3.

INTEGRAL CALCULUS OF FUNCTIONS OF ONE VARIABLE

dy
As you may already know, differentiation and integration are closely connected. If  f ( x ),
dx
then integration is a process of determining a function y  F ( x) such that on differentiating
F ( x ) we obtain f ( x). If such a function F ( x ) exists, it is called an indefinite integral of f ( x )

or an antiderivative. In this chapter, we will discuss different methods of finding indefinite

integrals of functions of one variable. Furthermore, we will look at definite integrals and their
applications.

Definition 3.1.1

A function F ( x ) is an antiderivative of a function f ( x ) if

F ( x)  f ( x)

for all x in the domain of f . The set of all antiderivatives of f is the indefinite integral of f
with respect to x, denoted by

 f ( x)dx.
One antiderivative F differs from other antiderivatives by a constant, i.e.

 f ( x)dx  F ( x)  c.
The function f is the integrand of the integral, x is the variable of integration and c is the
constant of integration.

3.1 METHODS OF INDEFINITE INTEGRATION

One common method of integration, is the so-called power rule, i.e. if u is any differentiable
function, then

u n 1
 u du   c,
n
n 1

where n  1, and n is rational. You have also seen integrals of most elementary functions
such as
  du  ln | x | c
1
x

 e dx  e  c
x x

ax
 a dx   c, a  0
x

ln a

 sin x dx   cos x  c
 cos x dx  sin x  c
 tan x dx   ln | cos x |  c
 cot x dx  ln | sin x |  c
 sec x dx  ln | sec x  tan x |  c
 csc x dx   ln | csc x  cot x |  c
 sec x dx  tan x  c
2

 csc x dx   cot x  c
2

 sec x tan x dx  sec x  c

 csc x cot x dx   csc x  c
 sinh x dx  cosh x  c
 cosh x dx  sinh x  c.
We now examine some techniques that are frequently used to evaluate integrals which do not
fit directly into any of the ones listed above.

3.1.1 ALGEBRAIC SUBSTITUTION

We can use change of variable to turn an unfamiliar integral into one which can easily be
evaluated. Basic substitutions can be thought of as a way of running the chain rule backwards.

Example 3.1.1

Evaluate (a)  (ax  b)n dx (b)  sin(ax  b)dx (c)  4ax cos(ax2  b)dx,

assuming that a and b are constants, a  0 and that n is a positive integer.

Solutions:

du
(a) Letting u  ax  b  dx  . Then
a
 n 1 n 1
du 1 n 1 u 1 (ax  b)
 (ax  b) dx   u
n n
  u du  . c  .  c.
a a a n 1 a n 1
(b) As done in Part (a) above, let u  ax  b. Then

1 1
 sin(ax  b)dx  a  sin u du   a cos(ax  b)  c.

du
(c) Let u  ax 2  b  dx 
2ax

 4ax cos(ax  b) dx  2 cos u du  2sin(ax 2  b)  c.

2

3.1.2 INTEGRATION BY PARTS

Let u and v be differentiable functions. By product rule of differentiation

d du dv
(uv)  v u .
dx dx dx

Integrating both sides with respect to x, we get

uv   vdu   udv, i.e.  udv  uv  vdu.

Example 3.1.2

Evaluate the following

(1)  ln xdx (2)  t e dt

2 t
(3)  3 2 t 1
dt.

Solution

(1) Let u  ln x, dv  dx. Then

1
du  dx, v  x.
x
1
  udv  uv   vdu   ln xdx  x ln x   x. dx
x
 x ln x   dx
 x ln x  x  c.

(2) Let u  t 2 , dv  et dx  du  2tdt , v  et

  t e dt  t e  2 tet dt
2 t 2 t

 t 2et  2 tet   et dt 
 
 t 2et  2 tet  et   c

 t 2et  2tet  2et  c.

