’; WYKG‘WR‘ GR »QQj WRj O;KW: R;;j;j
;jE; »W‘ ;‘‘;RKGW: ­QY K’;GY ‘Xzz;‘‘I K’; zQ:QRGW: KQ zQR‘KYXzK W zWYYGWE; WRj K’; ‘”G::;j Xé’Q:‘K;Y¡
WYKG‘WR‘ WRj E;RK:;O;R j;YG^;j éWYKGzX:WY ;Y‘I :;WK’;Y»QY”;Y‘I éWGRK;Y‘I WRj j;zQYWKQY‘
EYWKG­GzWKGQR ­YQO KGR”;YGRE »GK’ OWz’GR;‘ WRj R;;j;j KQ ­GRG‘’ GK QR:] q;zWO; W^WG:Wq:; W­K;Y K’;
QK’;Y GRE;RGQX‘ j;^Gz;‘n S’; z’W::;RE; Q­ OW”GRE OGjj:; Q­ K’; ;GE’K;;RK’ z;RKXY]n ©R ‘’QYK QYj;YI
K’; ­QYz;‘ Q­ RWKXY; »QY” ­QY ’GO W»W”;R;j K’; ’Q»;^;YI FO;YGzWR‘ »;Y; qXG:jGRE zQWz’;‘I
Y;‘K:;‘‘ ‘éGYGK Q­ K’; j;‘GER;YI »’Q G‘ ­QY;^;Y z’WYGQK‘I :WRjWX‘I é’W;KQR‘I éQ‘K z’WG‘;‘I zXYYG¡
jG‘‘WKG‘­G;j »GK’ K’GRE‘ W‘ K’;] WY; WRj jYG^;R z:;‘I z’WGY‘I ‘;jWR‘I WRj ‘:;GE’‘ Q­ W:: K]é;‘n
KQ OW”; K’;O q;KK;Yn ©R K’; éYQz;‘‘I K’; zQ:QRGW: UGRz; K’;] zQX:j q; ‘Q:j WK W :Q»;Y éYGz; K’WR K’;
WYKG‘WR »W‘ KYWR‘­QYO;j GRKQ W * O;z’WRGz”" éY;¡ GOéQYK;j éYQjXzK‘I K’;] zWéKXY;j W OWY”;K K’WK
QzzXéG;j »GK’ K’; O;K’Qj‘ WRj éYQz;‘‘;‘ q] ’Wj q;;R K’; ‘é;zGW: Y;‘;Y^; Q­ kRE:G‘’
»’Q‘; GOéYQ^;O;RK ’G‘ ;R;YE] OGE’K q; ;[¡ zQWz’OW”;Y‘n
éWRj;jI ’G‘ ‘;zXYGK] EXWYWRK;;jI WRj ’G‘ éYQ‘é;Y¡
GK] ;R‘XY;jn vQY;Q^;YI q] W‘‘GERGRE WR GRzY;W‘GRE S’; éYQOG‘; Q­ W Y;Wj] OWY”;K ­QY GRE;RGQX‘ j;¡
é;Yz;RKWE; Q­ K’; »QY” K’YQXE’ OWz’GR;‘ KQ ^Gz;‘ ;RzQXYWE;j K’; GR^;RKGQR Q­ OWR] éYQjXzK‘
:;‘‘;Y ;Oé:Q];;‘I ’; ­QXRj KGO; KQ j;^QK; ’GO¡ ­QY OWRX­WzKXY;n UXY^;]GRE GR‘KYXO;RK‘ WRj
‘;:­ KQ OQY; :;WYRGREI KQ ;[é;YGO;RK »GK’ R;» OWYGR;Y«‘ zQOéW‘‘;‘ »;Y; j;^;:Qé;j q] ‘Xz’
zQRz;éK‘ ­QY éYQjXzK‘I WRj KQ GOéYQ^; ’G‘ O;Y¡ O;R W‘ ©‘WWz cQQ:GKK:;I W N;» 6W^;R z:Qz”OW”;Yn
z’WRjG‘GRE zWéWqG:GKG;‘n p;R“WOGR 8W:; »W‘ W»WYj;j W EQ:j O;jW: q] K’;
LQ]W: UQzG;K] Q­ MQRjQR ­QY W ‘;;j;YI jYW»R q]
S’; E;RK:;OWR * O;z’WRGz”" W:‘Q Y;W:G$;j K’WKI Q[;RI K’WK zQX:j Qé;R W ­XYYQ»I j;éQ‘GK ‘;;j WRj
G­ ’; zQX:j Wéé:] ’G‘ ”RQ»:;jE; Q­ K’; ‘zG;Rz;‘ OWRXY;I WRj z:Q‘; GK Xé WEWGR GR QR; Qé;YWKGQRn
WRj ’G‘ ­GRWRzGW: Y;‘QXYz;‘ KQ K’; ‘XééQYK WRj FRj p;R“WOGR S’QOé‘QRI K’; kRE:G‘’ :Q]W:G‘K
j;^;:QéO;RK Q­ OWRX­WzKXY;‘ KQ ‘WKG‘­] ’XOWR :WK;Y KQ q;zQO; bQXRK LXO­QYj Q­ pW^WYGWI GR¡
R;;j‘ WRj éYQOQK; zQO­QYK WRj ’WééGR;‘‘I ’; ^;RK;j K’; OQj;YR ­GY;é:Wz;I K’; jYGé zQ­­;;éQKI
zQX:j ;[é;zK W ’GE’ ;zQRQOGz Y;KXYRn mR; QXK¡ WRj K’; ”GKz’;R YWRE;n S’QOW‘ 3;­­;Y‘QR »W‘
‘KWRjGRE QYEWRG$WKGQRI ;‘KWq:G‘’;j GR w’G:Wj;:é’GW ­W‘zGRWK;j q] GRE;RGQX‘ éYQjXzK‘ WRj j;^;:Qé;j
GR a9gu ­QY K’G‘ éXYéQ‘;I »W‘ K’; FO;YGzWR UQzG¡ ‘;^;YW: ­QY ’G‘ ’QO; WK vQRKGz;::QI GRz:XjGRE W
;K] ­QY wYQOQKGRE WRj wYQéWEWKGRE C‘;­X: ‘;^;R jW] z:Qz”I ‘GOX:KWR;QX‘:] WzKGRE jQXq:;
TRQ»:;jE;n S’YQXE’ GK WRj QK’;Y QYEWRG$WKGQR‘ jQQY‘I jXOq»WGK;Y‘I WRj W ‘»G^;: z’WGYn
:G”; GKI z’XYz’O;RI WYKG‘WR‘I WRj »;W:K’] :W]O;R
éQQ:;j K’;GY Y;‘QXYz;‘ WRj zQOqGR;j K’;GY ;jXzW¡ p;R“WOGR ,YWR”:GR ‘KWRj‘ QXK W‘ FO;YGzW«‘ ­GY‘K
KGQRI ;[é;YG;Rz;I WRj ‘;R‘; Q­ éYQjXzK éQK;RKGW: ‘zG;RKG‘Kn x’G:; OQ‘K Q­ ’G‘ zQXRKY]O;R »;Y;
KQ Y;­GR; éYQz;‘‘;‘ WRj ;‘KWq:G‘’ OWRX­WzKQYG;‘n éY;QzzXéG;j »GK’ Wz!XGYGRE ”RQ»:;jE; ­YQO
WqYQWjI ,YWR”:GR »W‘ E;R;YWKGRE ’G‘ Q»R q] zQR¡
U’GéqXG:jGRE zQOéWRG;‘ »;Y; ­QYO;j KQ qXG:j jXzKGRE K’; j;­GRGKG^; ;[é;YGO;RK‘ »GK’ ;:;zKYGzGK]
‘:QQé‘I éYG^WK;;Y‘I ‘z’QQR;Y‘I WRjI GR éWYKGzX:WYI K’WK »QX:j qYGRE ’GO GRK;YRWKGQRW: ­WO;n mR; Q­
*KQé‘WG:" ‘’Gé‘ ­QY KYWR‘WK:WRKGz KYWj;n F:K’QXE’ ’G‘ OQ‘K éQéX:WY GR^;RKGQR‘ »W‘ K’; * w;RR‘]:¡
WK ­GY‘K OQ‘K Q­ K’;GY WRzG::WY] éWYK‘ ‘Xz’ W‘ zQYj¡ ^WRGW ­GY;é:Wz;" yRQ» ”RQ»R W‘ K’; ,YWR”:GR

oT
H25 GQéQ405—

Downloaded from http://direct.mit.edu/books/book/chapter-pdf/1894193/9780262368100_c000200.pdf by guest on 08 May 2021


,540)Y04 H2QYj—Q4}— 5>$
j5V0Y54Ô— '0Ô2 25)Ô )4z
WQ4û5WÔ0Q4 W/VV54Ô— V5$
—/éÔ5z 04 Ô25 ■zV0j« QV j5V$
WQé)ÔQV Y5Ô2Qz QO Y)604L
WQOO55s k)4JQV4 Gs ,VQ'4
p;R“WOGR S’QOé‘QRI
bQXRK LXO­QYj aG)Y$
JV0zL5E ’CH -V5——I ofxfms
H2QY)— R5OO5V—Q4}— V5—Ô$
é5—— 0Y)L04)Ô0Q4 é5z 20Y ÔQ
z5û5éQj Ô20— —'0û5é W2)0V
J{ YQz0O{04L ) 304z—QVs
v0— 04Ô5V5—Ô 04 WQ4û5$
4054W5 jV5—)L5z Ô25
WQ4Ô5YjQV)V{ z5—0L45V}—
WQYY0ÔY54Ô ÔQ WQYOQVÔs
DY5V0W)4 -20éQ—Qj20W)é
kQW05Ô{s

92
DY5V0W)4 d5—0L4 .Ô20W

Downloaded from http://direct.mit.edu/books/book/chapter-pdf/1894193/9780262368100_c000200.pdf by guest on 08 May 2021


‘KQ^; I »’Gz’ »W‘ OWRX­WzKXY;j KQ ’G‘ ‘é;zG­GzW¡ Q­ K’; zQ:QRG‘K‘ »W‘ q;EGRRGRE KQ WKKYWzK KQ FO;Y¡
KGQR‘ q] LQq;YK 8YWz; WK xWY»Gz” ,XYRWz; GR GzW KW:;RK WRj GRK;::GE;Rz; K’WK zQX:j RQK ;[éWRj
b’;‘K;Y bQXRK]n S’; éYGOWY] ‘GERG­GzWRz; Q­ K’G‘ QY ­GRj ­Y;; ;[éY;‘‘GQR GR K’; m:j xQY:jn ©R Y;¡
GR^;RKGQR G‘ K’WK GK éX::;j K’; ­GY;é:Wz; QXK Q­ K’; ‘éQR‘; KQ ‘Xz’ K’Y;WK‘I kRE:WRj q;EWR KQ é:Wz;
z’GOR;]I »’;Y; GK ’Wj q;;R éWYK Q­ K’; WYz’GK;z¡ GRzY;W‘GRE:] ‘;^;Y; Y;‘KYGzKGQR‘ QR K’; KYWj; WRj
KXY;I WRj KY;WK;j GK W‘ W éQYKWq:; WRj K’;Y;­QY; OWRX­WzKXYGRE éYWzKGz;‘ Q­ ’;Y zQ:QRG;‘n UQO;
OWY”;KWq:; Wéé:GWRz;n ©R WjjGKGQRI GK ;Oé:Q];j éYQjXzK‘ »;Y; Y;‘KYGzK;j GR K’; RXOq;Y K’WK zQX:j
‘zG;RKG­Gz éYGRzGé:;‘ KQ zQRKYQ: K’; ­GY; WRj KQ jGY;zK q; OWj;I WRj K’; OWRX­WzKXY; Q­ QK’;Y éYQjXzK‘
K’; ’;WK;j WGY GR W OWRR;Y K’WK GRzY;W‘;j ­X;: »W‘ ­QYqGjj;R ;RKGY;:]n k^;R K’QXE’ kRE:WRj »W‘
;­­GzG;Rz]n x’;R K’; w;RR‘]:^WRGW ­GY;é:Wz; »W‘ ­Q::Q»GRE K’; zQR^;RKGQRW: éYWzKGz; Q­ K’; KGO;‘
­GY‘K Q­­;Y;j ­QY ‘W:; GR K’; -544—{éû)40) A)<5ÔÔ5 GR X‘GRE KYWj; Y;‘KYGzKGQR‘ KQ éYQK;zK ’;Y ’QO;
QR c;z;Oq;Y DIa9ea WRj éYQOQK;j »GK’ W GRjX‘KYG;‘I K’; zQ:QRG‘K‘ ­QXRj ‘Xz’ :GOGKWKGQR‘
qYQz’XY; K’WK OGE’K ’W^; q;;R FO;YGzW«‘ ­GY‘K GRKQ:;YWq:; q;zWX‘;I GR K’; OGj‘K Q­ EY;WK Y;¡
éYQOQKGQRW: ­:];YI 8Q^;YRQY S’QOW‘ Q­­;Y;j KQ ‘QXYz;‘ WRj QééQYKXRGKG;‘I K’;] »;Y; q;GRE
EG^; ,YWR”:GR W zQ:QRGW: éWK;RK KQ EXWYWRK;; ’G‘ KY;WK;j W‘ ‘;zQRj z:W‘‘ zGKG$;R‘ WRj ­QYz;j KQ
éYQ­GK ­YQO K’; GR^;RKGQR ­QY W RXOq;Y Q­ ];WY‘n Y;‘KYGzK K’;GY ;RK;YéYG‘; GR QYj;Y KQ éYQK;zK W ­WjGRE
6Q»;^;YI ,YWR”:GR j;z:GR;j GK *­YQO W wYGRzGé:; ’QO;:WRjn ©K G‘ RQK ‘XYéYG‘GREI K’;Y;­QY;I K’WK K’;
K’WK ’W‘ ;^;Y »;GE’«j »GK’ O; QR ‘Xz’ mz¡ *KYX; zWX‘;" Q­ K’; L;^Q:XKGQR »QX:j q; éXK ­QYK’
zW‘GQR‘I ^G$n S’WK W‘ »; ;R“Q] EY;WK Fj^WRKWE;‘ W‘ ’W^GRE q;;R * RQK ‘Q OXz’ K’WK K’; zQ:QRG‘K‘
­YQO K’; ©R^;RKGQR‘ Q­ QK’;Y‘I »; ‘’QX:j q; E:Wj »;Y; j;RG;j Y;éY;‘;RKWKGQR GR K’; z;RKYW: EQ^;YR¡
Q­ WR mééQYKXRGK] KQ ‘;Y^; QK’;Y‘ q] WR] ©R¡ O;RKI QY K’WK K’;] »;Y; XRjX:] Y;‘KYWGR;j GR Y;¡
^;RKGQR Q­ QXY‘I WRj K’G‘ »; ‘’QX:j jQ ­Y;;:] WRj ‘é;zK KQ WR] :Gq;YK] Q­ K’;GY é;Y‘QR‘I qXK YWK’;Y
E;R;YQX‘:]n«« yg1I ea0 ©R W ‘’QYK KGO;I QK’;Y‘ K’WK K’;GY YGE’K‘ KQ éYQé;YK] »;Y; zQRKGRXW::]
»;Y; OWRX­WzKXYGRE ‘KQ^;‘I W‘ K’;] ‘KG:: jQ KQjW]I GRK;Y­;Y;j »GK’I K’WK K’;] »;Y; j;RG;j K’; éYG^¡
WzzQYjGRE KQ K’; j;‘GER K’WK ,YWR”:GR Y;­X‘;j KQ G:;E; Q­ ­Y;;:] qX]GRE WRj ‘;::GRE »’;Y;^;Y WRj
éWK;RKn »’;R;^;Y K’;] OGE’K ‘;; ­GKI WRj Q­ ­Q::Q»GRE K’;
QzzXéWKGQR‘ »’Gz’ ‘;;O;j KQ K’;O K’; OQ‘K
FK ­GY‘K E:WRz;I GK »QX:j ‘;;O K’WK K’; ;[éWRjGRE Y;OXR;YWKG^;n" yaelI 9u4
GRK;Y;‘K GR j;^Gz;‘ K’WK ‘W^;j :WqQY WRj OWj; :G­;
OQY; é:;W‘WRK »W‘ GR zQRKYWjGzKGQR KQ K’; wXYG¡ F:K’QXE’ K’; pYGKG‘’ NW^GEWKGQR FzK‘ »;Y; éW‘‘;j
KWR ;K’Gz K’WK E:QYG­G;j :WqQY W:OQ‘K W‘ WR ;Rj GR GR a1gu KQ Y;‘KYGzK zQOé;KGKGQR ­YQO cXKz’ ‘’Gé¡
GK‘;:­n ©R ­WzKI K’;Y; ‘KG:: ‘;;O‘ KQ q; WR XRj;Y¡ qXG:j;Y‘I q;­QY; K’; ;Rj Q­ K’; a1uu‘ K’;] »;Y;
zXYY;RK Q­ EXG:K GR K’; FO;YGzWR OGRj WK K’; ;W‘] q;GRE X‘;j KQ Y;‘KYGzK zQ:QRGW: ‘’GéqXG:jGRE
:G­; K’WK ’W‘ q;;R OWj; éQ‘‘Gq:; q] K;z’RQ:QE]n K’YQXE’ W YX:GRE Y;‘KYGzKGRE KYWR‘éQYK q;K»;;R K’;
6Q»;^;YI KQ»WYj K’; ;Rj Q­ K’; zQ:QRGW: ;YW ‘Xz’ zQ:QRG;‘ WRj kRE:WRj KQ pYGKG‘’ ‘’Gé‘n MWK;Y K’;
Y;‘;Y^WKGQR‘ »;Y; ‘;K W‘Gj; GR K’; ­;Y^;RK j;‘GY; NW^GEWKGQR FzK‘ »;Y; ;[éWRj;j KQ YX:; K’WK
Q­ K’; zQ:QRG‘K‘ KQ ;‘KWq:G‘’ W ‘;:­ ‘X‘KWGRGRE K’; zQ:QRG;‘ OX‘K qX] QR:] ­YQO kRE:WRj K’Q‘;
;zQRQO] GR K’; ­Wz; Q­ pYGKG‘’ Y;‘KYGzKGQR‘n S’G‘ OWRX­WzKXY;j éYQjXzK‘ kRE:WRj ’Wj KQ ‘;::I WRj
z’W::;RE; GR K’; RWO; Q­ éWKYGQKG‘O éYQ^Gj;j K’; ‘QQR K’;] »;Y; ­XYK’;Y ‘KY;REK’;R;j KQ éY;^;RK
GRjX‘KYGW: OQO;RKXO K’WK ’;:é;j K’; zQ:QRG;‘ K’; zQ:QRG;‘ ­YQO OWRX­WzKXYGRE WR] éYQjXzK‘
‘;^;Y K’;GY éQ:GKGzW: KG;‘ KQ kRE:WRjn K’WK »;Y; OWj; GR kRE:WRjn ©R WjjGKGQRI q] a101
K’; zQ:QRGW: EQ^;YRO;RK‘ »;Y; q;GRE Y;!XGY;j
FK ­GY‘K kRE:WRj »W‘ éYQXj Q­ K’; ‘Xzz;‘‘ Q­ KQ Y;éQYK K’; WRRXW: ‘KWK; Q­ K’;GY GRjX‘KYG;‘ KQ
’;Y zQ:QRG;‘n UGY 3Q‘;é’ b’G:jI W jGY;zKQY WRj K’; kRE:G‘’ pQWYj Q­ SYWj; GR WR WKK;OéK KQ jG^;YK
EQ^;YRQY Q­ K’; kW‘K ©RjGW bQOéWR]I éYWG‘;j K’; K’;O ­YQO GRjX‘KYGW: WzKG^GK]n p] a9u4 K’; pQWYj
;OGEYWRK‘ W‘ W é;Qé:; *»’Q‘; ­YXEW:GK]I GRjX‘KY] Q­ SYWj; »W‘ q;GRE »WYR;j K’WK K’; zQ:QRG‘K‘
WRj K;Oé;YWRz;I WRj K’; ’WééGR;‘‘ Q­ »’Q‘; »;Y; OWRX­WzKXYGRE OQ‘K Q­ K’; éYQjXzK‘ K’WK
:W»‘ WRj GR‘KGKXKGQR‘I éYQOG‘; KQ K’;O W :QRE :G­; K’;] R;;j;jI WRj K’WK G­ ‘QO; ;­­;zKG^; »W] »W‘
WRj W »QRj;Y­X: GRzY;W‘; Q­ é;Qé:;I YGz’;‘ WRj RQK ­QXRj KQ ‘KQé GKI K’;] »QX:j zWYY] GK ­XYK’;YI
éQ»;Yn" 6Q»;^;YI »GK’GR W z;RKXY] K’; ‘Xzz;‘‘

