See discussions, stats, and author profiles for this publication at: https://www.researchgate.

net/publication/247762743

Traditional and Nontraditional Gender Roles and Work—Family Interface for

Men and Women

Article  in  Journal of Career Development · August 2009

DOI: 10.1177/0894845308327736

CITATIONS READS
66 23,352

3 authors:

Kristin M. Perrone Stephen L. Wright

Ball State University University of Northern Colorado
73 PUBLICATIONS   1,286 CITATIONS    25 PUBLICATIONS   778 CITATIONS   

SEE PROFILE SEE PROFILE

Z. Vance Jackson
Paul Smith's College
6 PUBLICATIONS   182 CITATIONS   

SEE PROFILE

Some of the authors of this publication are also working on these related projects:

Adult Attachment View project

Multicultural Counseling Topics View project

All content following this page was uploaded by Kristin M. Perrone on 24 August 2014.

The user has requested enhancement of the downloaded file.

 Gender Roles 1

Running head: GENDER ROLES

Traditional and Nontraditional Gender Roles and Work-Family Interface for Men and Women

Kristin M. Perrone

Ball State University

Stephen L. Wright

University of Northern Colorado

Z. Vance Jackson

Green Mountain College

 Gender Roles 2

Traditional and Nontraditional Gender Roles and Work-Family Interface for Men and Women

Gender roles in family and work domains are in a state of flux. The traditional view of

the male as breadwinner and the female as homemaker has shifted over time (Lease, 2003).

Changes in social norms have resulted in men and women placing a high value on both work and

family roles (Gordon & Whelan-Berry, 2005). Currently in the United States, the vast majority

of men and women combine work and family roles. In fact, the most recent census bureau data

indicates that dual-earner families are the most prevalent family type with children under the age

of eighteen (65%; page 381; U.S. Census Bureau, 2008). To put this in a historical context, the

percentage of households with children under the age of 18 headed by two working spouses was

59% in 1986, 64% in 1990, 68% in 2000, and 65% in 2005. This indicates a steady increase in

families headed by two working spouses until 2000, and a slight drop-off in 2005. The

percentage of families with only the father in the labor force was 36% in 1986, 31% in 1990,

28% in 2000, and 30% in 2005. This pattern coincides with the pattern of dual-employed

spouses, where the percentage of male “breadwinner” families steadily decreases until 2000 with

a slight increase in 2005. The percentage of families with only the mother in the labor force has

steadily risen, but continues to be very small: 2.1% in 1986, 2.3% in 1990, 3.1% in 2000, and

3.6% in 2005. Further, the overall number of working women in the U.S. has increased across

racial or ethnic groups. The U.S. Census Bureau reported that in 1980, 51% of “White” women

were in the workforce, 53% of “Black” women were in the workforce, and 47% of “Hispanic”

women were in the workforce. In 2005, these numbers increased in all three categories, with

59% of “White” women, 62% of “Black” women, and 55% of “Hispanic” women employed

outside the home (page 382; U.S. Census Bureau, 2008).

 Gender Roles 3

Past research has demonstrated that satisfaction with work and family roles impacts

mental health and overall life satisfaction for both women and men (Barnett, Raudenbush,

Brennan, Pleck, & Marshall, 1995; Salvatore & Muñoz Sastre, 2001). Given the importance of

both work and family roles in the lives of so many individuals, and the interdependence of these

roles, it is clear that career counselors must consider clients’ career choices and decisions within

the context of the clients’ other life roles, especially family roles. Schultheiss (2003) proposed a

relational approach to career counseling in which counselors help clients integrate both career

and noncareer roles. Schultheiss noted that the relational approach to general counseling

originated from the tradition of feminist theory and that such approaches are now considered to

be more inclusive towards both women and men. She applies this approach to career counseling

in order to recognize the reciprocal dynamic between career development and relationships.

Relationships are viewed as a resource that can help individuals pursue their career goals as well

as a factor in the types of goals one pursues. Further, potential conflicts or dilemmas between

relationship and career roles are acknowledged and addressed. In this approach, relationships are

considered at all phases of career counseling, including assessment, conceptualization, and

intervention (Schultheiss). This approach provides career counselors with the opportunity to

gain a more complete assessment of the client and to assist the client in improving satisfaction

across life roles.

In addition to having an awareness of the interface between work and family when

helping clients to make career decisions and career transitions, career counselors must also

consider the impact of gender. Many authors have noted changing gender roles in relation to

work and family. Increasingly, men and women are sharing both provider and nurturer roles.