(3) Let y  2t  1 so that y 2  2t  1 and dt  ydy. Then

3 dt   y3 y dy.
2t 1

Now, let u  y, dv  3 y dy

3y
 du  dy, v 
ln 3
y.3 y 1
  y3 y dy    3 y dy
ln 3 ln 3
y.3 y 1 3y
  .  c.
ln 3 ln 3 ln 3

3 2 t 1
dt 
 
2t  1 3 2 t 1


3 2 t 1
 c.
 ln 3
2
ln 3

3.1.3 REDUCTION FORMULAE

Sometimes integration by parts is used repeatedly to find a given integral. A reduction formula
is useful in such situations because it gives a general formula for evaluating integrals of a given
nature. A reduction formula is a formula which connects a given integral with another integral
in which the integrand is of the same type but of lower degree.

Example 3.1.3

1. Find the reduction formula for

 (x  1)n dx, n is a constant

2

and use it to evaluate

1
 ( x  1) dx and
2 2
 ( x2  1)2 dx.
 
2. Use the reduction formula for  sin n xdx to evaluate 
0
2
sin 3 xdx.

Solutions:

1. Let I n   ( x 2  1)n dx. Letting u  ( x 2  1)n and dv  dx, we have that

du  2nx( x 2  1)n 1 dx, v  x so that

I n  x( x 2  1) n  2n  x 2 ( x 2  1) n 1 dx

 x( x 2  1) n  2n   ( x 2  1)  1 ( x 2  1) n 1  dx

i.e. I n  x( x2  1)n  2nI n  2nI n1

1 2n
 In  x( x 2  1) n  I n 1.
2n  1 2n  1

For  ( x2  1)2 dx, n  2 and so

1 4
I2  x( x 2  1) 2  I1 and
5 5

x3
I1   ( x 2  1)dx   xc
3
1 4 4
  ( x 2  1) 2 dx  x( x 2  1) 2  x3  x  c.
5 15 5
1
If we take n  2 for the integral of  ( x  1)2 dx, we notice that the powers in I n 1
2

will increase. So from the expression

1 2n
In  x( x 2  1) n  I n 1 , we get
2n  1 2n  1

1 2n  1
I n 1  x( x 2  1) n  I n . Letting n  1, we get
2n 2n

x( x 2  1) 1 1 1
I 2    I 1 and I 1   2 dx  arctan x  c
2 2 ( x  1)

1 x( x 2  1)1 1
 2 dx    arctan x  c.
( x  1)2 2 2

2. Let I n   sin n xdx  sin x sin n1 xdx. Then, let u  sin n1 x, dv  sin xdx

 du  (n  1) cos x sin n2 xdx, v   cos x

  I n   cos x sin n1 x  (n  1) cos2 x sin n2 xdx. Notice that

 cos x sin n2 xdx   (1  sin 2 x)sin n2 xdx   sin n2 xdx   sin n xdx
2

 I n   cos x sin n 1 x  (n  1) I n 2  (n  1) I n
1 n 1
 I n   cos x sin n 1 x  I n2 .
n n

Thus, with limits from 0 to and n  3,
2

 
 2  2
I 3 02  I1 02 , I1 02   2 sin xdx   cos x  1.
3 0 0


2
  sin 3 xdx  .
2

0 3

3.1.3 PARTIAL FRACTIONS

P( x)
Recall that any rational function , where P ( x) and Q ( x ) are polynomials, with the
Q( x)

degree of P ( x) less than that of Q( x), Q( x)  0, can be written as the sum of rational
functions. If the degree of P ( x) is greater than or equal to that of Q ( x ), then long division can
be applied first after which the remainder can be resolved into partial fractions. The table below
gives a summary of the rules involved in partial fractions:

Form of Q ( x ) Expression Form of partial fractions

Linear factors P( x) A B
  ...
(ax  b)(cx  d )... ax  b cx  d
Repeated linear P( x) A B Z
  ... 
factors (ax  b) n (ax  b) (ax  b) 2
(ax  b) n
Quadratic P( x) Ax  B C

factors (ax  bx  c)(dx  e)...
2
ax  bx  c dx  e
2

Repeated P( x) Ax  B Cx  D Yx  Z
  ... 
quadratic factors (ax  bx  c)n
2
(ax 2  bx  c) (ax 2  bx  c)2 (ax 2  bx  c) n