or
H25 GQéQ405—

Downloaded from http://direct.mit.edu/books/book/chapter-pdf/1894193/9780262368100_c000200.pdf by guest on 08 May 2021


sDVQIUMV N>IV;HMV I))HMDA
'SD )>MVqM)HD (z q(V*Dq'M(V
'( 'SD AD*DH()UDV' (z I
qI\'4M>(V \'(*D8 q(VqDM*DA
MV 'SD z(>U (z I HI’Ì>MV'S
'S>(?GS ìSMqS q((HD> IM>
ìI\ A>IìV '( ’D SDI'DA
IVA \DV' (?' '( ìI>U 'SD
>((U6 kDzD>DVqD 3T6

95
DY5V0W)4 d5—0L4 .Ô20W

Downloaded from http://direct.mit.edu/books/book/chapter-pdf/1894193/9780262368100_c000200.pdf by guest on 08 May 2021


OXz’ KQ K’; jG‘Wj^WRKWE; Q­ kRE:G‘’ OWRX­WzKXY¡ S’; FO;YGzWR‘ jY;» XR;[é;zK;j ‘XééQYK ­YQO
;Y‘n UQQR ‘QO; zQ:QRG;‘ »;Y; Y;­X‘GRE KQ OW”; K’; kRE:G‘’OWR FjWO UOGK’I »’Q‘; OQRXO;RKW:
Y;éQYK‘I QY ;:‘; Y;éQYKGRE W :Wz” Q­ WR] ‘;KK:;j qQQ” H25 35)éÔ2 QO N)Ô0Q4— ? éXq:G‘’;j GR a991I
OWRX­WzKXYGREn bQ:QRG‘K‘ »’Q jGj RQK zQR‘Gj;Y K’; ];WY Q­ K’; c;z:WYWKGQR Q­ ©Rj;é;Rj;Rz;?
K’;GY WzKG^GKG;‘ ;GK’;Y ;zQRQOGzW::] QY éQ:GKGzW::] zQR­GYO;j GR K’;QY] »’WK K’;] ’Wj W:Y;Wj] éXK
GOOQYW: Y;WzK;j KQ K’; Y;‘KYGzKG^; :;EG‘:WKGQR GRKQ WzKGQRh K’WK ­Y;;jQO Q­ KYWj; OX‘K Y;é:Wz;
q] EQGRE XRj;YEYQXRjn ©K ’W‘ q;;R ;‘KGOWK;j K’WK j;­;R‘G^; RWKGQRW: O;YzWRKG:; ‘]‘K;O‘n UOGK’
RGR; K;RK’‘ Q­ W:: zQ:QRGW: O;Yz’WRK‘ WRj QR; »WYR;j ’G‘ zQXRKY]O;R WqQXK K’; YG‘” Q­ WKK;OéK¡
­QXYK’ Q­ K’; ‘GER;Y‘ Q­ K’; c;z:WYWKGQR Q­ ©Rj;¡ GRE q] :W» KQ *YWG‘; Xé W RWKGQR Q­ zX‘KQO;Y‘ »’Q
é;Rj;Rz; »;Y; GR^Q:^;j GR zQRKYWqWRj KYWj;n FK ‘’QX:j q; Qq:GE;j KQ qX] ­YQO K’; ‘’Qé‘ Q­ QXY
K’; ^;Y] OQO;RK Q­ K’; qWKK:; Q­ M;[GREKQRI 3Q’R jG­­;Y;RK éYQjXz;Y‘I W:: K’; EQQj‘ »GK’ »’Gz’
6WRzQz”I K’; * wYGRz; Q­ bQRKYWqWRj SYWj;Y‘I" K’;‘; zQX:j ‘Xéé:] K’;On" y4aI 1l1 6; éYQéQ‘;j
»W‘ GR pQ‘KQR QR KYGW:I »GK’ 3Q’R FjWO‘ W‘ ’G‘ K’WK ;R:GE’K;R;j ‘;:­ GRK;Y;‘K ’Wj K’; éQ»;Y KQ
zQXR‘;:I QR z’WYE;‘ qW‘;j QR ’G‘ WzKG^GKG;‘ W‘ Y;jXz; :WqQY WRj KYWj; KQ K’;GY éXY;‘K Y;:WKGQR¡
W ‘OXEE:;Yn ‘’GéI »’;Y;q] O;R OW] zQOé;K; ­Y;;:] KQ éYQ¡
^Gj; éYQjXzK‘ QY ‘;Y^Gz;‘ K’WK QK’;Y‘ R;;jn xGK’
S’; kRE:G‘’ Y;WzK;j ‘KYQRE:] KQ »’WK K’;] zQR¡ W:: K’WK K’G‘ GOé:G;‘ GR K;YO‘ Q­ ;zQRQO] WRj
‘Gj;Y;j KQ q; XR:W»­X: WRj éYQ^QzWKG^; WzK‘ Q­ K’; !XW:GK]I K’; éYGRzGé:; Q­ ­Y;;jQO Q­ KYWj; WRj
zQ:QRG;‘n 8;R;YW: S’QOW‘ 8WE; ‘XOO;j Xé K’; GK‘ zQYQ::WY]I ­Y;;jQO Q­ ;RK;YéYG‘;I j;­GR;j K’;
éX‘’ Q­ K’; FO;YGzWR‘ KQ»WYj ;zQRQOGz GRj;¡ é’G:Q‘Qé’] q] »’Gz’ FO;YGzWR‘ E;R;YWK; éYQj¡
é;Rj;Rz; GR W :;KK;Y KQ MQYj pWYYGREKQR GR a99lI XzK‘ KQ O;;K zQR‘XO;Y‘« R;;j‘ WRj j;‘GY;‘ WRj
Wj^G‘GRE ’GO K’WK K’; kRE:G‘’ OX‘K *zYWOé K’;GY K’;R zQOé;K; Qé;R:] ­QY K’;GY ‘’WY; Q­ K’;
SYWj; W‘ ­WY W‘ GK zWR q; jQR; éYXj;RKGW::]I" OWY”;Kn
WRj K’WK *zGKG;‘ ­:QXYG‘’ WRj GRzY;W‘; q] GRK;R‘G^;
SYWj;I FYKG‘WR‘ WRj v;z’WRGz”‘ Q­ W:: ‘QYK‘ WY; ©K q;zWO; GR;^GKWq:; WK K’G‘ éQGRK K’WK K’; éYWzKGz;
jYW»R K’GK’;YI »’Q S;Wz’ W:: ‘QYK‘ Q­ 6WRjGzYW­K Q­ j;‘GER W‘ K’; QYEWRG$WKGQR Q­ O;WR‘ KQ»WYj
xQY” q;­QY; XR”RQ»R GR K’; bQXRKY]I WRj K’;] éY;j;K;YOGR;j ;Rj‘ »QX:j ;O;YE; W‘ K’;
‘QQR zQO; KQ OW”; ­QY K’;O‘;:^;‘ »’WK K’;] ;‘‘;RKGW: :GR” q;K»;;R K’; éYQjXz;Y‘ WRj zQR¡
X‘;j KQ GOéQYKn" ya9I 1a1 ‘XO;Y‘ Q­ K’; éYQjXzK‘ Q­ ­Y;; ;RK;YéYG‘;n
vQY;Q^;YI K’; zQXRK;YéQGRK Q­ K’; Y;:WK;j ];K
x’;R K’; ­GY‘K bQRKGR;RKW: bQREY;‘‘ O;K GR GRj;é;Rj;RK é’G:Q‘Qé’G;‘ Q­ K’; éWKYGzGWR‘ WRj
w’G:Wj;:é’GW QR U;éK;Oq;Y gIa99eI GK‘ Qq“;zKG^;‘ K’; wXYGKWR‘ zY;WK;j W zX:KXYW: K;[KXY; GR »’Gz’
»;Y; zQOO;YzGW: YWK’;Y K’WR éQ:GKGzW:n ©K »W‘ ;Wz’ »W‘ Wq:; KQ Y;KWGR GK‘ ‘QO;KGO;‘ zQOé:;¡
WEY;;j K’WK W­K;Y a99e RQ OQY; éYQjXzK‘ »;Y; O;RKGREI ‘QO;KGO;‘ zQRKYW‘KGRE z’WYWzK;Yn
KQ q; GOéQYK;j ­YQO K’; pYGKG‘’ kOéGY; WRj K’WK
W­K;Y U;éK;Oq;Y a99g RQ éYQjXzK‘ »;Y; KQ q;
;[éQYK;j KQ kRE:WRjn F z;RKXY] :WK;YI 3Q’R
M;WRj;Y pG‘’Qé Wzz:WGO;j K’; zQXYWE; WRj
»G‘jQO Q­ K’G‘ éQ‘GKGQRh * n n n K’; éYQ’GqGKGQR Q­
K’;GY OWRX­WzKXY;Y‘I Y;‘KYGzKGQR‘ XéQR K’;GY KYWj;I
WRj KW[WKGQR Q­ K’;GY GRjX‘KY]I »;Y; ‘;YGQX‘ zQXRK‘
GR K’; qG:: Q­ GRjGzKO;RK WEWGR‘K K’; OQK’;Y zQXR¡
KY]n S’; q:Q» K’;] ‘KYXz” ­QY ;!XW: YGE’K‘ n n n
q;!X;WK’;j X‘ WR ;R­YWRz’G‘;j GRjX‘KY] WRj
Y;‘é;zK ­QY éYQé;YK]I »GK’QXK »’Gz’ K’; X‘;­X: WYK‘
zWR R;^;Y ­:QXYG‘’n" yaaI0 pG‘’Qé Y;zQERG$;j
K’WK K’; éYGRzGé:; Q­ ;zQRQOGz ­Y;;jQO ­QY K’;
*X‘;­X: WYK‘" OW] ’W^; éY;z;j;j K’Q‘; Q­ Y;:G¡
EGQX‘ WRj éQ:GKGzW: ­Y;;jQO‘ W‘ ­QXRjWKGQR ‘KQR;‘
Q­ K’; FO;YGzWR Y;éXq:Gzn

ox
H25 GQéQ405—

Downloaded from http://direct.mit.edu/books/book/chapter-pdf/1894193/9780262368100_c000200.pdf by guest on 08 May 2021