Authors in the 1990’s (e.g., Spiker-Miller & Kees, 1995) began to notice that past research on
 Gender Roles 4

work-family interface had focused mainly on women’s roles while virtually ignoring how men’s

roles were also changing in both work and family domains. In this article, we examine both

men’s and women’s changing roles and responsibilities in work and family domains. We

provide a review of recent empirical literature relevant to this topic and discuss the implications

of this literature for career counselors. Specifically, we examine ways that career counselors can

assist individuals adjust to and cope with their changing work and family roles. Also, we

examine the role strain that individuals may experience and ways that career counselors can help

clients cope with role strain and improve quality of life. In addition, we discuss specific methods

that career counselors can utilize to help clients find balance between their multiple life roles.

Finally, we discuss directions for future research.

Coping with Changing Work and Family Roles

Traditional work and family roles have recently undergone significant changes (Lease,

2003). As the work and family roles of men and women change, so do the challenges that

confront these individuals. Career counselors must understand changing roles in order to assist

individuals working through these challenges. One such challenge can be seen when looking at

changing vocational roles and interests.

Changes in Work Roles. When the field of vocational psychology first began, theorists

and practitioners focused on helping individuals find the one career that fit with their interests,

abilities and values, which they would theoretically pursue in a linear fashion until retirement.

The reality in today's society is that individuals often hold a series of jobs and may even change

career fields several times over their life span. The rate of involuntary job loss has increased,

along with widespread downsizing and the exporting of jobs to other countries (Attewell, 1999).

Employees must live with uncertain futures and perhaps even the very real threat of losing their
 Gender Roles 5

jobs. Women and those with only a high school diploma or less are more likely to remain

unemployed than men or those with a college degree (Attewell). In an effort to assist clients who

are confronted with changes in career roles, career counselors could provide job skills workshops

or other service programs to facilitate growth in these areas. They might assist individuals in

finding scholarships or other sources of funding if they wish to pursue higher education, as this

could broaden their career choices.

Clients’ perceptions of their existing skills and interests could be assessed using a scale

such as the Campbell Interest and Skills Survey (Campbell, Hyne, & Nilsen, 1992), which

classifies information into four categories: jobs to pursue (high interest and ability), jobs to

explore (low interest and high ability), jobs to develop (high interest and low ability) and jobs to

avoid (low interest and ability). This information can facilitate career decision-making and

planning for clients who are unsure of what direction to pursue next. The explore and develop

categories can be particularly fertile ground, because they can spark insight in the client in regard

to an existing skill set that he or she hadn’t previously considered to be linked to an interesting

career, or a strongly held interest that he or she could pursue further training in.

In some ways, having a spouse with a career can ease the burden of involuntary job loss

by providing a continuing source of income for the family. In other ways, involuntary job loss

can be more complex for dual-earner families. For example, if the unemployed spouse needed to

relocate geographically to find another job and the employed spouse did not have mobility in

their work situation, serious complications could arise. Career counselors could help couples

with problem-solving, negotiating, and decision-making in situations such as these. They might

also encourage clients to develop additional transferable skills and to pursue continuing
 Gender Roles 6

education. In addition to the effects already mentioned, research has linked unemployment and

economic stress to marital dissatisfaction, separation, and divorce (Rank, 2000).

Changes in Marital Roles. Changes in work roles often lead to changes in marital roles

and can ultimately affect marital satisfaction (Schultheiss, 2003). Career counselors must be

aware of the interface of career and marriage in order to help clients identify and evaluate

potential options that could enhance both roles. Career counselors may consider crucial factors

related to marital quality among dual-career couples, including communication, decision-making

strategies, and equity. Perrone and Worthington (2001) found that communication between dual-

career couples contributed significantly to both marital quality and to satisfaction with the dual-

career lifestyle. Career counselors can utilize strategies of negotiation including reflective

listening, mentalization, and recognition to improve the quality of their clients’ communication

patterns (Pizer & Pizer, 2006). Career counselors can use these strategies to assist couples in

navigating difficult conversations centered around the interface of career with other life roles.

Related to negotiation, effective conflict management skills are also key contributors to

relationship quality of dual-earner couples. Career counselors should assist clients in developing

effective conflict management skills.