After resolving into partial fractions, the integral can then be integrated in terms of elementary
functions.
Example 3.1.4

Evaluate the indefinite integral below using partial fractions:

4 x 4  52 x3  151x 2  134 x  37
 ( x2  2 x  2)(4 x  3)(2 x  5)2 dx
Solution:

Resolving the integrand into partial fractions, we get

4 x 4  52 x 3  151x 2  134 x  37 Ax  B C D E
 2   
( x  2 x  2)(4 x  3)(2 x  5)
2 2
x  2 x  2 4 x  3 2 x  5 (2 x  5) 2
 ( Ax  B )(4 x  3)(2 x  5) 2  C ( x 2  2 x  2)(2 x  5) 2  D( x 2  2 x  2)(4 x  3)(2 x  5)
 E ( x 2  2 x  2)(4 x  3)  4 x 4  52 x 3  151x 2  134 x  37

3 10985 10985
Letting x  gives C  C  1.
4 64 64

5 169 169
Letting x   gives  E  E  2.
2 4 2

Expanding and comparing coefficients, we get

16 Ax 4  (68 A  16 B) x 3  (40 A  68 B) x 2  (40 B  75 A) x  75  4Cx 4  28Cx 3  73Cx 2  90Cx

50C  8Dx 4  30 Dx 3  29 Dx 2  2 Dx  30 D  4 Ex 3  5Ex 2  2 Ex  6 E  4 x 4  52 x 3  151x 2
134 x  37

16 A  4C  8D  4  2 A  D . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .(*)

68 A  16 B  28C  30 D  4 E  52  34 A  8B  15D  8

 8 A  B  1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .(**)

40 A  68B  73C  29 D  5E  151  40 A  68B  29 D  68

 49 A  34B  34 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .(***)

Solving (**) and (***) simultaneously, we get A  0  D  0 and B  1.

4 x 4  52 x3  151x 2  134 x  37 1 1 2
  2  
( x  2 x  2)(4 x  3)(2 x  5)
2 2
x  2 x  2 4 x  3 (2 x  5) 2
Thus,

4 x 4  52 x3  151x 2  134 x  37  1 1 2 
 ( x2  2 x  2)(4 x  3)(2 x  5)2 dx    x2  2 x  2  4 x  3  (2 x  5)2  dx
dx dx 2
   dx.
x  2x  2
2
4x  3 (2 x  5) 2

Since x 2  2 x  2  ( x  1)2  1, letting u  x 1 gives

dx du
x 2
 2x  2
 2
u 1
 arctan u  c  arctan ( x  1)  c,

dx 1 du 1
letting u  4x  3 gives  4x  3  4   ln | 4 x  3 |  c
u 4

2 du 1 1
and letting u  2x  5 gives  (2 x  5) 2
dx  
u 2
  c  
u 2x  5
 c.

Therefore,

4 x 4  52 x3  151x 2  134 x  37 1 1
 ( x2  2 x  2)(4 x  3)(2 x  5)2 dx  arctan ( x  1)  4 ln| 4 x  3 |  2 x  5  c

3.1.4 TRIGONOMETRIC INTEGRALS

In this section, we use trigonometric identities to evaluate trigonometric integrals.

(a) Odd Powers of Sine or Cosine

We consider integrals of the form

 sin  cosn  d ,
m
(3.1)

where either m or n is odd. Suppose n is odd. Then, write n  2k  1, k  . It follows that

(3.1) can be written as

 sin  cosn  d  sin m  cos2k 1  d   sin m  cos2k  cos  d .

m

Using the identity sin 2   cos 2   1, we have that cos   (1  sin  ) . Letting u  sin  , we
2k k

du
have that d  so that
cos 
  sin  (1  sin 2  ) cos  d   u m (1  u 2 )k du,
m

which gives us a polynomial integrand. Similarly, if we have an odd power of sine, then letting
u  cos yields

 sin  cos n  d   (1  cos 2  ) k cos n  sin  d

2 k 1

  (1  u 2 ) k u n (du ).