fXG EH—= -. E..z(GxWG

d)405é v54W2Y)4 H)65— Ô20— ’5Ô2Qz ÔQ 04OQVY qX‘G:] Y;RQ^WKGRE ’G‘ ’QO; WK vQXRK ';YRQR
20— G/—ÔQY5V— 04 HQ'4 )4z GQ/4ÔV{ H2)Ô 25 —Ô0éé X‘GRE kRE:G‘’ ‘K]:; qQQ”‘ ­QY Y;­;Y;Rz;n S’;Y; G‘
WQ4Ô04/5— ÔQ W)VV{ Q4 Ô25 AQéz )4z k0éû5V—Y0Ô2}— WR GRK;Y;‘KGRE éWYWjQ[ GR K’; ­WzK K’WK K’; zQ:QRGW:
,/—045—— )Ô 20— k2Qj QjjQ—0Ô5 Ô25 Méz ,V0W6 ‘K]:; Q­ ­XYRG‘’GRE‘ K’WK KQjW] G‘ zQR‘Gj;Y;j W
’55Ô04L vQ/—5 04 GQV420éé '25V5 25 Y)65— '0Ô2 R;WY ‘WzY;j ‘KWRjWYj Q­ é;YOWR;RK ;[z;::;Rz;
20— Q'4 v)4z— )éé 604z— QO é)VL5 )4z —Y)éé -é)Ô5 »W‘I GR GK‘ Q»R jW]I Y;WjG:] jG‘zWYj;j W‘ ‘QQR
3QV6 04 Ô25 L54Ô55é5—Ô H)—Ô5 )4z N5'5—Ô W‘ W ­Y;‘’;Y ‘K]:; zQX:j q; XR:QWj;j WK K’; jQz”n
b)—20Q4 nnn 58/)é 04 LQQz45—— )4z W25)j5V Ô2)4 S’; éWYWjQ[ G‘ zQOéQXRj;j W:: K’; OQY; q] K’;
)4{ Ô25{ W)4 0YjQVÔ OVQY PQ4zQ4s ­WzK K’WKI W‘ OXz’ W‘ FO;YGzWR‘ KQjW] OW]
Wj^;YKG‘;O;RKI LSD s(\'(V t*DVMVG C(\'8 a99D yaa1 zQOé;K; ­QY K’; :WK;‘K ­W::QXK Q­ ’GE’ K;z’RQ:QE]I
;^;R OQY; jQ K’;] ’Q:j KGE’K KQ K’;GY zQ::;zKG^;
yQY W‘‘XO;j zQ:QRGW: ’;YGKWE;n
©R K’; R;» KQ»R‘ WRj ]QXRE zGKG;‘ Q­ FO;YGzWI W
‘;zQRj ‘KY;WO Q­ j;‘GER zQR‘zGQX‘R;‘‘ ;O;YE;j UQO; zYGKGz‘ Q­ FO;YGzWR zX:KXY; ’W^; OWGRKWGR;j
W‘ K’; zGKG$;R‘ ‘QXE’K KQ éYQ^; K’;GY zX:KXYW: K’WKI q;zWX‘; K’; ËOGEYË‘ ’Wj Y;RQXRz;j K’;GY
;!XW:GK] »GK’ K’; m:j xQY:jn x;W:K’ »W‘ XRj;Y¡ RWKGQRW: QYGEGR‘I K’;] q;zWO; zX:KXYW::] GOéQK;RK
‘KQQj GR FO;YGzW W‘ K’; QR:] W^;RX; q] »’Gz’ WRj K’;Y;­QY; XRWq:; *KQ éYQjXz; W zX:KXY; GR
QR; zQX:j Wz’G;^; W j;EY;; Q­ ;:;EWRz; ;!XG^W¡ »’Gz’ K’; WYK‘ zQX:j ­:QXYG‘’n" y99I ^G ©K ’W‘ q;;R
:;RK KQ K’WK ;R‘XY;j ­QY K’; kXYQé;WR WYG‘KQzYWK‘ ‘XEE;‘K;j K’WK K’; ­GR; WYK‘ »;Y; Y;‘;Y^;j ­QY
WRj RQq:;‘ q] GR’;YGKWRz; WRj éYGOQE;RGKXY;n K’; ;[z:X‘G^; é:;W‘XY; Q­ K’; Xéé;Y z:W‘‘;‘I »’Q
S’; YWéGj WzzXOX:WKGQR Q­ »;W:K’ ;RWq:;j K’; »;Y; Qq:GE;j KQ jG‘é:W] QY jG‘KYGqXK; ­YQO KGO;
FO;YGzWR‘ KQ qX] K’; q;‘K kRE:WRj ’Wj KQ Q­­;Y KQ KGO; ‘QO; ‘OW:: éQYKGQR Q­ K’;GY KY;W‘XY; W‘
QY KQ zQOOG‘‘GQR »QY” GR K’; ‘K]:; Q­ K’; OQO;RK W;‘K’;KGz W:O‘ KQ K’; :Q»;Y z:W‘‘;‘n 3Q’R ,G‘”;
q] ËOGEYË WRj RWKG^; WYKG‘WR‘ GR FO;YGzWn S’X‘I éYQéQ‘;j K’WK FO;YGzWR‘ ‘’QX:j Wzz;éK K’;
K’; XYqWR qXG:jGRE‘ WRj ­XYRG‘’GRE‘ Q­ K’; zQ:¡ K’;QY] Q­ K’; *KYWR‘GK Q­ zG^G:G$WKGQR" ? K’WK K’;GY
QRG;‘ KQQ” QR K’; ­WOG:GWY QY ­W‘’GQRWq:; ‘K]:;‘ zX:KXY; ’Wj KQ zQO; ­YQO WqYQWjI WRj K’WK K’;]
K’WK »;Y; éY;^W:;RK GR kRE:WRj WRj kXYQé;n S’; R;;j;j KQ j;^;:Qé *zWYYG;Y‘" KQ qYGRE K’; ­GR; WYK‘
R;»zQO;Y KQ W zQ:QRGW: KQ»R »W‘ zQR­YQRK;j »GK’ KQ FO;YGzWn ,G‘”; zQRK;Rj;j K’WK K’;Y; »W‘ W
W OG[KXY; Q­ cXKz’ ‘K]:; KQ»R’QX‘;‘I kRE:G‘’ *zX:KXYW: :WE" »’;Y;q] WR W;‘K’;KGz ­W‘’GQR K’WK
‘K]:; éXq:Gz qXG:jGRE‘I WRj ,Y;Rz’ ­XYRG‘’GRE‘ K’WK ;O;YE;j WqYQWj »QX:j RQK q;zQO; éQéX:WY GR
;R’WRz;j K’; !XW:GK] Q­ XYqWR :G^GRE GR K’; N;» FO;YGzW ­QY ‘QO; ];WY‘ W­K;Y GK ’Wj Y;Wz’;j GK‘
xQY:jI EYWz;j K’; ‘QzGW: q;’W^GQY Q­ GK‘ zGKG$;R‘I $;RGK’ ;:‘;»’;Y;I WRj K’WK K’; :;REK’ Q­ K’; *:WE"
O;OQYGW:G$;j K’;GY ’G‘KQYGz ;^;RK‘I WRj ­:WXRK;j »W‘ j;K;YOGR;j q] K’; z:WYGK] Q­ K’; ‘K]:;I K’;
W EYQ»GRE FO;YGzWR W­­:X;Rz; K’WK éY;‘XO;j zX:KXYW: ^GEQY Q­ K’; OQ^;O;RKI WRj K’; O;WR‘ Q­
KQ q; QR W éWY »GK’ K’; q;‘K QR K’; QK’;Y ‘Gj; KYWR‘éQYKn cXYGRE K’; zQ:QRGW: é;YGQjI GK »W‘ éY;¡
Q­ K’; FK:WRKGzn ‘XO;j K’WK lu Du ];WY‘ »QX:j :Wé‘; q;­QY; W
R;» kXYQé;WR ­W‘’GQR »QX:j EWGR W ­QQK’Q:j GR
S’; EY;WK;‘K jG‘KGRzKGQR GR K’; jYG^; ­QY zX:KXYW: FO;YGzWn w;Wz;­X: WRj éYQ‘é;YQX‘ KGO;‘ Qq^G¡
‘KWKX‘ WOQRE K’; R;»:] YGz’ Q­ FO;YGzW »;RK QX‘:] !XGz”;R;j K’; ­:Q»I WRjI zQR^;Y‘;:]I GK
KQ K’Q‘; »’Q »;Y; Wq:; KQ jG‘é:W] K’; :WK;‘K ‘K]:;‘ ‘;;O‘ K’WK K’; EY;WK;‘K Wj^WRz;‘ Q­ QYGEGRW:
­YQO WqYQWjn NQ zQ:QRGW: E;RK:;OWR WRj RQ WYKG¡ j;‘GER GR FO;YGzW ’W^; q;;R OWj; »’;R K’; GR¡
‘WR ‘;;”GRE éWKYQRWE; »WRK;j KQ q; :;­K q;’GRj ­:Q» Q­ ­QY;GER zX:KXYW: GR­:X;Rz; ’W‘ q;;R zQR¡
GR K’; ­W‘’GQR YWz;n k^;R K’Q‘; »’Q j;z:WY;j ‘KYWGR;j q] éQ:GKGzW: WRj ;zQRQOGz zGYzXO‘KWRz;‘n
éXq:Gz:] K’WK FO;YGzW ’Wj RQ KGO; ­QY ‘Xz’
­YG^Q:GKG;‘ ‘K;;é;j K’;O‘;:^;‘ éYG^WK;:] GR kRE:G‘’ ©R K’; q;EGRRGRE K’; zQ:QRGW: FO;YGzWR‘ »;Y;
WRj zQRKGR;RKW: ­W‘’GQR‘n NQ :;‘‘ W éWKYGQK K’WR zQRK;RK KQ Y;éYQjXz; K’; KY;W‘XY;‘ K’WK ’Wj q;;R
p;R“WOGR ,YWR”:GR »YQK; KQ ’G‘ »G­; ­YQO kXYQé; zWYYG;j Q^;Y ­YQO kXYQé;n NQK QR:] GOé:;O;RK‘
Wj^G‘GRE ’;Y KQ ­Q::Q» K’; :WK;‘K ­W‘’GQR‘ GR ’QO; qXK W:‘Q éG;z;‘ Q­ ­XYRGKXY;I éQKK;Y]I E:W‘‘I GYQRI
­XYRG‘’GRE‘n MWK;YI »’G:; 8;QYE; xW‘’GREKQR
»W‘ GR K’; ­G;:j WEWGR‘K K’; pYGKG‘’I »QY”O;R »;Y;

\)
DY5V0W)4 d5—0L4 .Ô20W

Downloaded from http://direct.mit.edu/books/book/chapter-pdf/1894193/9780262368100_c000200.pdf by guest on 08 May 2021


zQéé;YI WRj qYW‘‘ éYQjXzK‘I é;»K;Y WRj ‘G:^;Y ©K »W‘ ;[é;zK;j GR K’; zQ:QRG;‘ K’WK W E;RK:;OWR
»WY;‘I WRj ­WqYGz‘ Q­ W:: ”GRj‘ »;Y; X‘;j W‘ éWK¡ »QX:j q; ”RQ»:;jE;Wq:; GR zX:KXY; WRj ­W‘’GQR
K;YR‘ ­QY jXé:GzWKGQRn 6Q»;^;YI W‘ KGO; »;RK W‘ »;:: W‘ GR ‘zG;Rz; WRj é’G:Q‘Qé’]n ©K »W‘ ’G‘
QRI ‘Xz’ éYQjXzK‘ q;zWO; jWK;j GR ­W‘’GQR WRj Qq:GEWKGQR KQ ‘;; KQ K’; !XW:GK] Q­ ’G‘ ;R^GYQRO;RK
K’; »;W:K’G;Y éWKYQR‘ q;EWR KQ ‘;;” QXK WRj WRj KQ jGY;zK K’; z’WYWzK;Y Q­ K’; éYQjXzK‘ OWj;
zQOOG‘‘GQR K’Q‘; zYW­K‘O;R »’Q zQX:j W‘‘XY; KQ ’G‘ QYj;Y q] WYKG‘WR‘n kjXzWK;j O;R »;Y;
K’;O K’WK K’;] »;Y; ”RQ»:;jE;Wq:; Q­ K’; R;»;Y éY;‘XO;j KQ ”RQ» WRj XRj;Y‘KWRj WYz’GK;zKXYW:
‘K]:;‘ ­YQO WqYQWj WRj zQOé;K;RK GR K’;GY ‘K]:; WRj ‘KYXzKXY; q;zWX‘; K’;] »;Y; Q­K;R
OWRX­WzKXY;n ©R K’G‘ zQRK;[KI K’; Wj^WRKWE; :W] zW::;j XéQR KQ j;K;YOGR; K’; ­QYO‘ Q­ éXq:Gz qXG:j¡
»GK’ K’Q‘; WYKG‘WR‘ »’Q ’Wj ;OGEYWK;j K’; OQ‘K GRE‘ yW‘ »;:: W‘ K’;GY Q»R Y;‘Gj;Rz;‘ n pYXKQR
Y;z;RK:]I qYGREGRE »GK’ K’;O ‘WOé:;‘ WRj K;O¡ wWYG‘’ b’XYz’ GR xG::GWO‘qXYEI 'GYEGRGWI »W‘
é:WK;‘ WRj éWKK;YR‘ ­YQO »’Gz’ K’;] zQX:j Y;¡ j;‘GER;j GR a9aa q] K’; EQ^;YRQY Q­ K’; zQ:QR]I
éYQjXz; Qq“;zK‘ GR K’; :WK;‘K ­W‘’GQRn 3QXYR;]O;R F:;[WRj;Y UéQK‘»QQjI WRj S’QOW‘ 3;­­;Y‘QR
WYKG‘WR‘ GR K’; zYQ»j;j ‘’Qé‘ WqYQWj Y;W:G$;j KQQ” W éWYKGzX:WY GRK;Y;‘K GR K’; ‘Xq“;zK y/FYz’GK;z¡
K’WK K’;GY ”RQ»:;jE; WRj ;[é;YG;Rz; »QX:j KXY; G‘ O] j;:GE’K" WRj ­QXRj KGO; ­YQO W ­X::
q; »;:zQO;j GR FO;YGzW WRj K’WK K’;] »QX:j q; zWY;;Y KQ j;‘GER K’; OWGR qXG:jGRE‘ Q­ K’; CRG¡
­Y;;I W»W] ­YQO m:j xQY:j EXG:j éYWzKGz;‘I KQ ^;Y‘GK] Q­ 'GYEGRGW W‘ »;:: W‘ ’G‘ Q»R ’QO;I
‘;K Xé K’;GY Q»R qX‘GR;‘‘;‘n vQY;Q^;YI K’;] »;Y; vQRKGz;::Qn
z;YKWGR K’WK ]QXRE WééY;RKGz;‘ »QX:j q; Y;WjG:]
W^WG:Wq:; KQ ’;:é K’;O GR Y;KXYR ­QY q;GRE KWXE’K S’; qW‘Gz j;‘GER ‘QXYz;‘ ­QY 3;­­;Y‘QR WRj
K’;GY zYW­Kn K’; QK’;Y E;RK:;OWR WYz’GK;zK‘ Q­ K’; zQ:QRG;‘
»;Y; K’; éQéX:WY qQQ”‘ Q­ WYz’GK;zKXYW: jYW»GRE‘
,QY K’; OQ‘K éWYK K’; zQ:QRGW: zYW­K‘OWR jGj RQK WRj G::X‘KYWKGQR‘ Q­ K’; KGO;I »’Gz’ éYQ^Gj;j
zQR‘Gj;Y ’GO‘;:­ KQ q; W j;‘GER;YI qXK YWK’;Y K’; qQK’ E;RK:;O;R WRj qXG:j;Y‘ »GK’ W Y;Wj] Y;­;Y¡
GR‘KYXO;RK q] »’Gz’ K’; j;‘GY;‘ Q­ ’G‘ éWKYQR‘ ;Rz; KQ kRE:G‘’ WRj zQRKGR;RKW: ‘K]:;‘n 3;­­;Y‘QR
zQX:j q; ‘WKG‘­G;jn SQ ‘’Q» ’G‘ ­WOG:GWYGK] »GK’ K’; G‘ ”RQ»R KQ ’W^; ’Wj WK :;W‘K ­G^; qQQ”‘ QR
OQ‘K Y;z;RK ‘K]:;‘I ’; GOéQYK;j ;[WOé:;‘ K’WK FRjY;W wW::WjGQI »’Q OWj; ;[K;R‘G^; O;W‘XY;¡
zQX:j q; jG‘é:W];j KQ WKKYWzK qX‘GR;‘‘ WRj zQX:j O;RK‘ Q­ WRzG;RK LQOWR qXG:jGRE‘ WRj éXq:G‘’;j
W:‘Q q; zQéG;jn FRj ’; ‘QXE’K QXK WRj éXYz’W‘;j K’;GY qW‘Gz éYQéQYKGQR‘ W‘ ;WY:] W‘ ag9un wW:¡
‘é;zGW: KQQ:‘ WRj éWKK;YR‘I QY OWj; ’G‘ Q»R ­YQO :WjGQ«‘ ­:W»:;‘‘ ‘;R‘; Q­ éYQéQYKGQR WRj ‘]OéWK’]
‘Xz’ ‘WOé:;‘ W‘ ’; zQX:j :W] ’G‘ ’WRj‘ QRI K’WK ­QY K’; z:W‘‘GzW: ‘K]:; ;[;YK;j W éYQ­QXRj GR­:X¡
;RWq:;j ’GO KQ »QY” GR K’; :WK;‘K zQRKGR;RKW: QY ;Rz; QR x;‘K;YR WYz’GK;zKXY; »;:: GRKQ K’; RGR;¡
kRE:G‘’ ‘K]:;n 6Q»;^;YI K’; WYKG‘WR Q­K;R ­QXRj K;;RK’ z;RKXY]I WRj 3;­­;Y‘QR XRjQXqK;j:] qW‘;j
GK R;z;‘‘WY] KQ OQjG­] W j;‘GER? RQK QR:] KQ ‘XGK vQRKGz;::Q QR ’G‘ »QY”n S’; ËOGEYË w;K;Y 6WY¡
W z:G;RK«‘ »’GOI qXK ‘QO;KGO;‘ q;zWX‘; Q­ GR¡ YG‘QR z;YKWGR:] ­Q::Q»;j K’; éWKK;YR qQQ” D4zV5)
Wj;!XWK; KQQ:‘ QY :GOGK;j KW:;RK‘n FRj K’; ‘zWYzGK] -)éé)z0Q}— DVW20Ô5WÔ/V5 yMQRjQRh kj»WYj 6QééX‘I
Q­ :WqQY GR K’; zQ:QRG;‘ OWj; GK R;z;‘‘WY] KQ a9Dg GR j;‘GERGRE K’; ­WzWj; Q­ K’; ’WRj‘QO;
’X‘qWRj zWY;­X::] K’; WOQXRK Q­ ;R;YE] K’WK »W‘ L;j»QQj MGqYWY] qXG:K GR a9gu GR N;»éQYKI L’Qj;
éXK GRKQ W éYQjXzK q] ‘GOé:G­]GRE GK‘ ­QYO WRj ©‘:WRjn 6WYYG‘QR«‘ OWGR QzzXéWKGQR WK K’; KGO;
QYRWO;RKWKGQR QY q] j;^;:QéGRE KQQ:‘ WRj O;K’¡ »W‘ GR qX‘GR;‘‘ GR N;»éQYK WRj W‘ W zQ::;zKQY
Qj‘ K’WK »QX:j j;OWRj :;‘‘ KGO;n F‘ W Y;‘X:KI K’; Q­ zX‘KQO‘ WK N;» 6W^;RI bQRR;zKGzXKn 6Q»;^;YI
éYQjXzK‘ Q­ K’; zQ:QRGW: zYW­K‘O;R Q­K;R Wz’G;^;j ’; G‘ ‘QO;KGO;‘ Gj;RKG­G;j W‘ K’; ­GY‘K FO;YGzWR
W KWXK Y;­GR;O;RK Q­ ­QYO WRj W Y;‘KYWGRK Q­ QY¡ WYz’GK;zK q;zWX‘; ’; »W‘ K’; ­GY‘K é;Y‘QR QR
RWO;RK K’WK é:Wz;j K’;O WqQ^; WRj q;]QRj K’; Y;zQYj ”RQ»R KQ ’W^; q;;R éWGj W ­;; q] W éWKYQR
;[KYW^WEWRK QYGEGRW:‘n S’G‘ WKK;RKGQR Q­ K’; zQ¡ KQ j;‘GER W ‘KYXzKXY; KQ q; ;Y;zK;j q] W qXG:j;Yn
:QRGW: zYW­K‘OWR KQ :WqQY ‘W^GRE ­QYO‘ WRj éYQ¡ 6WYYG‘QR »W‘ éWGj eg éQXRj‘ ­QY ’G‘ é:WR ­QY
z;jXY;‘ ’;:é;j KQ Y;­GR; K’; éYGRzGé:; Q­ ;zQRQO] b’YG‘K b’XYz’ kéG‘zQéW:GWR ybWOqYGjE;I vW‘‘W¡
Q­ O;WR‘ W‘ WRQK’;Y Q­ K’; qW‘Gz éYGRzGé:;‘ Q­ z’X‘;KK‘ GR a91an p;­QY; K’G‘ ’; ’Wj j;‘GER;j
FO;YGzWR GRjX‘KYGW: j;‘GERn