Career counselors may encourage clients to examine their decision making process and

utilize more direct influence strategies with their spouses. Weigel, Bennett, and Ballard-Reisch

(2006) examined influence strategies used by couples and found that direct influence strategies

(e.g., bargaining) tended to increase marital satisfaction, whereas the use of indirect strategies

(e.g., not speaking to one’s partner) was related to decreased marital satisfaction. In addition to

impacting marital satisfaction, Jackson and Scharman (2002) found that the family decision

making process significantly affects work satisfaction. Constructive decision-making strategies

 Gender Roles 7

are needed for day-to-day decisions such as deciding which spouse can stay home with a sick

child, as well as larger decisions, such as the need for one spouse to take a job in another

geographic location (Konopaske, Robie, & Ivancevic, 2005). Each couple needs to devise a

strategy that works best for their needs, values, and life situation. In some cases, one partner’s

career may be deemed as the primary career and decisions made accordingly. Traditionally, the

husband’s career was seen as primary, but this could also be determined by factors such as which

partner has a higher salary or, in the case of the geographic relocation example, whether one

partner has a more specialized career with less ability to gain employment in a new location. In

other cases, couples might decide to take turns making career sacrifices for one another.

Equity of roles and responsibilities within dual-employed couples is another important

area to consider. There are often no clear guidelines for what is an equitable division of duties

(Himsel & Goldberg, 2003). The actual time spent on household or childcare tasks is less

important than the perception of each member of the couple regarding whether the division of

labor between them is generally fair (Lavee & Katz, 2002). Perceived fairness is an important

contributor to marital satisfaction among dual-career couples (Frisco & Williams, 2003). Career

counselors could utilize some of the communication strategies discussed earlier in order to assist

couples in negotiating equitable solutions in regard to child care, family work, and job demands

(Hart & Kelly, 2006). A discussion of exchange theory may help inform the discussion of

equity. Exchange theory states that power flows from bringing resources to the relationship and

that the spouse that makes less money would be responsible for more housework. Bittman,

England, Folbre, Sayer, and Matheson (2003) studied gender role expectations within the

framework of exchange theory. The authors found that a curvilinear relationship for men existed

such that as men’s earnings relative to their wives’ earnings decreased from providing all the
 Gender Roles 8

money to providing half, men increased their housework. Conversely, as wives earned more

money relative to their husbands, wives’ housework decreased. Career counselors may wish to

explore clients’ expectations in relation to exchange theory and help clients identify what they

would consider to be equitable.

Parental roles. As the number of dual-earner families increases, so does the frequency of

those engaged in nontraditional parental roles. These new roles lead to new experiences. For

instance, Doucet (2004) interviewed 70 stay-at-home dads in Canada. Most of the stay-at-home

fathers worked part-time, studied part-time, or viewed their break from work as a way to form a

new type of work. Although being a full-time parent was seen as a somewhat transitional stage

rather than a more long-term role, findings from the study suggest that stay-home-fathers are

engaging in varied patterns of employment and fatherhood in new ways that may lead to

potential shifts in defining fatherhood in society as well as the social institution of work. With

the number of dual-earner families increasing, more individuals are concerned about the

potential negative impact of two working parents on their children’s well-being. As parents

adapt to new work and family roles, problems can arise. Career counselors must be aware of

these problems and develop strategies to assist individuals work through these challenges.

One such challenge involves negative societal attitudes toward those who choose

nontraditional parenting roles. Brescoll and Uhlmann (2005) investigated attitudes toward

nontraditional parents (i.e. stay-at-home fathers and employed mothers) in the United States.

The researchers found that stay-at-home fathers and employed mothers were evaluated more

negatively than stay-at-home mothers and employed fathers. Perceived social regard was lowest

for stay-at-home fathers. For employed mothers, perceived social regard was just as high as for
 Gender Roles 9

traditional parents, which may be attributed to gaining social respect and regard by taking on the

traditionally male breadwinner role (Brescoll & Uhlmann).

In addition, Zimmerman (2000) found that stay-at-home fathers were less likely to

network with their community, were less involved with activities outside the home, and fewer

fathers volunteered in the community or socialized with other stay-at-home parents. The

researchers believed that the results could be partly attributed to how men are socialized to be

independent as well as how there are fewer stay-at-home fathers which decreases the

opportunities for fathers to socialize and network with other fathers with whom they can identify

(Zimmerman). Less involvement outside the home may also reflect the perceived negative

reactions toward stay-at-home fathers. Interestingly, Zimmerman found that both stay-at-home

mothers and stay-at-home fathers felt disapproval from society, but felt support and appreciation

from their spouses. Given this information, career counselors are aware that clients who are

engaged in nontraditional career and family roles may receive negative feedback from others.

Career counselors could focus on assisting clients to develop social support systems to help

attenuate the negative effects of social criticism. One way to do this might be to facilitate

support groups for individuals in nontraditional roles.

While there is some evidence that people in nontraditional parental roles are encountering

problems, there is also evidence that dual-career families are doing well emotionally and

physically, and that their children are thriving. In fact, employed parents spend more time now

with their children than parents did 20 years ago (Haddock, 2001). Three approaches to

childcare among dual-earner couples were identified by Hertz (1999). The first approach

consisted of the wife taking primary responsibility for parenting and either working part time or

staying home to raise the children. The second approach involved hiring caregivers outside the
 Gender Roles 10

family to provide childcare while both parents worked outside the home. Not all families have

the financial ability to do this. Some individuals may have family members, neighbors, or

friends who can assist with caring for children while the parents are at work. In some geographic

areas, full-day kindergarten is offered by public schools, and there are different types of after-

school childcare programs available for school-age children. The third approach discussed by

Hertz consisted of both parents modifying work schedules and responsibilities to take an equal

share in childrearing. According to Hertz' research, the two groups of couples who tended to use

the third approach were couples with professional careers who could take advantage of flexible

workplace programs and working class couples who were able to choose opposite shifts at work

and take turns being home with the children (Hertz). Career counselors could assist dual-earner

couples in generating alternatives for managing work schedules and childcare. It is important to

consider the socioeconomic status of the parents because childcare can be very expensive and the

available options become more limited as finances are more constrained.

Perhaps just as women in the past were constricted by narrow gender roles defining them

primarily by their home and family role, men were also constricted by the narrow gender role of

the male as primary breadwinner. As women have been able to define their identities more

broadly in incorporating both career and family roles, men are also experiencing more freedom

to invest in their family roles, and are perhaps experiencing less financial pressure since the

burden of providing for the family is shared.

Coping with Role Strain

Career counselors working with dual-earner couples also need to be aware of the role

strain that may accompany this process. Role strain occurs when fulfilling one role conflicts

with fulfilling another role (Simpson, 2005). Role conflicts often occur in dual-earner couples
 Gender Roles 11

when multiple stressors and responsibilities force changes in work and family roles (Elloy &

Smith, 2004). Role conflicts often result in role strain (Bridger, Kilminster, & Slaven, 2007).

Career counselors must consider factors that produce role strain in order to assist clients to

effectively manage it.

One factor that can contribute to role strain is work family stress. Bird and Schnurman-

Crook (2005) studied work-family stress among dual-career couples and found that women and

men were aware of the benefits of a successful career for themselves and family (e.g., finances,

modeling, self-respect), but there were gender differences in the perceived benefits. For

example, men were more likely than women to emphasize the financial benefits of their career.

In addition to differences in perceived benefits, there is evidence of gender differences in levels

of distress experienced in relation to work-family stress. Martins, Eddleston, and Veiga (2002)

surveyed dual-employed couples and found that work-family conflict impacted career

satisfaction for both men and women, but the women in this study were more distressed by

work-family conflict than the men. Career counselors should be sensitive to the potential impact

of gender in work-family stress. Career counselors could start by assessing their own attitudes or

potential biases regarding men’s and women’s responsibilities in relation to work and family

roles. Further, career counselors might help their clients to explore their attitudes related to

gender roles in the workplace and at home. Perhaps one or both members of a couple had

parents whose gender roles were more traditional and this influenced their ideas about what

should be expected of men and women, and perhaps it could be helpful to make those

expectations explicit and to discuss them openly. Or perhaps clients were influenced differently

by gender role socialization and their beliefs about men and women are discordant with one

another, or are even creating an internal conflict of self-expectation. In addition to these

 Gender Roles 12

important gender role concerns, member of a couple may have different needs related to the

strength of boundaries between work and family domains. According to border theory, some

individuals need strong boundaries between work and home whereas others prefer more flexible

boundaries. Both negative and positive feelings about work or home can spill over into the other

environment (Lambert, Kass, Piotrowski, & Vodanovich, 2006).

One way that career counselors could encourage individuals to prevent negative spillover

from work to other life roles is through teaching effective management of work resources

(Hochwarter, Perrewe, Meurs, & Kacmar, 2007). Hochwarter (et al.) found that career

satisfaction was predicted by negative and positive affect, age, gender, and resource

management. The authors also found that when individuals had high levels of work-induced

guilt, they were unable to effectively manage work resources and thus, they experienced less life

and career satisfaction. Career counselors may help clients explore any guilt they may have

about their work, and also help them learn to effectively manage existing resources and gain

access to additional resources as needed.