of
H25 GQéQ405—

Downloaded from http://direct.mit.edu/books/book/chapter-pdf/1894193/9780262368100_c000200.pdf by guest on 08 May 2021


H25 ­5z'QQz P0JV)V{ 04
N5'jQVÔ ­2Qz5 0—é)4z
jé)445z J{ -5Ô5V v)VV0—Q4
aj5V2)j— '0Ô2 Ô25 )——0—$
Ô)4W5 QO 20— JVQÔ25V RQ$
—5j2m ')— 04 )éé é065é02QQz
J)—5z Q4 ) ­QY)4 dQV0W
Ô5Yjé5 z5—0L4 z5V0û5z
OVQY ) JQQ6 Q4 -)éé)z0Qs
-V5—5Vû)Ô0Q4 kQW05Ô{ QO
N5'jQVÔ GQ/4Ô{s

?p
DY5V0W)4 d5—0L4 .Ô20W

Downloaded from http://direct.mit.edu/books/book/chapter-pdf/1894193/9780262368100_c000200.pdf by guest on 08 May 2021


FRjY;W wW::WjGQh S’; ,QXY
pQQ”‘ Q­ FYz’GK;zKXY;I
d\IIq JI>D‘\ 5he0 >D)>(Z
A?q'M(V (z CIHHIAM(‘\ (>MGZ
MVIH )HI'D\ IVA '>IV\HI'M(V8
M\ GDVD>IHHÌ q(V\MAD>DA
(VD (z 'SD ’D\' (z 'SD CIH4
HIAMIV DAM'M(V\6

?o
H25 GQéQ405—

Downloaded from http://direct.mit.edu/books/book/chapter-pdf/1894193/9780262368100_c000200.pdf by guest on 08 May 2021


TGRE«‘ b’Wé;: GR pQ‘KQRI ­QY »’Gz’ ’; ’Wj q;;R éYGOWYG:] kRE:G‘’ GR­:X;Rz; GR FO;YGzWR ­XYRGKXY;n
éYQOG‘;j éW]O;RK K’WK »W‘ R;^;Y OWj;n ©K G‘ S’; k:j;Y pY;»‘K;Y WYOz’WGYI »’Q‘; QYGEGR‘ EQ
q;:G;^;j K’WK 6WYYG‘QR jY;» Gj;W‘ ­QY K’G‘ z’XYz’ qWz” KQ LQOWR;‘!X; ‘K]:;‘I ‘;Y^;‘ W‘ W EQQj
­YQO K’; q;‘K ”RQ»R WYz’GK;zKXYW: éWKK;YR qQQ” ;[WOé:; Q­ K’; *‘KGz”" K]é; Q­ z’WGY K’WK »W‘ X‘;j
Q­ K’; KGO;I D ,QQ6 QO DVW20Ô5WÔ/V5 q] 3WO;‘ GR K’; zQ:QRG;‘ GR K’; OGj ‘;^;RK;;RK’ z;RKXY]n
8Gqq‘ y‘;zQRj ;jGKGQRh MQRjQRI a9D0 n S’G‘ K]é; Q­ z’WGY »W‘ zQR‘KYXzK;j Q­ KXYR;j QW”
WRj W‘’ ‘éGRj:;‘ “QGRK;j »GK’ K’; :;W‘K éQ‘‘Gq:;
©K G‘ ”RQ»R K’WK QK’;Y‘I :G”; UWOX;: vz:RKGY;I ;­­QYKJ W:K’QXE’ XREWGR:] GR ­QYO WRj Q­ !X;‘KGQR¡
WR WYz’GK;zK qXG:j;Y WRj zWY^;Y Q­ UW:;OI vW‘‘W¡ Wq:; zQO­QYKI GK »W‘ é;Y­;zK:] ‘XGK;j KQ K’; ‘GO¡
z’X‘;KK‘I j;é;Rj;j XéQR pWKK] WRj S’QOW‘ é:; KQQ:‘ Q­ K’; KXYR;Y‘ WRj “QGR;Y‘ Q­ GK‘ jW]n S’;
MWRE:;]«‘ H25 G0Ô{ )4z GQ/4ÔV{ ,/0éz5V— )4z ;WY:G;‘K FO;YGzWR KWq:;‘ WRj zWqGR;K‘ »;Y; GR­:X¡
3QV6Y)4}— HV5)—/V{ QO d5—0L4 yMQRjQRI a9eu n ;Rz;j q] K’; ,:;OG‘’ ‘K]:; Q­ K’; ‘G[K;;RK’
FRj LQq;YK UOGK’I »’Q ’Wj ‘;Y^;j W‘ K’; OW‘K;Y z;RKXY] W‘ WjWéK;j KQ kRE:G‘’ KW‘K;‘ GR k:G$W¡
zWYé;RK;Y ­QY NW‘‘WX 6W:: WK wYGRz;KQR CRG^;Y¡ q;K’WR WRj 3WzQq;WR kRE:WRjn F:K’QXE’ K’;GY
‘GK]I j;‘GER;j WRj qXG:K bWYé;RK;Y«‘ 6W:: GR w’G:W¡ ­QYO »W‘ é;Y’Wé‘ W‘ ’;W^] WRj z:XO‘] W‘ K’WK
j;:é’GWI KW”GRE ’G‘ zQRz;éK ­YQO -)éé)z0Q PQ4t Q­ K’; QYGEGRW: éYQjXzK‘I K’; j;zQYWKG^; j;KWG:‘
z0454—0— yMQRjQRh xG::GWO UW:OWRI a9De n mK’;Y »;Y; RQK zXK ‘Q j;;é:] GRKQ K’; »QQj W‘ K’;]
éWKK;YR qQQ”‘ QR WYz’GK;zKXYW: ‘K]:;I ‘Xz’ W‘ »;Y; QR K’; kRE:G‘’ WRj cXKz’ éYQKQK]é;‘n
K’Q‘; q] xG::GWO 6W:­é;RR] WRj ©‘WWz xWY;I
XRjQXqK;j:] ­QXRj Y;Wj] Wzz;éKWRz; GR K’; zQ:¡ ©R K’; OGjj:; Q­ K’; ‘;^;RK;;RK’ z;RKXY]I W­K;Y
QRG;‘n S’;] RQK QR:] éYQ^Gj;j K’; qXG:j;Y »GK’ K’; Y;‘KQYWKGQR Q­ K’; OQRWYz’] GR kRE:WRjI W YGz’
W;‘K’;KGz WRj ‘KYXzKXYW: EXGjWRz;I qXK W:‘Q qWYQ!X; ‘K]:; Wéé;WY;j W‘ W Y;WzKGQR KQ K’; Y;¡
‘KY;‘‘;j K’WK W qXG:jGRE ‘’QX:j ‘XGK GK‘ ­XRzKGQRn ‘KYWGRK‘ Q­ K’; bQOOQR»;W:K’n S’G‘ *xG::GWO WRj
vWY]" ‘K]:;I qW‘;j QR zQOqGR;j ©KW:GWR WRj
S’; éWKK;YR qQQ”‘ ’Wj W ‘KYQRE ;­­;zK QR ‘;^;YW: cXKz’ GR­:X;Rz;‘I »W‘ GRKYQjXz;j KQ K’; zQ:QRG;‘
W‘é;zK‘ Q­ j;‘GER GR K’; zQ:QRG;‘n FR] zGKG$;R GR a9uu »’;R K’; R;» LQ]W: 8Q^;YRQY qYQXE’K
zQX:j X‘; K’;O KQ KW”; Xé W KYWj;I QY WK :;W‘K Q^;Y éG;z;‘ K’WK ;[’GqGK;j zXRRGRE ­QYO‘ WRj
KQ jXé:GzWK; W qXG:jGRE QY WR Qq“;zKn F:K’QXE’ K’;] YGz’:] éWKK;YR;j ‘XY­Wz;‘ WRj ‘’Q»;j K’; GR­:X¡
jGj RQK ‘KGOX:WK; QYGEGRW:GK] W‘ OXz’ W‘ GOGKWKGQRI ;Rz; Q­ UGY b’YG‘KQé’;Y xY;Rn
zQR‘Gj;YWq:; GRE;RXGK] »W‘ Q­K;R Y;!XGY;j KQ
OQjG­] K’; j;‘GER‘ G::X‘KYWK;j KQ WzzQOOQjWK; 3Q’R 8:QWE ’W‘ WéK:] j;‘zYGq;j K’; ;GE’K;;RK’
K’; W^WG:Wq:; KW:;RK‘I KQQ:‘I WRj OWK;YGW:‘n vQY;¡ z;RKXY] GR kXYQé; W‘ K’; *OWERG­Gz;RK z;RKXY]"
Q^;YI K’; E;R;YW: W;‘K’;KGz zQR‘G‘K;Rz] ­YQO Q­ WYz’GK;zKXY; WRj ­XYRGKXY; j;‘GERn *S’; z’WYWz¡
éWKK;YR qQQ” KQ éWKK;YR qQQ” RXYKXY;j ’QOQE;R;¡ K;Y Q­ OWERG­Gz;Rz;I" ’; »YGK;‘I *^WYG;j »GK’ K’;
GK] GR qXG:jGRE‘I ­XYRGKXY;I ­XYRG‘’GRE‘I WRj K’; zQXRKY]J GR ,YWRz;I W‘ ‘QzG;K] ‘K;WjG:] Wj^WRz;j
QK’;Y Wzz;‘‘QY] WYK‘n FRj K’; ­WzK K’WK K’; j;‘GER KQ»WYj jG‘‘Q:XKGQRI GK q;zWO; ­YWRKGzJ GR K’;
jYW»GRE‘ »;Y; Y;éYQjXz;j GR qQQ”‘ Q­ ;REYW^¡ ;KG!X;KK; YGjj;R ‘KWK;‘ Q­ 8;YOWR]I QééY;‘‘G^;J
GRE‘ WRj ‘Q:j GR !XWRKGK] ‘XEE;‘K‘ K’WK K’; QYGEGR GR FX‘KYGW WRj ©KW:]I EW]J GR kRE:WRjI Y;‘KYWGR;j
Q­ j;‘GER W‘ W éYQ­;‘‘GQR GR GK‘ Q»R YGE’KI ‘;éW¡ qXK zQR‘G‘K;RK:] EYWzGQX‘n" yD4Ia1e
YWK; ­YQO K’WK Q­ K’; WYKG‘WRI OW] ’W^; q;;R
‘KGOX:WK;j q] K’;‘; éWKK;YR qQQ”‘n FK K’; ^;Y] F:K’QXE’ FRR; »W‘ !X;;R Q­ kRE:WRj ­QY QR:]
:;W‘KI K’;] ;R’WRz;j K’; WYKG‘K j;‘GER;Y«‘ Y;éX¡ K»;:^; ];WY‘ ya9ul a9ae I ’;Y RWO; ’W‘ q;;R
KWKGQR WRj ;WYRGRE éQ»;Yn EG^;R KQ K’; ;YW«‘ OQ‘K GOéQYKWRK ‘K]:; Q­ ­XYRG‘’¡
GRE‘n S’G‘ OQY; EYWz;­X: ­W‘’GQR zQOqGR;j
S’; ;WY:G;‘K ­XYRGKXY; WRj ­XYRG‘’GRE‘ GR FO;YGzW ;:;O;RK‘ ­YQO ,YWRz; WRj K’; N;K’;Y:WRj‘ GRKQ
»;Y; XRjQXqK;j:] K’Q‘; ­;» KY;W‘XY;j éG;z;‘ éYQjXzK‘ GR »’Gz’ ­QYO »W‘ zQR‘Gj;Y;j KQ q;
K’WK K’; ËOGEYË‘ ’Wj q;;R Wq:; KQ ‘KQ» WqQWYj OQY; GOéQYKWRK K’WR QYRWO;RKn ©K »W‘ WK K’G‘ KGO;
K’; ‘OW:: ‘’Gé‘ K’WK qYQXE’K K’;O ­YQO K’; m:j K’WK K’; zWqYGQ:; :;E »W‘ GRKYQjXz;j ­YQO ,YWRz;n
xQY:jn F:K’QXE’ ­;» WXK’;RKGzWK;j éG;z;‘ ‘XY¡ S’G‘ EYWz;­X: Wéé;RjWE;I »GK’ GK‘ GRK;Y:Qz”;j
^G^;I K’;Y; G‘ WR XRqYQ”;R :GR; Q­ kXYQé;WR WRj zXY^;‘ WjWéK;j ­YQO 8Y;;” WRj LQOWR ‘QXYz;‘I