Achieving a Satisfying Balance between Roles

Career counselors could help clients examine their ideal role structure. Perrone, Webb,

and Blalock, (2005) asked participants to describe how they would spend their time if they were

able to structure their roles in a way that ideally reflected their values. The authors found no

significant gender differences in ideal role participation. Both men and women indicated that

they would ideally spend the most time in the parenting role. However, there were significant

gender differences in actual role participation of men and women in this study; women spent

more time on parenting and housework whereas men spent more time on career and leisure

activities. According to Super (1990), individuals whose role participation is congruent with
 Gender Roles 13

their values and feelings of commitment will be more satisfied. Inconsistency between role

participation and role commitment can lead to increased psychological distress and decreased

role quality (Voydanoff, 2005). Career counselors could help clients work towards greater

congruence between what they value and how they allocate their time within and between roles.

One simple exercise that can be done is to ask each client to create two pie charts on which they

indicate the percentage of time spent in each of their roles (e.g., work, family, leisure). The first

chart is their current reality and the second chart would indicate their ideal. The counselor and

client could compare the pie charts and discuss how the client could move closer to their ideal

situation.

Increasing numbers of women and men have been modifying their work roles in order to

accommodate their family roles. Many employers, especially larger companies, have

acknowledged the connection between work and family. Specifically, employers understand that

policies and procedures that facilitate balance between work and family enable workers to be

both happier and more productive. Organizations that offer family-friendly programs have the

advantage of attracting and retaining desirable employees, and they can also expect increased

productivity and commitment (Halpern, 2005a; Press, Fagan, & Laughlin, 2006). Halpern

(2005b) found that organizations that instituted a greater number of flexible work policies to

their employees, had employees that experienced lower levels of stress, and higher commitment

to their employer. Companies that incorporated family-friendly policies also benefited by

reducing organizational costs due to fewer absences, days late, and missed deadlines by

employees (Halpern, 2005b). Despite the stereotypes, the study also concluded there were no

gender differences in how employees responded to flexible work policies (Halpern, 2005b).

Employer flexibility at work has been linked to greater satisfaction in work and family roles
 Gender Roles 14

(Clark, 2001). Some employers allow workers to work from home using the computer,

telephone, or other modes of communication. This can allow individuals to combine work and

family roles by simultaneously working in paid employment and caring for children in the home.

These options could provide relief from role strain and assist clients in finding balance between

life roles.

Haddock, Zimmerman, Ziemba, and Lyness (2006) found that men and women in dual-

career couples who successfully balance the demands of work and family have the following in

common: flexible scheduling and personal control over scheduling, non-traditional schedules

(e.g., long hours, evening shifts), autonomy on the job (e.g., being self-employed, management),

the ability to work from home, supportive supervisors and co-workers, establishment of firm

boundaries, and companies that are both family-friendly and supportive of establishing work-

family boundaries. However, there may be fewer men than women who choose flexible work

options. Noonan, Estes and Glass (2007) indicated that men still did not use their workplace

flexibility to alter their time in housework or childcare; in contrast, women did use the flexibility

to alter their time in housework and childcare. It appears that traditional gender roles continue to

impact the use of family-friendly policies at work. This trend may be true outside the U.S., as

well. For example, Burke (2000) studied 999 employees of a large professional services firm in

Canada and found that women were more aware of the firm’s current work-family policies and

programs, rated the potential value of new work-family initiatives higher, were more interested

in alternative career paths, and believed more strongly that one had to sacrifice family to advance

one’s career. The study also found that individuals with spouses who worked relatively more

hours were interested in less demanding alternative career paths, were more supportive of the

firm’s current work-family polices, and saw work-family initiatives in a more positive way.
 Gender Roles 15

In terms of parental leave, Feldman, Sussman, and Zigler (2004) found that mothers on

average took 11.6 weeks of maternity leave and fathers took an average of 6.5 days of paternity

leave after the birth of their first child. However, this study also found that fathers who assumed

a more nontraditional gender role by taking longer paternity leaves experienced positive and

supportive reactions from their employer, higher paternal preoccupation with the infant, more

marital support, and higher family salience (Feldman et al.). With employer’s positive reaction

to childbirth being related to lower state anxiety among fathers (Feldman et al.) and the changing

gender roles in relation to work and family, it is becoming more vital that the work environment

embraces fatherhood. Career counselors can raise awareness to clients that many employers

offer these programs to both men and women. In addition, the benefits to such programs could

be discussed in relation to work and family roles.