DY5V0W)4 d5—0L4 .Ô20W

Downloaded from http://direct.mit.edu/books/book/chapter-pdf/1894193/9780262368100_c000200.pdf by guest on 08 May 2021


»W‘ ­XRjWO;RKW: KQ K’; VX;;R FRR; ‘K]:; WRj
éY;jGzK;j K’; YQzQzQn ©K ’W‘ é;Y‘G‘K;j »;:: GRKQ K’;
K»;RKG;K’ z;RKXY] W‘ W ‘]OqQ: Q­ Y;­GR;O;RKI RQK
QR:] QR ­XYRGKXY; qXK W:‘Q QR OWRX­WzKXY;j
Wéé:GWRz;‘ ‘Xz’ W‘ z’W­GRE jG‘’;‘I ‘KQ^;‘I WRj
Y;­YGE;YWKQY‘n S’; VX;;R FRR; ‘K]:; Q­ ­XYRG‘’¡
GRE‘ jGj RQK Wéé;WY GR K’; zQ:QRG;‘ XRKG: W­K;Y
FRR;«‘ j;WK’J ’Q»;^;YI GK é;Y‘G‘K;j K’YQXE’ K’;
Y;GER‘ Q­ 8;QYE; © ya9ae a9l9 WRj 8;QYE; ©©
ya9l9 a9gu n
©R a9uu WqQXK ’W:­ Q­ K’; ­XYRGKXY; q;GRE ‘Q:j
GR K’; zQ:QRG;‘ »W‘ jQO;‘KGz GR QYGEGRI OXz’ Q­
GK OWRX­WzKXY;j q] ËOGEYË “QGRK;Y‘ WRj zWqGR;K¡
OW”;Y‘n 6Q»;^;YI q] K’; KGO; Q­ K’; L;^Q:XKGQR
XYqWR zYW­K‘O;R ’Wj KW”;R Q^;Y K’; KYWj; K’WK
’Wj QRz; Q­­;Y;j K’; q;‘K OWY”;K ­QY kRE:G‘’
OWRX­WzKXY;Y‘n bYW­K‘O;R ­YQO pQ‘KQRI UW:;OI
wQYK‘OQXK’I N;»éQYKI WRj N;» 2QY” W:: “QGR;j
'J K’G‘ :XzYWKG^; zYW­KI qXK GK »W‘ K’; ­XYRGKXY;OW”;Y‘
Q­ w’G:Wj;:é’GW »’Q j;^;:Qé;j K’; ’GE’;‘K !XW:GK]
zQ:QRGW: FO;YGzWR ­XYRGKXY; GR K’; ;[é;R‘G^;
éG;z;‘ K’;] éYQjXz;j ­QY K’;GY z:G;RK;:; Q­ »;W:K’]
O;Yz’WRK‘ WRj KYWj;Y‘n S’; é;YGQj q;K»;;R
a9lg WRj a9gu OW] ;W‘G:] q; zQR‘Gj;Y;j K’;
éYGO; é;YGQj Q­ ­XYRGKXY; j;‘GER WRj OWRX­WzKXY;
GR K’; zQ:QRG;‘I W‘ W XRG!X; ‘K]:; »W‘ q;EGRRGRE
KQ ;O;YE; K’WK zQOqGR;j K’; z:;WY ;[éY;‘‘GQR
Q­ VX;;R FRR; »GK’ K’; zQOéWYWKG^;:] ‘éWY;
;:;EWRz; WRj Y;‘KYWGR;j QYRWO;RK Q­ zQ:QRGW:
dV q(U)I>M\(V ìM'S 'SD zYW­K‘O;Rn
?VM/?D SIVA4qI>*DA z?>VMZ
'?>D (z 'SD I>M\'(q>IqÌ8 'SM\ S’; kXYQé;WR é;W‘WRK KYWjGKGQR Q­ *‘KGz”" z’WGY¡
s>Dì\'D> qSIM> \?GGD\'\ OW”GRE ­QXRj Y;Wj] Wzz;éKWRz; GR FO;YGzW GR
’Ì M'\ HI'SD4'?>VDA )I>'\ K»Q ­QYO‘ WéWYK ­YQO K’; pY;»‘K;Y K]é;n S’;
IVA UDqSIVMqIH q(V\'>?qZ
'M(V 'SI' M' ìI\ I S?U’HD> :Wjj;YqWz” z’WGYI »’Gz’ Wéé;WY;j W‘ ;WY:] W‘
UIV?zIq'?>DA IVA I\\DUZ K’; ;:;^;RK’ z;RKXY] GR kXYQé;I zQR‘G‘K;j ;‘‘;R¡
’HDA )>(A?q'6 d' UIÌ D*DV KGW::] Q­ W ‘KYXzKXY; Q­ ‘KYWGE’K QY KXYR;j O;O¡
SI*D ’DDV \SM))DA Iq>(\\ q;Y‘ ­GKK;j »GK’ W »Q^;R YX‘’ ‘;WKn S’; *xGRj‘QY
'SD f'HIV'Mq (V 'SD vW]¡ z’WGYI" »’Gz’ éYQqWq:] QYGEGRWK;j GR K’; :WKK;Y
­:Q»;Y MV I ;V(q;DA4A(ìV
\'I'D6 6WYé;Y«‘ vQRK’:]I ’W:­ Q­ K’; ‘;^;RK;;RK’ z;RKXY]I ;Oé:Q];j KXYR;j
,IV?I>Ì 5ehh6 ‘éGRj:;‘ K’WK »;Y; ‘Qz”;K;j GRKQ W ‘Q:Gj »QQj
‘;WK ‘’Wé;j KQ ­GK K’; qQj]n 3Q’R 8:QWE z:WGO‘
K’WK K’; xGRj‘QY z’WGYI *q] WRKGzGéWKGRE K’; K;z’¡
RG!X; Q­ OW‘‘ éYQjXzKGQRI" G‘ *K’; QR:] WYKGz:;
K’WK ’W‘ ‘XY^G^;j K’; GRjX‘KYGW: Y;^Q:XKGQR XR¡
OWYY;jn" yD4Iag1 FRjI W:K’QXE’ 8:QWE Y;EWYj‘
K’; xGRj‘QY W‘ *K’; RWKGQRW: z’WGY Q­ kRE:WRj

?T
H25 GQéQ405—

Downloaded from http://direct.mit.edu/books/book/chapter-pdf/1894193/9780262368100_c000200.pdf by guest on 08 May 2021


W‘ K’; YQz”;Y G‘ K’; RWKGQRW: z’WGY Q­ FO;YGzWI"
GK ‘’QX:j q; éQGRK;j QXK K’WK GR kRE:WRj K’; xGRj¡
‘QY‘ »;Y; ”RQ»R QYGEGRW::] W‘ *»’;;:YGE’K«‘"
­XYRGKXY; WRj zQR‘Gj;Y;j KQ q; ‘XGKWq:; QR:] ­QY
éYQ^GRzGW: X‘;I »’;Y;W‘ GR FO;YGzW K’;] »;Y;
GOO;jGWK;:] éQéX:WY »’;R K’;] ­GY‘K Wéé;WY;j GR
a9lg WRj zWO; KQ q; »Gj;:] X‘;j GR éYG^WK;
’QO;‘ WK ;^;Y] ‘QzGW: :;^;: W‘ »;:: W‘ GR KW^;YR‘I
GRR‘I WRj éXq:Gz qXG:jGRE‘n F ‘;K Q­ xGRj‘QY
z’WGY‘ X‘;j q] K’; ‘GER;Y‘ Q­ K’; c;z:WYWKGQR Q­
©Rj;é;Rj;Rz; G‘ éY;‘;Y^;j GR ©Rj;é;Rj;Rz; 6W::
GR w’G:Wj;:é’GW W‘ W KY;W‘XY;j RWKGQRW: WYKG­WzKn
S’; xGRj‘QY »W‘ jXYWq:;I »;:: ‘XGK;j GR ‘’Wé;
WRj éYQéQYKGQR KQ K’; ’XOWR qQj]I WRj ;OGR;RK:]
éY;­;YY;j q] FO;YGzWR‘ QR K’; OQ^; ‘GRz; GK
zQX:j q; ”RQz”;j jQ»R ­QY ‘’GééGREn UQQR GK »W‘
q;GRE OWRX­WzKXY;j K’YQXE’QXK K’; zQ:QRG;‘I
WRj »GK’ GRzY;W‘;j zQOé;KGKGQR K’; ‘’Wé;I éYQ¡
éQYKGQR‘I WRj jGO;R‘GQR‘ »;Y; Y;­GR;j XRKG: K’;]
Wz’G;^;j K’WK ’Wéé] ’WYOQR] Q­ ­QYO WRj ­GKR;‘‘
K’WK OW”;‘ ­QY X:KGOWK; q;WXK] GR OWR OWj;
XKG:GKWYGWR éYQjXzK‘n
x’G:; K’; VX;;R FRR; ‘K]:; »W‘ j;^;:QéGRE GK‘
YGz’;Y q;WXK] GR K’; zQ:QRG;‘I K’; kRE:G‘’I ­Q::Q»¡
GRE K’; :;Wj Q­ »’WK ’Wj q;;R jQR; GR WYz’G¡
K;zKXY;I q;EWR KQ éXq:G‘’ qQQ”‘ Q­ ;REYW^;j
é:WK;‘ Q­ ­XYRGKXY; j;‘GER‘n S’; ­GY‘KI D K40û5V—)é
k{—Ô5Y QO vQ/—52Qéz b/V40Ô/V5 y©R;; WRj vW]
’;»I a9e4 I zQRKWGR;jI WzzQYjGRE KQ K’; éY;­Wz;I
* WqQ^; Duu j;‘GER‘ GR K’; OQ‘K ;:;EWRK KW‘K;I
qQK’ X‘;­X: WRj QYRWO;RKW:n" ylu0Ia0a F:K’QXE’
K’;Y; G‘ RQ éQ‘GKG^; ;^Gj;Rz; K’WK K’G‘ qQQ” »W‘
”RQ»R WRj X‘;j GR FO;YGzWI K’;Y; G‘ RQ jQXqK
K’WK K’; ‘;YG;‘ Q­ ­XYRGKXY; ‘K]:; qQQ”‘ K’WK ­Q:¡
:Q»;j »;Y; W^Gj:] ‘KXjG;j K’;Y; q] XYqWR zYW­K‘¡
O;R WRj K’;GY z:G;RK‘n
S’; OQ‘K GOéQYKWRK kRE:G‘’ qQQ” QR ­XYRGKXY;
j;‘GER »W‘ XRjQXqK;j:] S’QOW‘ b’Géé;RjW:;«‘
A54Ôé5Y)4}— )4z G)J045Ô ’)65V}— d0V5WÔQV
ya9ge n b’Géé;RjW:;«‘ luu é:WK;‘ Q­ ­XYRGKXY;
j;‘GER‘ ;‘KWq:G‘’;j W R;» ‘K]:; q] zQOqGRGRE
b’GR;‘;I ,Y;Rz’I R;Q 8QK’GzI WRj wW::WjGWR ;:;¡
O;RK‘ GRKQ WR ;:WqQYWK; kRE:G‘’ YQzQzQ ­W‘’GQR
K’WK ‘»;éK W»W] K’; OQY; Y;‘;Y^;j VX;;R FRR;
‘K]:;n c;‘éGK; zYGKGzG‘O ­YQO ‘QO; O;Oq;Y‘
Q­ ’G‘ éYQ­;‘‘GQRI b’Géé;RjW:;«‘ ‘K]:; »W‘
‘XééQYK;j q] vQL)VÔ2}— D4)é{—0— QO ,5)/Ô{J »’Gz’
éYWG‘;j GK‘ ‘;Yé;RKGR; :GR;‘ W‘ K’; ;éGKQO; Q­

12
DY5V0W)4 d5—0L4 .Ô20W

Downloaded from http://direct.mit.edu/books/book/chapter-pdf/1894193/9780262368100_c000200.pdf by guest on 08 May 2021


LSD JMVA\(> qSIM>8
D»DU)HMzMDA ’Ì 'SM\ SMGS
zIV4’Iq; z>(U rDHIìI>D8
D)M'(UM^D\ 'SD q(H(VMIH
\'ÌHD6 BD' M'\ 'DqSV(H(GÌ
M\ IAUM>I’HÌ \?M'DA '(
H(ì4q(\'8 SMGS4*(H?UD
)>(A?q'M(V IVA Dq(V(UMZ
qIH \'(>IGD IVA \SM))MVG6
dVAD» (z fUD>MqIV rD\MGV8
yI'M(VIH wIHHD>Ì (z f>'6
LSD zIVqMz?H AD\MGV *I>MZ
I'M(V\ z(> I qSIM> \S(ìV MV
LS(UI\ uSM))DVAIHD‘\
S’; 8;RK:;OWR WRj bWqG¡
R;K vW”;Y«‘ cGY;zKQY ìD>D
I \(?>qD (z MV\)M>I'M(V z(>
z?>VM'?>D UI;D>\ (z HD\\D>
MUIGMVI'M(V MV tVGHIVA
IVA 'SD q(H(VMD\6

?r
H25 GQéQ405—

Downloaded from http://direct.mit.edu/books/book/chapter-pdf/1894193/9780262368100_c000200.pdf by guest on 08 May 2021


LSD\D >(?GS \;D'qSD\ z(>
I \MAD qSIM>8 z>(U PIU?DH
mMq;HD‘\ AD\MGV ’((;8
\S(ì uSM))DVAIHD‘\ MVZ
zH?DVqD MV I '>IV\M'M(VIH
q(VqD)' q(U’MVMVG uSMZ
VD\D q>D\'MVG ìM'S I \(HMA
\)HI' MV 'SD Y?DDV fVVD
\'ÌHD6 CSMHIADH)SMI m?Z
\D?U (z f>'l GM*DV ’Ì
JIH'D> m6 ,Dzz(>A\6 CS('(Z
G>I)S ’Ì f6 ,6 JÌI''6