Jackson and Scharman (2002) studied mothers who constructed family-friendly careers,

or careers that allowed them to spend significant time with their children. The mothers reported

strategies for constructing these types of careers including taking risks to create flexible work

hours at organizations that had not traditionally offered flextime, telecommuting or working

from home, finding or creating part-time positions in their career areas, and making tradeoffs

such as willingly sacrificing opportunities for promotion. The mothers in this study also reported

that their husbands made career adjustments in order to accommodate their parenting duties as

well as to support their wives' careers. Much less, however, is known about fathers' strategies for

creating family-friendly careers. Research that focuses on these strategies could prove beneficial

and provide career counselors with new interventions that can be used to encourage the

utilization of family friendly careers.

 Gender Roles 16

Clearly, fathers can use the strategies previously mentioned to construct family-friendly

careers. However, fathers are often faced with the primary responsibility to provide for their

families (Loscocco & Spitze, 2007) and sacrificing promotions or working part-time may not be

viable options. Some employers may also be less receptive to fathers creating family-friendly

careers versus mothers. Alternatively, career counselors could help fathers identify

organizations that offer benefits to help maintain a balance of work and family. Davis and

Kallerberg (2006) identified characteristics that are commonly associated with organizations that

have family-friendly policies. These organizational characteristics include: having high

performance practices such as self-directed work teams, off-line committees, and job rotation;

greater proportions of full-time women employees; reporting statistics on gender, race, and age

composition of their employees; and reporting higher levels of sensitivity to the training

practices of other organizations (Davis & Kallerberg). The study also found that larger

organizations were more likely to have access to family-friendly benefits due to more resources

and because they were subjected to greater scrutiny by external entities than smaller

organizations. Considering that only 27% of the U.S. workforce report having flexible work

schedules (Golden, 2001), it may be helpful to know which occupations offer flexibility.

The burden does not need to rest solely on the employer to develop and offer family-

friendly policies and programs. Employees can be creative and propose options to their

employers that would fit both the needs of the employee, the requirements of the job, and the

needs of the organization. Often, flexible arrangements can be negotiated on an individual basis,

even if the workplace is not already structured this way. Career counselors can help individuals

assess their work situations, overall needs, and career and family goals, and develop potential

work strategies that could be presented to employers.

 Gender Roles 17

Directions for Future Research

With both men and women engaging in more nontraditional gender roles in work and

family domains, there is great need to understand the impact of these roles in each domain.

There is some evidence of societal disapproval of nontraditional family roles, and future research

is needed to explore possible explanations for this negative perception (Brescoll & Uhlmann,

2005). Research that assesses societal attitudes, both explicit and implicit, toward nontraditional

work and family roles will afford career counselors the opportunity to gain a greater

understanding of how these nontraditional roles are viewed. From this information, career

counselors can develop new interventions that will assist people in adapting to changing gender

roles. While studying work and family, researchers should examine the impact of gender on

these roles and if warranted, provide theoretical explanations for the differences.

Knowing that men are playing a more active role in parenting, additional research could

explore the long-term effects this role has on the family. This research could allow for the

development of interventions that can assist those who are experiencing role conflict. Research

has been conducted on the impact of women entering and/or leaving the workplace for their role

as a stay-at-home mother; however, future research could explore the adjustment process that

men go through when they are either entering or leaving their role as a stay-at-home father.

Longitudinal studies that examine the long term effects of male non-traditional roles could prove

to be very beneficial.

Individual case studies of men and women in nontraditional work and family roles would

allow researchers the opportunity to examine ways that individuals cope with specific life events

or challenges such as the loss of a job, the birth of a child, or the long distance move for a career.

The particular effects of role strain could be studied using this methodology.
 Gender Roles 18

In addition, employees that have the flexibility and autonomy to fulfill their commitment

to their family role (e.g. flexible work policies) experience direct effects on their attitudes and

performance in a positive manner (Graves, Ohlott, Ruderman, 2007). Therefore, conducting

research within various organizations (e.g. program evaluations) that currently offer family-

friendly policies and programs may provide additional information about the individual, family,

and organizational benefits. Subsequently, career counselors could use this information to help

individuals to construct family-friendly careers and policy makers could use the information to

advocate for additional social policies that embrace balancing work and family. Currently, some

organizations provide family-friendly policies, but not all workers utilize these resources,

particularly male employees. Researchers should explore what prevents individuals from

utilizing family-friendly work options.

Conclusions

As gender roles for work and family domains continue to change, both men and women

are faced with the challenge of successfully navigating between life roles. Occasionally, these

challenges produce role conflict and eventually result in role strain. Career counselors working

with dual career couples should be aware that communication, decision-making strategies, and

perceived fairness are all vital contributors to relationship quality in couples. Career counselors

may also help individuals construct family-friendly careers in order to help them find a balance

between work and family roles. Establishing a career or working for an organization that offers

flexible work options could help accommodate family and work responsibilities. Career

counselors should also advocate for social change involving family-friendly policies within their

own place of employment thereby modeling and supporting the interface of work and family
 Gender Roles 19

roles. More research is needed to achieve a greater understanding of the impact of gender roles

on work and family domains.

 Gender Roles 20

References

Attewell, P. (1999). The impact of family on job displacement and recovery. Annals of

the American Academy of Political and Social Science, 562, 66-82.

Barnett, R. C., Raudenbush, S. W., Brennan, R. T., Pleck, J. H., & Marshall, N. L.

(1995). Change in job and marital experiences and change in psychological distress: A

longitudinal study of dual-earner couples. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology,

69, 839-850.

Bird, G. W., & Schnurman-Crook, A. (2005). Professional identity and coping behaviors in

dual-career couples. Family Relations: Interdisciplinary Journal of Applied Family

Sciences, 54, 145-160.

Bittman, M., England, P., Folbre, N., Sayer, L., & Matheson, G. (2003). When does

gender trump money? Bargaining and time in household work. American Journal of

Sociology, 109, 186-214.

Brescoll, V. L., & Uhlmann, E. L. (2005). Attitudes toward traditional and nontraditional

parents. Psychology of Women Quarterly, 29, 436-445.

Bridger, R. S., Kilminster, S., & Slaven, G. (2007). Occupational stress and strain in the naval

service: 1999 and 2004. Occupational Medicine, 57, 92-97.

Burke, R. J. (2000). Effects of sex, parental status, and spouse work involvement in dual-

career couples. Psychological Reports, 87, 919-927.

Campbell, D.P., Hyne, S.A., Nilsen, D.L. (1992). Manual for the Campbell Interest and Skill

Survey. National Computer Systems, Inc: Minneapolis, MN.

Clark, S. C. (2001). Work cultures and work/family balance. Journal of Vocational

Behavior, 58, 348-365.

Davis, A. E., & Kalleberg, A. L. (2006). Family-friendly organizations?: Work and

 Gender Roles 21

family programs in the 1990s. Work and Occupations, 33, 191-223.

Doucet, A. (2004). “It’s almost like I have a job, but I don’t get paid”: Fathers at home

reconfiguring work, care, and masculinity. Fathering, 2, 277-303.

Elloy, D. F., & Smith, C. (2004). Antecedents of work-family conflict among dual-career

couples: An Australian study. Cross-Cultural Management, 11, 17-27.

Feldman, R., Sussman, A. L., & Zigler, E. (2004). Parental leave and work adaptation at

the transition to parenthood: Individual, marital, and social correlates. Applied

Developmental Psychology, 25, 459-479.

Frisco, M.L, & Williams, K. (2003). Perceived housework equity, marital happiness, and

divorce in dual earner households.

Golden, L. (2001). Flexible work schedules: Which workers get them? American

Behavioral Scientist, 44, 1157-1178.

Gordon, J. R., & Whelan-Berry, K. S. (2005). Contributions to family and household activities

by the husbands of midlife professional women. Journal of Family Issues, 26, 899-923.

Graves, L. M., Ohlott, P. J., & Ruderman, M. N. (2007). Commitment to family roles:

Effects on managers’ attitudes and performance. Journal of Applied Psychology, 92, 44-

56.

Haddock, S. A. (2001). Therapists’ approaches to the normative challenges of dual-career

couples: Negotiating outdated societal ideologies. Journal of Feminist Family

Therapy, 13, 91-120.

Haddock, S. A., Zimmerman, T. S., Ziemba, S. J., & Lyness, K. P. (2006). Practices of dual

earner couples successfully balancing work and family. Journal of Family and Economic

Issues, 27, 207-234.

 Gender Roles 22

Halpern, D. F. (2005a). Psychology at the intersection of work and family: Recommendations for

employers, working families, and policymakers. American Psychologist, 60, 397-409.

Halpern, D. F. (2005b). How time-flexible work policies can reduce stress, improve

health, and save money. Stress and Health, 21, 157-168.

Hart, M. S., & Kelley, M. L. (2006). Fathers’ and mothers’ work and family issues as

related to internalizing and externalizing behavior of children attending day care. Journal

of Family Issues, 27, 252-270.

Hertz, R. (1999). Working to place family at the center of life: Dual-earner and single

-parent strategies. Annals of the American Academy of Political and Social Science, 562,

16-31.