?i
DY5V0W)4 d5—0L4 .Ô20W

Downloaded from http://direct.mit.edu/books/book/chapter-pdf/1894193/9780262368100_c000200.pdf by guest on 08 May 2021


q;WXK]n S’; kRE:G‘’ YQzQzQ ‘K]:; q;zWO; W‘
éQéX:WY GR K’; zQ:QRG;‘ W‘ GK »W‘ GR kRE:WRjI WRj
W:K’QXE’ RQ zQéG;‘ Q­ K’; b’Géé;RjW:; qQQ”
‘XY^G^; KQjW] GR K’; zQ::;zKGQR‘ Q­ zQ:QRGW: qQQ”‘
WK :;W‘K l0 zQéG;‘ WY; ”RQ»R KQ ’W^; q;;R GR
K’; zQ:QRG;‘ éYGQY KQ K’; L;^Q:XKGQRI GRz:XjGRE QR;
O;RKGQR;j GR K’; Y;zQYj‘ Q­ bWYé;RK;Y«‘ 6W:: GR
w’G:Wj;:é’GWn
S’QOW‘ b’Géé;RjW:;«‘ ‘Xzz;‘‘ W‘ W zQRz;G^;Y
WRj éXq:G‘’;Y Q­ j;‘GER‘ ‘XEE;‘K‘ K’WK ’;I OQY;
K’WR WR] QK’;Y WYKG‘WR j;‘GER;Y Q­ ’G‘ ;YWI »W‘
W ­QY;YXRR;Y Q­ K’; zQRK;OéQYWY] GRjX‘KYGW:
j;‘GER;Yn F:K’QXE’ ’; »W‘ W zQOé;K;RK zYW­K‘¡
OWRI ’; ;:;zK;j KQ zQOqGR; ’G‘ KW:;RK‘ »GK’
éYWzKGzW: qX‘GR;‘‘ O;K’Qj‘ WRj W ‘;R‘; Q­ W;‘¡
K’;KGz jGY;zKGQR GR QYj;Y KQ j;^;:Qé WRj OWY”;K
zQRz;éK‘ K’WK »QX:j O;;K K’; j;‘GY;‘ Q­ ’G‘
z:G;RK‘n
S’; ‘K]:; K’WK b’Géé;RjW:; zY;WK;j »W‘ zQéG;j
q] QK’;Y‘I ‘Xz’ W‘ S’QOW‘ vWR»WYGREI »’Q‘;
G)J045Ô )4z G2)0VY)65V}— ­5)é bV054z )4z
GQYj)40Q4 yMQRjQRI a91g »W‘ W:‘Q X‘;j W‘
W ‘QXYz; qQQ” q] ËOGEYË WRj RWKG^; zWqGR;KOW”¡
;Y‘ GR FO;YGzWn UQO;I :G”; UWOX;: vGz”:; Q­
w’G:Wj;:é’GWI ”;éK RQK;qQQ”‘ GR »’Gz’ K’;] Y;¡
zQYj;j K’;GY Q»R WjWéKWKGQR Q­ b’Géé;RjW:;«‘
j;‘GER‘n S’; ­GR;‘K ­XYRGKXY; GR w’G:Wj;:é’GW zWO; LSM\ \MAD qSIM>J UIAD MV
GR K’; j;zWj; “X‘K q;­QY; K’; L;^Q:XKGQR ­YQO K’; yDì B(>;8 z(HH(ì\ 'SD
»QY”‘’Qé‘ Q­ LWRjQ:­I UW^;Y]I 8Q‘K;:Q^;I F­­:;z”I uSM))DVAIHD \'ÌHD qH(\DHÌ6
WRj QK’;Y zWqGR;KOW”;Y‘ »’Q éYQjXz;j QYGEGRW: W(ìD*D>8 M' M\ qH?U\Ì MV
ìDMGS' IVA )>()(>'M(V
zQRz;éK‘ Q­ ­XYRGKXY; y‘Xz’ W‘ K’; ’GE’qQ] q] q(U)I>DA ìM'S M'\ CSMHIZ
Y;zQOqGRGRE ;:;O;RK‘ ­YQO b’Géé;RjW:;n 6Q»¡ ADH)SMI D/?M*IHDV'\6
;^;YI q] K’G‘ KGO;I ­;;:GRE‘ »;Y; YXRRGRE WEWGR‘K u(?>'D\Ì (z WDV>Ì N>IVqM\
kRE:G‘’ ­W‘’GQR‘ WRj Gj;W‘I WRj FO;YGzWR WYKG¡ A? C(V' JMV'D>'S?>
‘WR‘ KQQ” éWGR‘ KQ zQR^GRz; K’;GY z:G;RK‘ K’WK K’;GY m?\D?U6
éYQjXzK‘ »;Y; RQK GOéQYK;j qXK *OWj; GR FO;Y¡
GzW" ? W ­WzK K’WK »W‘ “X‘K W‘ EQQj ­QY qX‘GR;‘‘
W‘ GK »W‘ ­QY éQ:GKGz‘n S’X‘I K’; ­:Q» Q­ kRE:G‘’
GR­:X;Rz; »W‘ ‘;K W‘Gj;I WK :;W‘K éXq:Gz:]I XRKG: K’;
;Rj Q­ K’; xWY Q­ ©Rj;é;Rj;Rz;I »’;R K’; zX:¡
KXYW: GR­:X[ ­YQO kRE:WRj KQ ’;Y :WK; zQ:QRG;‘
q;EWR WEWGR W‘ ‘KYQRE:] W‘ ;^;Yn
bQ:QRGW: ‘G:^;Y‘OGK’‘ yW:K’QXE’ K’;] »;Y; zW::;j
EQ:j‘OGK’‘ GR K’;GY jW]I K’; KGK:; Q­ ‘G:^;Y‘OGK’‘
G‘ OQY; WééYQéYGWK; ‘GRz; K’;] »QY”;j éYGOWYG:]
GR K’WK »’GK; O;KW: ’Wj Wzz;‘‘ KQ K’; ^WYGQX‘

?x
H25 GQéQ405—

Downloaded from http://direct.mit.edu/books/book/chapter-pdf/1894193/9780262368100_c000200.pdf by guest on 08 May 2021


WYz’GK;zKXYW: WRj ­XYRGKXY; ‘K]G; qQQ”‘ K’YQXE’ K’; OQ‘K ;­­;zKG^; »W] Q­ zQR‘;Y^GRE »;W:K’ WRj
K’;GY éWKYQR‘n S’; éYGOWY] j;‘GER ‘QXYz;‘ ­QY OW”GRE GK Y;WjG:] Gj;RKG­GWq:; WRj Y;j;;OWq:;n
K’;GY éYQjXzK‘I ’Q»;^;YI »;Y; WzKXW: éG;z;‘ Q­ S’; zQ:QRG‘K‘« OG‘KYX‘K Q­ éWé;Y zXYY;Rz] q;zWX‘;
zQRKGR;RKW: WRj kRE:G‘’ ‘G:^;YI QY WK :;W‘K éWKK;YR‘I GK :Wz”;j ­G[;j ^W:X; zY;WK;j W j;OWRj ­QY ‘G:^;Y
jYW»GRE‘I WRj K;Oé:WK;‘ KW”;R ­YQO K’; QYGEG¡ W‘ W j;é;RjWq:; ­QYO Q­ zXYY;Rz]n UG:^;Y‘OGK’‘
RW:‘n ,QY QYRWO;RKWKGQRI K’;] ;GK’;Y jXé:GzWK;j *;‘KWq:G‘’;j K’; OQj; Q­ /GR^;‘KGRE« K’;GY ‘G:^;Y
QYGEGRW:‘ QY qQYYQ»;j ­Y;;:] ­YQO W::;EQYGzW: ­GE¡ zQGR WRj K’WK Q­ K’;GY z:G;RK‘ GR K’; ­QYO Q­
XY;‘ GR éYGRK‘ QY ­YQO zGé’;Y qQQ”‘ ”RQ»R KQ éQYYGRE;Y‘I KWR”WYj‘ WRj K’; :G”;I ­QY qQK’ GOO;¡
q; GR K’; zQ:QRG;‘ WK K’; KGO;n jGWK; X‘; WRj ­XKXY; ‘;zXYGK]n" y4gI e S’X‘I
q;zWX‘; Q­ K’;GY ”RQ»:;jE; Q­ K’; ^W:X; Q­ K’;
S’; ‘G:^;Y Q­ K’; zQ:QRG;‘ G‘ GRK;Y;‘KGRE RQK QR:] zQGRWE; Q­ K’; ^WYGQX‘ RWKGQR‘ WRj K’;GY WqG:GK]
q;zWX‘; Q­ GK‘ ’GE’ !XW:GK] qXK W:‘Q q;zWX‘; Q­ KQ W‘‘W]I O;:KI WRj ­WqYGzWK; K’; éY;zGQX‘ O;KW:‘I
GK‘ GOéQYKWRK YQ:; GR K’; ;zQRQO] Q­ K’; zQ:QRG;‘ K’;] ‘;Y^;j yWK :;W‘K ‘]OqQ:GzW::] W‘ qWR”;Y‘I
WRj GK‘ z:Q‘; W‘‘QzGWKGQR »GK’ QXK‘KWRjGRE ;^;RK‘ Q­K;R Wz’G;^GRE éY;‘KGEGQX‘ éQ:GKGzW: WRj ‘QzGW:
WRj é;Y‘QRW:GKG;‘n S’;Y; »;Y; EQ:j‘OGK’‘ GR K’; éQ‘GKGQR‘ W‘ W Y;‘X:Kn N;[K KQ K’; z:;YE] K’;] »;Y;
zQOéWR] Q­ K’; ­GY‘K ‘’Gé ‘WG:GRE KQ 'GYEGRGW GR K’; OQ‘K Y;‘é;zK;j éYQ­;‘‘GQRW:‘ GR K’; zQ:QRG;‘n
a1u4I ‘;RK RQK KQ éYWzKGz; K’;GY zYW­K ‘Q OXz’
W‘ KQ ‘;WYz’ ­QY éY;zGQX‘ O;KW:‘ GR K’; N;» ©R E;R;YW:I ‘G:^;Y é:WK; »W‘ !XGz”;Y K’WR ­XYRG¡
xQY:jn S’WK K’;] ­QXRj RQR; »W‘ zQR­GYO;j q] KXY; KQ ;OqYWz; z’WRE;‘ GR ‘K]:; q;zWX‘; éYQKQ¡
bWéKWGR 3Q’R UOGK’n F‘ QK’;Y ‘QXYz;‘ Q­ »;W:K’ K]é;‘ »;Y; OQY; ;W‘G:] KYWR‘éQYK;j WRj zQ:QRGW:
»;Y; j;^;:Qé;jI K’; éYWzKGz; Q­ ‘G:^;Y‘OGK’GRE O;Yz’WRK‘ »;Y; W:: KQQ »G::GRE KQ Wzz;éK W‘
»W‘ j;:W];j XRKG: :WK;Y GR K’; ‘;^;RK;;RK’ éW]O;RK ­QY K’;GY éYQjXzK‘ ‘G:^;Y»WY; K’WK zWYYG;j
z;RKXY]n CRKG: K’;RI ‘Xz’ ‘G:^;Y W‘ Wéé;WY;j GR K’; Y;‘é;zK;j !XW:GK] OWY”‘ Q­ K’; kRE:G‘’ xQY¡
K’; zQ:QRG;‘ »W‘ qYQXE’K ­YQO kXYQé; GR é;Y‘QRW: ‘’Gé­X: bQOéWR] Q­ 8Q:j‘OGK’‘n
KY;W‘XY;‘ yW‘ ’W‘ q;;R zQR­GYO;j q] »G::‘ WRj
GR^;RKQYG;‘ n S’; ;WY:G;‘K zQ:QRGW: ‘G:^;Y Y;­:;zK;j K’; qWYQ!X;
,:;OG‘’ ­QYO‘ K’WK »;Y; éQéX:WY GR kXYQé; WRj
S’; ­GY‘K ‘G:^;Y‘OGK’‘ ”RQ»R KQ ’W^; éYWzKGz;j kRE:WRjn 6Q»;^;YI K’; FO;YGzWR zQéG;‘ »;Y;
GR K’; zQ:QRG;‘ »;Y; 6X:: WRj UWRj;Y‘QRn 3Q’R ‘KXYjG;Y WRj OQY; Y;‘;Y^;j K’WR K’; QYGEGRW:‘ WRj
6X:: ya1le a14D zWO; KQ FO;YGzW »’;R ’; »W‘ Q­K;R Wz’G;^;j WR ;:;EWRz; Q­ éYQéQYKGQR WRj
aa ];WY‘ Q:j W­K;Y ‘QO; KYWGRGRE GR K’; zYW­K GR W ­QYO WRj jGERGK] WééYQéYGWK; KQ K’;GY ­XRzKGQRn
kRE:WRjn x’;R K’; 8;R;YW: bQXYK Q­ vW‘‘Wz’X¡ S’; ‘G:^;Y Q­ N;» FO‘K;YjWO yW‘ N;» 2QY” »W‘
‘;KK‘ ;‘KWq:G‘’;j W OGRK GR pQ‘KQR GR a1glI ’; ”RQ»R XRKG: a19eI »’;R GK »W‘ z;j;j KQ kRE:WRj
»W‘ WééQGRK;j OW‘K;Y Q­ K’; OGRK WRj ‘;:;zK;j q] K’; SY;WK] Q­ x;‘KOGR‘K;Y ‘’Q»;j W éWYKGzX:WY
WRQK’;Y MQRjQR KYWGR;j ‘G:^;Y‘OGK’I LQq;YK éY;­;Y;Rz; ­QY K’; q;W”;Y ­QYO ­QY qQK’ ‘;zX:WY
UWRj;Y‘QR ya1u4 a10D I W‘ ’G‘ éWYKR;Yn SQE;K’;Y WRj ;zz:;‘GW‘KGzW: éXYéQ‘;‘n S’; ­QYO »W‘ »Gj;:]
K’;] zQGR;j K’; ­GY‘K zQ:QRGW: ‘’G::GRE‘I QYGEGRW::] zQéG;j GR K’; zQ:QRG;‘I WRj W RXOq;Y Q­ ;[WO¡
»GK’ W »G::Q» KY;; GOéYGRKI K’;R WR QW”I WRj ­GRW::] é:;‘ ’W^; q;;R éY;‘;Y^;j q;zWX‘; K’;] éW‘‘;j
W éGR;n 6X:: q;zWO; GOO;R‘;:] »;W:K’] q;¡ GRKQ z’XYz’ zQ::;zKGQR‘ W‘ zQOOXRGQR ^;‘‘;:‘n
zWX‘; ’; »W‘ é;YOGKK;j KQ ”;;é QR; QXK Q­ ;^;Y]
K»;RK] ‘’G::GRE‘ ­QY ’G‘ ‘;Y^Gz;? XRjQXqK;j:] ©R a14g MQXG‘ —©' Y;^Q”;j K’; kjGzK Q­ NWRK;‘I
K’; ;WY:G;‘K WRj OQ‘K Y;OXR;YWKG^; ­QYO Q­ W YQ]¡ jYG^GRE OWR] Q­ K’; ,Y;Rz’ wYQK;‘KWRK‘ GRKQ ;[G:;I
W:K] zQRKYWzK GR FO;YGzWn 6X:: WRj UWRj;Y‘QR W:‘Q WRj »’;R GR a149 ’; ­QYqWj; K’; 6XEX;RQK WYKG¡
OWj; K’; ­GY‘K ”RQ»R ‘G:^;Y GR K’; zQ:QRG;‘ q] ‘WR‘ KQ éYWzKGz; K’;GY zYW­K GR ,YWRz; WRj QYj;Y;j
zQR^;YKGRE zQGR GRKQ é:WK;n S’;] W­­G[;j K’;GY OWY” K’;O KQ O;:K jQ»R K’;GY é:WK; OWR] ;OGEYWK;j
KQ GK ­QY Gj;RKG­GzWKGQRI YWK’;Y K’WR WKK;OéKGRE KQ K’; zQ:QRG;‘n pWYK’Q:QO;» M; LQX[ ya11D
KQ ­Q::Q» K’; OQY; zQOé:GzWK;j ‘]‘K;O Q­ kRE:G‘’ a9aD GR N;» 2QY” WRj b;$WY 8’G‘;:GR ya19u
’W::OWY”GREn ,QY Q^;Y W z;RKXY] K’G‘ éYWzKGz; Q­
KYWR‘­QYOGRE zQGRWE; GRKQ ‘G:^;Y»WY; éYQ^;j KQ q;

ag
DY5V0W)4 d5—0L4 .Ô20W

Downloaded from http://direct.mit.edu/books/book/chapter-pdf/1894193/9780262368100_c000200.pdf by guest on 08 May 2021