Himsel, A.J., & Goldberg, W.A. (2003). Social comparisons and satisfaction with the division

of housework: Implications for men’s and women’s role strain. Journal of Family Issues,

24, 843-866.

Hochwarter, W. A., Perrewe, P. L., Meurs, J. A., & Kacmar, C. (2007). The interactive effects of

work-Induced guilt and ability to manage resources on job and life satisfaction. Journal

of Occupational Health Psychology, 12, 125-135.

Jackson, A. P., & Scharman, J. S. (2002). Constructing family-friendly careers: Mothers'

experiences. Journal of Counseling and Development, 80, 180-187.

Konopaske, R.; Robert, C., & Ivancevich, J.M. (2005). A preliminary model of spouse

influence on managerial assignment willingness. International Journal of Human

resource Management, 16, 405-426.

 Gender Roles 23

Lambert, C. H., Kass, S. J., Piotrowski, C., & Vodanovich, S. J. (2006). Impact factors on

work-family balance: Initial support for border theory. Organization Development

Journal, 24, 64-75.

Lavee, Y., & Katz, R. (2002). Division of labor, perceived fairness, and marital quality: The

effect of gender ideology.

Lease, S. H. (2003). Testing a model of men’s nontraditional occupational choices. Career

Development Quarterly, 51, 244-258.

Loscocco, K., & Spitze, G. (2007). Gender patterns in provider role attitudes and

behavior. Journal of Family Issues, 28, 934-954.

Martins, L. L., Eddleston, K. A., & Veiga, J. F. (2002). Moderators of the relationship

between work-family conflict and career satisfaction. Academy of Management

Journal, 45, 399-409.

Noonan, M. C., Estes, J. L., & Glass, J. L. (2007). Do workplace flexibility policies

influence time spent in domestic labor? Journal of Family Issues, 28, 263-288.

Perrone, K. M., Webb, L. K., & Blalock, R. H. (2005). The effects of role congruence and role

conflict on work, marital and life satisfaction. Journal of CareerDevelopment,31, 225-

238.

Perrone, K. M., & Worthington, E. L., Jr. (2001). Factors influencing ratings of marital

quality by individuals within dual-career marriages: A conceptual model.

Journal of Counseling Psychology, 48, 3-9.

Pizer, B., & Pizer, S.A. (2006). The gift of the apple or the twist of an arm: Negotiation in

couples and couple therapy. Psychoanalytic Dialogues, 16, 71-92.

Press, J.E., Fagan, J., & Laughlin, L. (2006). Taking pressure off families: Child-care subsidies
 Gender Roles 24

lessen mothers’ work-hour problems. Journal of Marriage and Family, 68, 155-171.

Rank, M. R. (2000). Poverty and economic hardship in families. In D.H. Demo, K.R.

Allen, & M.A. Fine (Eds.), Handbook of Family Diversity (pp. 293-315).

New York: Oxford University Press.

Salvatore, N., & Muñoz Sastre, M. T. (2001). Appraisal of life: “Area” versus

“dimension” conceptualizations. Social Indicators Research, 53, 229-255.

Schultheiss, D. E. P. (2003). A relational approach to career counseling: Theoretical

integration and practical application. Journal of Counseling and Development,

81, 301-310.

Simpson, R. (2005). Men in non-traditional occupations: Career entry, career orientation, and

experience of role strain. Gender, Work, and Organization, 12, 365-380.

Spiker-Miller, S., & Kees, N. (1995). Making career development a reality for dual-

career couples. Journal of Employment Counseling, 32, 32-45.

Super, D. E. (1990). A life-span, life-space approach to career development. In

D. Brown & L. Brooks (Eds.), Career Choice and Development (pp. 167-261).

San Francisco, CA: Jossey-Bass.

U.S. Bureau of the Census (2007). U.S. Census Bureau Married Couples by Labor Force

Status of Spouses: 1986-present. [Retrieved April 7, 2008 from

http://www.census.gov/prod/2006pubs/07statab/labor.pdf]

Voydanoff, P. Work demands and work-to-family and family-to-work conflict: Direct and

indirect relationships. Journal of Family Issues, 26, 707-726.

Weigel, D.J., Bennett, K.K., & Ballard-Reisch, D.D. (2006). Influence strategies in marriage:
 Gender Roles 25

Self and partner links between equity, strategy use, and marital satisfaction and

commitment. Journal of Family Communication, 6, 77-95.

Zimmerman, T. S. (2000). Marital equality and satisfaction in stay-at-home mother and

stay-at-home father families. Contemporary Family Therapy, 22, 337-354.

View publication stats