a9De GR w’G:Wj;:é’GW »;Y; QXK‘KWRjGRE 6XEX;RQK qWYQ!X;I WRj ‘Q K’WK ‘K]:; »W‘ ‘:Q»:] Y;é:Wz;j
‘G:^;Y‘OGK’‘ »’Q Y;“;zK;j K’;GY ,Y;Rz’ QYGEGR‘ KQ q] ‘’Wé;‘ K’WK WKK;OéK;j KQ OW”; Xé ­QY K’;GY
»QY” GR K’; éQéX:WY kRE:G‘’ ‘K]:;‘ Q­ K’; zQ:QRG;‘n :Q‘‘ Q­ QYRWO;RK q] Y;­GR;O;RK GRKQ OQY; EYWz;­X:
:GR;‘ WRj q] K’; WjjGKGQR Q­ ‘KG­­;RGRE qWRj‘ WRj
S’; :GR;WE; Q­ FO;YGzWR ‘G:^;Y‘OGK’‘I »’Gz’ OQ:jGRE‘n p] a9lu K’; R;» ‘K]:; yKQ q; ”RQ»R
q;EWR »’;R 3Q’R 6X:: ya1le a14D KQQ” QR ’G‘ W‘ VX;;R FRR; ’Wj ;‘KWq:G‘’;j GK‘;:­ GR K’; WYK‘
­GY‘K zQ:QRGW: WééY;RKGz;I 3;Y;OGW’ cXOO;Y Q­ :X[XY] WRj K’; pYGKKWRGW UKWRjWYj »W‘ Y;^Q”;jn
ya1eg a9a4 I zQRKGRX;j »GK’QXK W qY;W” XRKG: K’;
j;WK’ Q­ wWX: L;^;Y;n cXOO;Y«‘ »QY” qYGjE;‘ S’; é:WGR;Y VX;;R FRR; ­QYO‘ Q­ ‘G:^;Y »;Y;
K’; ;WY:] FO;YGzWR ‘G:^;Y ‘K]:;‘ ­YQO K’; L;‘KQ¡ OQ‘K :G”;:] GRKYQjXz;j KQ K’; zQ:QRG;‘ q] K’;
YWKGQR K’YQXE’ K’; xG::GWO WRj vWY] qWYQ!X; GRKQ !X;;R«‘ jQRWKGQR Q­ ;zz:;‘GW‘KGzW: é:WK; KQ K’;
K’; VX;;R FRR; é;YGQjn 6G‘ q;‘K »QY” »W‘ GR OW“QY kéG‘zQéW:GWR z’XYz’;‘ K’;Y;n S’; ‘K]:; ’Wj
K’; YGz’ é:W] Q­ EWjYQQR;j WRj ­:XK;j ‘XY­Wz;‘ W éWYKGzX:WY Wéé;W: KQ K’; zQ:QRG‘K‘ q;zWX‘; GK‘
WEWGR‘K K’; é:WGR ‘XY­Wz;‘ Q­ K’; qWYQ!X; ‘GOé:;Y ­QYO‘ »;Y; ‘;;R W‘ :;‘‘ WYG‘KQzYWKGz WRj
K’WK 3Q’R vWY‘’W:: w’G::Gé‘ q;:G;^;j X‘’;Y;j GR K’X‘ GR ’WYOQR] »GK’ K’; W‘z;KGz Y;‘KYWGRK Q­ K’;
*K’; EQ:j;R WE; Q­ FO;YGzWR ‘G:^;Y‘OGK’GRE WK wXYGKWR‘n k^;R ‘QI K’; é:WGR ‘XY­Wz;‘ GR^GK;j K’;
W KGO; »’;R K’; z;RK;Y‘ Q­ K’; zYW­K ’Wj ];K ;RYGz’O;RK Q­ ­GR; ;REYW^GREn ©R K’G‘ é;YGQj
KQ z;:;qYWK; K’;GY z;RK;RWY]n" y9aI 1a U;^;YW: K’; ­W‘’GQR »W‘ KQ X‘; ;:WqQYWK; zGé’;Y‘ Q­ GRK;Y¡
Q­ cXOO;Y«‘ ‘XY^G^GRE zXé‘ Wéé;WY KQ ’W^; q;;R :Wz;j GRGKGW:‘ K’WK »;Y; éQéX:WY GR kRE:WRjn
OWj; ‘;YGW::]I »GK’ WééY;RKGz;‘ ­GRG‘’GRE K’;O KQ U]Oé‘QR«‘ N5' ,QQ6 QO G{j25V— yMQRjQRI a9l1
‘XGK K’; »G‘’;‘ Q­ QR; éWKYQR QY WRQK’;Yn »W‘ ”RQ»R WRj X‘;j q] zQ:QRGW: ‘G:^;Y‘OGK’‘
‘Xz’ W‘ UGO;QR UQXOWGR; ya14g a9gu Q­ N;»
mR; Q­ cXOO;Y«‘ WééY;RKGz;‘ »W‘ ’G‘ qYQK’;Y 2QY”I WRj GR 3Q’R UGRE:;KQR bQé:;]«‘ éQYKYWGK
GR :W» 3Q’R bQR;] ya1gg a9ll I E;R;YW::] Q­ K’; pQ‘KQR ‘G:^;Y‘OGK’ WRj ;REYW^;Y NWK’WRG;:
zQR‘Gj;Y;j K’; OQ‘K ‘;R‘GKG^; Q­ K’; zQ:QRGW: 6XYj ya9l0 a999 QR; OW] ‘;; G::X‘KYWK;j
‘G:^;Y‘OGK’‘n 6G‘ OW‘K;YéG;z; G‘ XRjQXqK;j:] K’; 8XG::GO«‘ d0—jé){ QO v5V)ézV{ 6XYj«‘ ‘QXYz;
vQRK;GK’I »’Gz’ G‘ RQ» K’; éYG$;j z;RK;YéG;z; Q­ WYOQYGW: j;^Gz;‘n
Q­ K’; 8WY^WR zQ::;zKGQR WK 2W:; CRG^;Y‘GK]n ©K‘
­QYOI KW”;R ­YQO WR kRE:G‘’ éYQKQK]é;I G::X‘KYWK;‘ p] a9DuI »’G:; K’; VX;;R FRR; ‘K]:; ‘KG:: jQOG¡
K’; j;‘GY; Q­ K’; ­GY‘K E;R;YWKGQR Q­ RWKG^; qQYR RWK;j FO;YGzWR ‘G:^;YI W R;» OQj; »W‘ ‘éY;Wj¡
N;» kRE:WRj;Y‘ KQ Q­­‘;K K’;GY éYQ^GRzGW:G‘O q] GRE YWéGj:] WzYQ‘‘ W:: Q­ K’; j;zQYWKG^; WYK‘ GR
Wz!XGYGRE ­GR;I ;:WqQYWK; Qq“;zK‘ GR K’; :WK;‘K kR¡ kRE:WRjn ©K »W‘ WR ;[Xq;YWRK YQzQzQ K’WK ’Wj
E:G‘’ ‘K]:;n ©R a9agI KQ»WYj K’; ;Rj Q­ ’G‘ :G­;I QYGEGRWK;j GR ,YWRz; QXK Q­ MQXG‘ —©' ­QYO‘ WRj
bQR;] KQQ” QR K’; ]QXRE 6XEX;RQK ËOGEYËI QYRWO;RKn F‘]OO;KYGzW: j;zQYWKGQR‘ ;OqQj]GRE
FéQ::Q‘ LG^QGY; ya9ul a9ge I W‘ ’G‘ WééY;RKGz;I ‘zYQ::‘I é:WRK‘I WRj ‘’;::‘ GR zW‘KI z’W‘;jI ;R¡
WRj LG^QGY; »W‘ ‘KG:: »GK’ ’GO GR a9ll »’;R bQR;] EYW^;jI WRj éG;Yz;j K;z’RG!X;‘ W:: qXK Qq‘zXY;j
jG;jn LG^QGY; ‘Xq‘;!X;RK:] KYWGR;j ’G‘ ‘QR wWX: K’; QYGEGRW: ‘’Wé; Q­ K’; éYQjXzKn
L;^;Y; ya9Dg a4a4 GR K’; zYW­K Q­ ‘G:^;Y‘OGK’GREn
©R K’; OGj‘K Q­ K’G‘ é;YGQj K’; EY;WK .4W{WéQj£z05
S’; xG::GWO WRj vWY] qWYQ!X; ‘K]:; q;zWO; Q­ c;RG‘ cGj;YQK Wéé;WY;jn S’; ­GY‘K ^Q:XO; »W‘
‘Q éQéX:WY K’WK OWR] ;WY:G;Y éG;z;‘ Q­ ‘G:^;Y é:WK; éXq:G‘’;j GR a9ga WRj K’; :W‘K GR a99ln S’;
»;Y; :Q‘K »’;R K’;] »;Y; O;:K;j jQ»R KQ q; Y;¡ ‘;zKGQR‘ QR ­XYRGKXY; WRj ‘G:^;Y jG‘é:W];j K’;
‘’Wé;j GRKQ K’; R;» ­QYOn k^;RKXW::] ‘Q OXz’ ;[KYW^WEWRK ­QYO‘ Q­ K’; ,Y;Rz’ YQzQzQI WRj OX‘K
‘K;Y:GRE zQGRWE; ’Wj jG‘Wéé;WY;j GRKQ K’; O;:KGRE ’W^; q;;R W ‘KYQRE GR­:X;Rz; QR K’; »QY” Q­
éQK KQ q;zQO; ‘G:^;Y»WY; K’WK K’; pYGKG‘’ bYQ»R S’QOW‘ b’Géé;RjW:;I QR K’WK Q­ wWX: j; MWO;YG;
­QXRj GK R;z;‘‘WY] GR a109 KQ YWG‘; K’; é;Yz;RK¡ yWR ;[G:;j 6XEX;RQK OW‘K;Y ‘G:^;Y‘OGK’ »QY”GRE
WE; Q­ ‘G:^;Y X‘;j GR é:WK; ­YQO K’; UK;Y:GRE GR MQRjQR I WRj K’YQXE’ MWO;YG; WRj QK’;Y‘ Q­
UKWRjWYj Q­ un0lg X‘;j ­QY zQGRWE; KQ K’; pYGK ’G‘ zQXRKY]O;R QR K’; ‘G:^;Y Q­ kRE:WRj WRj K’;
KWRGW UKWRjWYj Q­ un01I K’X‘ GRzY;W‘GRE K’; zQ‘K Q­
K’; qW‘Gz OWK;YGW:n S’; R;» W::Q] »W‘I OQY;Q^;YI
KQQ ‘Q­K ­QY K’; K’GR ;:WqQYWK; ­QYO‘ Q­ K’;

a,
H25 GQéQ405—

Downloaded from http://direct.mit.edu/books/book/chapter-pdf/1894193/9780262368100_c000200.pdf by guest on 08 May 2021


Tp
DY5V0W)4 d5—0L4 .Ô20W

Downloaded from http://direct.mit.edu/books/book/chapter-pdf/1894193/9780262368100_c000200.pdf by guest on 08 May 2021


H25 D4LéQtbé5Y0—2 —Ô{é5
0— V5Oé5WÔ5z 04 Ô25 OQVY QO
Ô20— —Ô/Vz{ —5û54Ô554Ô2t
W54Ô/V{ J5)65V J{ v/éé
)4z k)4z5V—Q4s CÔ— jVQÔQ$
Ô{j5 Y){ 2)û5 J554 )4
5)Vé05V d/ÔW2 J5)65V
64Q'4 ÔQ 2)û5 J554 04
,Q—ÔQ4 )Ô Ô25 Ô0Y5s “)é5
K40û5V—0Ô{ DVÔ A)éé5V{
’)J5é ,V)z{ A)Vû)4
GQéé5WÔ0Q4s
D —Ô)4z04L W/j J{ R5V5$
Y0)2 d/YY5V 04 Ô25
2)4z—QY5 30éé0)Y )4z
’)V{ J)VQ8/5 —Ô{é5s H25
OQVY ')— O)—20Q4)Jé5 04
.4Lé)4z )Ô Ô25 Ô0Y5 )4z
0Ô 0— é065é{ Ô2)Ô d/YY5V
Y)z5 /j Ô25 JQ'é— O0V—Ô
)4z Ô254 O0ÔÔ5z —QY5 '0Ô2
—Ô5Y— a)— 0éé/—ÔV)Ô5zm ÔQ J5
/—5z )— WQYY/40Q4 W2)é$
0W5— )4z QÔ25V— '0Ô2 2)4$
zé5— ÔQ J5 /—5z )— —5W/é)V
W)/zé5 W/j—s GQ/VÔ5—{ QO
’/—5/Y QO b045 DVÔ—
,Q—ÔQ4s

To
H25 GQéQ405—

Downloaded from http://direct.mit.edu/books/book/chapter-pdf/1894193/9780262368100_c000200.pdf by guest on 08 May 2021


LSD m(V'DM'S8 ’Ì ,(SV
u(VDÌ8 M\ I U(V?UDV'IH
D»IU)HD (z fUD>MqIV \MHZ
*D> MV 'SD JMHHMIU IVA
mI>Ì ’I>(/?D \'ÌHD6 d' M\
’D''D> )>()(>'M(VDA 'SIV8
IVA I\ HI*M\S I\8 M'\ tVZ
GHM\S )>('('Ì)D\6 LSD \qIHZ
H()DA >MU ìI\ ?\DA '(
qI>>Ì GHI\\D\8 ìM'S 'SDM>
’(ìH\ MUUD>\DA MV q(HA
ìI'D>8 MV'( 'SD >((U ìSD>D
'SD qD>DU(VMIH )?VqS ìI\
'( ’D UIAD6 BIHD EVM*D>Z
\M'Ì f>' wIHHD>Ì8 mI’DH
s>IAÌ wI>*IV u(HHDq'M(V6

T?
DY5V0W)4 d5—0L4 .Ô20W

Downloaded from http://direct.mit.edu/books/book/chapter-pdf/1894193/9780262368100_c000200.pdf by guest on 08 May 2021


r>IìMVG (z I m(V'DM'S 'SI'
ìI\ (ìVDA ’Ì 'SD pMV'Z
VD>\‘ WIHH MV b(VA(V MV
5h9 6 ,(\D)S JMHz>DA
u>M))\8 m:j kRE:G‘’ w:WK;n

TT
H25 GQéQ405—

Downloaded from http://direct.mit.edu/books/book/chapter-pdf/1894193/9780262368100_c000200.pdf by guest on 08 May 2021


Ty
DY5V0W)4 d5—0L4 .Ô20W

Downloaded from http://direct.mit.edu/books/book/chapter-pdf/1894193/9780262368100_c000200.pdf by guest on 08 May 2021


R)WQJ v/Vz}— Y)—Ô5Vj05W5
')— Ô20— Ô'Qt2)4zé5z WQû$
5V5z W/j jV5—54Ô5z 04
oxyy J{ —5û5V)é LV)Ô5O/é
,Q—ÔQ4 Y5VW2)4Ô— ÔQ Ô25
WQYY)4z5V QO ) WQéQ40)é
')V—20j 04 )4 5)Vé{ 4)$
û)é û0WÔQV{ Qû5V Ô25 bV54W2
04 B04L A5QVL5}— ')Vs CÔ—
—0Yjé5V q/554 D445 —Ô{é5
V5Oé5WÔ— Ô25 ,V0Ô0—2 GVQ'4}—
04WV5)—5 04 Ô25 j5VW54Ô$
)L5 QO —0éû5V 04 WQ04)L5s
“)é5 K40û5V—0Ô{ DVÔ A)éé5V{
’)J5é ,V)z{ A)Vû)4
GQéé5WÔ0Q4s
D j)L5 QO z5—0L4— OQV
—0éû5V OQVY— 04 Ô25 VQWQWQ
—Ô{é5 WQ4W50û5z J{ )VÔ0—Ô—
)4z 54LV)û5V— OQV Ô25 d0$
z5VQÔ -0WÔQV0)é .4W{WéQ$
j5z0) QO HV)z5— )4z
C4z/—ÔV{ aûQé/Y5 CCms H25{
'5V5 YQz0O05z )4z V5jVQ$
z/W5z )4z Ô25{ —5Vû5z )—
) —Q/VW5 QO 0z5)— OQV 5>$
j)ÔV0)Ô5 v/L/54QÔ —0éû5V$
—Y0Ô2— )4z QÔ25V WV)OÔ—Y54
04 QÔ25V é)4z— 04Wé/z04L
Ô25 WQéQ405—s

Tr
H25 GQéQ405—

Downloaded from http://direct.mit.edu/books/book/chapter-pdf/1894193/9780262368100_c000200.pdf by guest on 08 May 2021


zQ:QRG;‘n F:K’QXE’ K’; .4W{WéQj£z05 G::X‘KYWK;j W Y;W:G‘KGz WééYWG‘W: Q­ ’G‘ KQQ:‘I OWK;YGW:‘I WRj
K’; :X[XY] Q­ K’; YQzQzQI GK »W‘ GR GK‘;:­ K’; ­GY‘K XRzQOé:;K;j éYQ“;zK‘n
EY;WK ;­­QYK KQ Wz”RQ»:;jE; WRj KQ EWK’;Y GRKQ W
‘GRE:; ‘QXYz; W:: Q­ K’; ”RQ»:;jE; K’WK »W‘ zQO¡ S’; OQ‘K ;:WqQYWK; ‘WOé:; Q­ K’; YQzQzQ ‘K]:;
GRE ­YQO K’; ­GY‘K ‘KGYYGRE‘ QR K’; zQRKGR;RK Q­ GRK;:¡ GR K’; zQ:QRG;‘ G‘ W ”;KK:; WRj ‘KWRj OWj; GR
:;zKXW: KQ:;YWRz; WRj YWKGQRW:;n p] ;[W:KGRE K’; w’G:Wj;:é’GW q] 3Q‘;é’ LGz’WYj‘QRI UYn ya9aa
Wz!XG‘GKGQR Q­ ‘zG;RKG­Gz ”RQ»:;jE;I cGj;YQKI »GK’ a94e n c;‘éGK; GK‘ ;[KYW^WEWRz; Q­ ­QYO WRj QYRW¡
K’; ’;:é Q­ ’G‘ zQ::WqQYWKQY cF©;Oq;YKI ‘éY;Wj O;RKI ’Q»;^;YI GK »W‘ QR:] W OQj;‘K GRK;YéY;KW¡
K’; j;OQzYWKGz zQRz;éK K’WK EQ^;YRO;RK ;[G‘K;j KGQR Q­ K’; XRY;‘KYWGR;j kRE:G‘’ WRj ,Y;Rz’ »QY”
WK K’; é:;W‘XY; Q­ WRj ­QY K’; EQQj Q­ K’; é;Qé:;n Q­ K’; é;YGQjn FRQK’;Y ;[WOé:; Q­ w’G:Wj;:é’GW
©R W »W]I K’; .4W{WéQj£z05 éY;‘WE;j WRj OW] YQzQzQ Q­ XRX‘XW: ’G‘KQYGz GRK;Y;‘K G‘ K’; GR”‘KWRj
’W^; Wzz;:;YWK;j K’; Y;^Q:XKGQR‘ K’WK »;Y; KQ QY ‘KWRjG‘’I ­W‘’GQR;j q] w’G:Gé U]REI 3Yn ya9uD
zQO;I ­GY‘K GR K’; zQ:QRG;‘ WRj :WK;Y GR ,YWRz;n a940 I K’WK »W‘ X‘;j q] K’; ‘GER;Y‘ Q­ K’; c;z:W¡
vQ‘K GOéQYKWRKI GK ‘GERW:;j K’; jW»RGRE Q­ K’; YWKGQR Q­ ©Rj;é;Rj;Rz; GR a991 WRj WEWGR GR a949
WE; Q­ K;z’RQ:QE]n q] Y;éY;‘;RKWKG^;‘ Q­ K’; zQ:QRG;‘ WjQéKGRE K’;
bQR‘KGKXKGQRn ©K G‘ RQ» GR ©Rj;é;Rj;Rz; 6W:: GR
,QY W »’G:;I K’; zQOOQR ;­­QYK Q­ K’; kRE:G‘’ w’G:Wj;:é’GWn
WRj K’;GY zQ:QRGW:‘ GR K’; ,Y;Rz’ WRj ©RjGWR xWY‘
ya9g1 a91D jY;» K’; K»Q z:Q‘;Y KQE;K’;YI WRj ©R N;» kRE:WRjI K’; YQzQzQ GR­:X;Rz; OWRG­;‘K;j
K’; :G^;:] KYWj; K’WK ;R‘X;j ;RzQXYWE;j K’; GO¡ GK‘;:­ éYGOWYG:] GR WR ;:WqQYWKGQR Q­ j;zQYWKG^;
éQYKWKGQR Q­ OXz’ kRE:G‘’ ‘G:^;Y GR K’; R;» j;KWG: YWK’;Y K’WR WR ;[WEE;YWKGQR Q­ ­QYOn ©K »W‘
YQzQzQ ‘K]:;n UQO; zQ:QRGW: ‘G:^;Y‘OGK’‘ q;zWO; W:‘Q RQK XRzQOOQR ­QY ‘G:^;Y‘OGK’‘ KQ KYWR‘éQ‘;
GOéQYK;Y‘ Q­ é:WK;J QK’;Y‘ Y;‘;RK;j K’; K’Y;WK KQ K’; ­QYO‘ Q­ b’GR;‘; éQYz;:WGR yQY kRE:G‘’ zQéG;‘
K’;GY Q»R :G^;:G’QQjn K’;Y;Q­ GRKQ ‘G:^;Y Qq“;zK‘n S’; *UQR‘ Q­ MGq;YK]"
qQ»: OWj; q] wWX: L;^;Y; GR a914 G‘ ‘WGj KQ
S’; ‘XY^G^GRE :;KK;Y‘I RQK;qQQ”‘I WRj “QXYRW:‘ Q­ ’W^; ­Q::Q»;j W z;YWOGz éYQKQK]é;n S’;Y; G‘ W
zQ:QRGW: WYKG‘WR‘ QzzW‘GQRW::] GRz:Xj; G::X‘KYWKGQR‘ éQYz;:WGR qQ»: Q­ K’G‘ K]é; GR K’; pYGKG‘’ vX‘;XO
Q­ éYQjXzK‘ QY éYQjXzK j;KWG:‘I qXK K’;‘; Wéé;WY XéQR »’Gz’ G‘ éWGRK;j W éQYKYWGK Q­ 3Q’R xG:”;‘I
KQ q; Y;zQYj‘ Q­ »QY” jQR; YWK’;Y K’WR QYGEGRW: K’; kRE:G‘’ O;Oq;Y Q­ wWY:GWO;RK »’Q ‘XééQYK;j
j;‘GER‘ KQ q; ­Q::Q»;jn mR; j;‘GER qQQ” K’WK K’; YGE’K KQ ‘;:­ EQ^;YRO;RK GR K’; zQ:QRG;‘n
;‘zWé;j K’; WKKYGKGQR Q­ KGO; G‘ K’WK Q­ K’; b;YKWGR:] wWX: L;^;Y; X‘;j K’; QYG;RKW: z;YWOGz
FRRWéQ:G‘ ‘G:^;Y‘OGK’ xG::GWO ,WYG‘ ya9l4 a4ue I éGKz’;Y ­QYO W‘ Y;éYQjXz;j GR kRE:WRj W‘ W
»’Gz’ G‘ RQ» GR K’; zQ::;zKGQR Q­ K’; vWY]:WRj ‘QXYz; ­QY ’G‘ Q»R ‘G:^;Y éGKz’;Y‘n
6G‘KQYGzW: UQzG;K] GR pW:KGOQY;n ©K zQRKWGR‘ jYW»¡
GRE‘ Q­ ^WYGQX‘ ‘G:^;Y Qq“;zK‘ GR K’; YQzQzQ ‘K]:; k^;R q;­QY; K’; FO;YGzWR L;^Q:XKGQRI W Y;jG‘¡
K’WK »;Y; WééWY;RK:] KYWz;j ­YQO K;Oé:WK;‘ zQ^;Y;j z:W‘‘GzW: ‘K]:; »W‘ ‘»;;éGRE kXYQé; K’WK
WRj éWKK;YR‘ OWj; ;GK’;Y ­YQO K’; QYGEGRW: éG;z;‘ »W‘ KQ ­XYRG‘’ W ‘K]:G‘KGz qW‘; ­QY K’; qXG:jGRE‘
QY éXYz’W‘;j ­YQO WRQK’;Y ‘QXYz;n S’; Y;zQYj‘ WRj ­XYRG‘’GRE‘ Q­ K’; R;» Y;éXq:Gzn mRz; WEWGR
Q­ wWX: L;^;Y;I 3Yn ya9Dg a4a4 I RQ» GR K’; FO;YGzWR ­W‘’GQR »W‘ KQ ­W:: GRKQ ©YR; q;’GRj
zQ::;zKGQR Q­ K’; vW‘‘Wz’X‘;KK‘ 6G‘KQYGzW: UQzG;K] kXYQé;WR ‘QXYz;‘ WRj KQ q;EGR »GK’ K’;O W
GR pQ‘KQRI ‘’Q» KYWzGRE‘ K’WK »;Y; éYQqWq:] qWz”»WYj ‘éGR K’YQXE’ K’; 8Y;;” WEQYW WRj K’;
OWj; ­YQO K’; QYGEGRW: éG;z;‘ W‘ »;:: W‘ QK’;Y LQOWR ­QYXOI GRKQ kE]éK WRj K’; qW$WWY‘ Q­ K’;
YQzQzQ j;zQYWKG^; éWKK;YR‘n FRQK’;Y X‘;­X: w;Y‘GWR‘I ‘;;”GRE zX:KXYW: “X‘KG­GzWKGQRn
‘QXYz; Q­ GR­QYOWKGQR WqQXK K’; éYWzKGz; Q­ zQ:Q¡
RGW: zYW­K‘O;R G‘ K’; »YGKK;R GR^;RKQYG;‘ K’WK ’W^;
q;;R éY;‘;Y^;jn ©K »W‘ zX‘KQOWY] GR ;WY:] FO;Y¡
GzW »’;R WR WYKG‘WR jG;j ­QY K’; zQXYK KQ WééQGRK
W zQOOGKK;; GRz:XjGRE O;Oq;Y‘ Q­ K’; j;¡
z;W‘;j«‘ KYWj; KQ OW”; W j;KWG:;j GR^;RKQY] »GK’

i
DY5V0W)4 d5—0L4 .Ô20W

Downloaded from http://direct.mit.edu/books/book/chapter-pdf/1894193/9780262368100_c000200.pdf by guest on 08 May 2021


GQéQ40)é 45'—j)j5V— W)V$
V05z )zû5VÔ0—5Y54Ô— —0Y0é)V
ÔQ Ô20— Q45 aOVQY Ô25 pQ‘¡
KQR k^;RGRE wQ‘KI oxTTm 04
'20W2 d)405é v54W2Y)4
jVQY0—5— ÔQ Y)65 jVQz$
/WÔ— )Ô é5)—Ô 58/)é 04
8/)é0Ô{ ÔQ Ô2Q—5 J504L 0Y$
jQVÔ5zs GQ/VÔ5—{ QO ’)——)$
W2/—5ÔÔ— v0—ÔQV0W)é
kQW05Ô{s

Tx
H25 GQéQ405—

Downloaded from http://direct.mit.edu/books/book/chapter-pdf/1894193/9780262368100_c000200.pdf by guest on 08 May 2021


g
DY5V0W)4 d5—0L4 .Ô20W

Downloaded from http://direct.mit.edu/books/book/chapter-pdf/1894193/9780262368100_c000200.pdf by guest on 08 May 2021


d5—0L4 OQV ) WQOO55jQÔ
04 Ô25 VQWQWQ —Ô{é5 OVQY
Ô25 z5—0L4 JQQ6 QO 30éé0)Y
b)V0—s H25 Y)04 OQVY—
'5V5 )jj)V54Ôé{ ÔV)W5z
OVQY Ô5Yjé)Ô5— '0Ô2
5é)JQV)Ô5 z5Ô)0é— )zz5z
04 ) O)4W0O/é Y)445Vs
’)V{é)4z v0—ÔQV0W)é
kQW05Ô{s
HV)W04L— QO é)VL5 )4z —Y)éé
—jQQ4— Y)z5 J{ -)/é ­5$
û5V5 RVs OQV V5WQVz j/V$
jQ—5—s k/W2 ÔV)W04L— Y){
2)û5 )é—Q —5Vû5z )— j)Ô$
Ô5V4— OQV QÔ25V j05W5—s
GQ/VÔ5—{ QO ’)——)W2/$
—5ÔÔ— v0—ÔQV0W)é kQW05Ô{s

Tf
H25 GQéQ405—

Downloaded from http://direct.mit.edu/books/book/chapter-pdf/1894193/9780262368100_c000200.pdf by guest on 08 May 2021


H25 O0V—Ô )4z é)—Ô j)L5—
QO Ô25 04û54ÔQV{ QO Ô25
ÔQQé— Y)Ô5V0)é— )4z /4$
O040—25z 'QV6 QO ,54U)Y04
v/Vz aoxTftoxuoms H20—
V5WQVz jVQû0z5— /—5$
O/é 5û0z54W5 QO Ô25 Y5Ô2$
QzQéQL{ v/Vz OQééQ'5z 04
20— WV)OÔs ­5jVQz/W5z '0Ô2
Ô25 j5VY0——0Q4 QO R)Y5—
’s GQ44Qéé{ ­5L0—Ô5V
QO -VQJ)Ô5 k/OOQé6 GQ/4Ô{
’)——)W2/—5ÔÔ—s

yp
DY5V0W)4 d5—0L4 .Ô20W

Downloaded from http://direct.mit.edu/books/book/chapter-pdf/1894193/9780262368100_c000200.pdf by guest on 08 May 2021


H25 Q4é{ VQWQWQ Ô5)65ÔÔé5 Ô{j5 Y)z5 J{ -)/é z5
)4z —Ô)4z —/Vû0û04L OVQY P)Y5V05 04 .4Lé)4zs
Ô25 WQéQ40)é j5V0Qz Y)z5 “)é5 K40û5V—0Ô{ DVÔ A)éé5V{
J{ Ô25 q/)65V —0éû5V—Y0Ô2 ’)J5é ,V)z{ A)Vû)4
RQ—5j2 ­0W2)Vz—Q4 kVs GQéé5WÔ0Q4s
QO -20é)z5éj20)s DéÔ2Q/L2
/4/—/)éé{ 5é)JQV)Ô5 OQV )
WQéQ40)é jVQz/WÔ 0Ô 0— YQV5
V5—ÔV)045z Ô2)4 0Ô— jVQÔQ$

yo
H25 GQéQ405—

Downloaded from http://direct.mit.edu/books/book/chapter-pdf/1894193/9780262368100_c000200.pdf by guest on 08 May 2021


f q>DIU ìI>D qD>IUMq
)M'qSD> UIV?zIq'?>DA MV
bM*D>)((H I>(?VA 5e998
)>MUI>MHÌ z(> D»)(>' '( 'SD
EVM'DA P'I'D\6 d'\ z(>U
ìI\ ’I\DA (V IV (>MDV'IH
)>('('Ì)D8 IVA M'\ (>VIZ
UDV' x'SD >DqDV' kD*(H?Z
'M(V V('ìM'S\'IVAMVG1 ìI\
MV'DVADA '( I))DIH '( 'SD
VDì VI'M(V6 BIHD EVM*D>\M'Ì
f>' wIHHD>Ì8 mI’DH s>IAÌ
wI>*IV u(HHDq'M(V6
f \MH*D> )M'qSD> ’Ì CI?H
kD*D>D ’I\DA (V 'SD
bM*D>)((H )M'qSD>6 d' ìI\
DUMVDV'HÌ \?M'DA '( )>(Z
A?q'M(V Iz'D> >(HHDA \SDD'
\MH*D> SIA ’Dq(UD I*IMHZ
I’HD6 BIHD EVM*D>\M'Ì f>'
wIHHD>Ì8 mI’DH s>IAÌ
wI>*IV u(HHDq'M(V6

y?
DY5V0W)4 d5—0L4 .Ô20W

Downloaded from http://direct.mit.edu/books/book/chapter-pdf/1894193/9780262368100_c000200.pdf by guest on 08 May 2021


H20— b5z5V)é —Ô5Vé04L —0éû5V
Ô5)jQÔ WQû5V5z —/L)V
JQ'é )4z WV5)Y j0ÔW25V
J{ d)405é 1)4 1QQV20—
'0Ô2 ) Ô5) W)zz{ Y)z5
ÔQ Y)ÔW2 J{ 3s,suRs —2Q'
W2)V)WÔ5V0—Ô0W Qû)é /V4
)4z 25éY5Ô —2)j5—s H25
Ô5)jQÔ )4z Ô25 —jQ/Ô )V5
O)JV0W)Ô5z OVQY Oé)ÔtVQéé5z
—0éû5V —255Ôs H25 QV4)$
Y54Ô)Ô0Q4 04Wé/z5— 54$
LV)û5z —')L— QO Ô)——5é5z
zV)j5V{ 04 Ô25 Dz)Y—
O)—20Q4s GQ/VÔ5—{ QO DVÔ
C4—Ô0Ô/Ô5 QO G20W)LQs

yT
H25 GQéQ405—

Downloaded from http://direct.mit.edu/books/book/chapter-pdf/1894193/9780262368100_c000200.pdf by guest on 08 May 2021


Downloaded from http://direct.mit.edu/books/book/chapter-pdf/1894193/9780262368100_c000200.pdf by guest on 08 May 2021

You might also like