Example 3.1.5

cos7 x
Evaluate (a)  sin x
dx (b)  sin3 5x cos4 5xdx.

Solutions:

(a) Here Cosine has odd power, so we write it as cos 7 x  cos 6 x cos x and
cos6 x  (cos2 x)3  (1  sin 2 x)3 . Then,

cos7 x (1  sin 2 x)3 cos x

 sin x dx   sin x
dx.

du
Letting u  sin x, we get dx  so that
cos x

cos 7 x (1  u 2 )3   12 3 7 11

 sin x
dx  
u
du    u  3u  3u  u 2  du

2 2


1
6 52 6 92 2 132
 2u  u  u  u  c
2
5 9 13
6 2
    2
 
5 9 13
 2 sin x  sin x  sin x  sin x  c.
5 3 13

(b)  sin3 (5x) cos4 (5x)dx   1  cos2 (5x)  cos4 (5x)sin(5x)dx.

Let u  cos5x  du  5sin5xdx

1 1 1
  sin 3 5 x cos 4 5 xdx    (1  u 2 )u 4 du   u 5  u 6  c
5 25 30
1 1
  cos5 5 x  cos 6 5 x  c.
25 30
(b) Even Powers of Sine and Cosine

In this case, we use double-angle identities:

sin( A  B)  sin A cos B  sin B cos A

cos( A  B )  cos A cos B sin A sin B
sin 2 A  2sin A cos A
cos 2 A  cos 2 A  sin 2 A  2 cos 2 A  1  1  2sin 2 A
1
cos 2 A  1  cos 2 A
2
1
sin 2 A  1  cos 2 A  .
2

These identities can also be used to evaluate integrals with even powers of only cosine or only
sine. For the power equal to 2, it can be shown that even integration by parts is applicable.

Example 3.1.6

Evaluate

(a)  sin 2 3x cos 2 3xdx (b)  sin 6 x cos2 xdx. ,

Solution

1 1
(a) Since sin 2 A  1  cos 2 A and cos 2 A  1  cos 2 A , letting A  3x, we get
2 2

1 1
sin 2 3 x  1  cos 6 x  and cos 2 3x  1  cos 6 x  so that
2 2

1
sin 2 3x cos 2 3x  1  cos 6 x 1  cos 6 x 
4


1
4
1  cos2 6 x 
1 1 
 1  1  cos12 x  
4 2 

1 1 1
   cos12 x
4 8 8
1 1
  cos12 x.
8 8
 1 1 
  sin 2 3x cos 2 3 xdx     cos12 x  dx
8 8 
x 1
  sin12 x  c.
8 96

The same result can be obtained when the integrand is written as

1 11  1 1
sin 2 3 x cos 2 3 x   sin 3 x cos 3 x   sin 2 6 x   1  cos12 x     cos12 x.
2

4 42  8 8

2 6
2 6

(b) sin x cos x  sin x 1  sin x  sin x  sin x
6 8

3 4
1  1 
  1  cos 2 x     1  cos 2 x  
2  2 
1 1 1 
 1  3cos 2 x  3cos 2 2 x  cos3 2 x   2 cos 2 x  3cos 2 2 x  2 cos3 2 x  cos 4 2 x 
8 2 2 
11 1 
   cos 2 x  cos3 2 x  cos 4 2 x  .
8 2 2 

1
Since cos 2 2 x  1  cos 4 x 
2

1  1
cos3 2 x  cos 2 x  1  cos 4 x     cos 2 x  cos 2 x cos 4 x 
2  2
1 1
 cos 2 x  cos 2 x cos 4 x.
2 2

1 1 1
Also, cos A cos B   cos( A  B)  cos( A  B)  . Thus, cos 2 x cos 4 x  cos 6 x  cos 2 x and
2 2 2
1 1 1 3 1
so cos3 2 x  cos 2 x  cos 6 x  cos 2 x  cos 2 x  cos 6 x.
2 4 4 4 4

1  cos 4 x   1  2 cos 4 x  cos 2 4 x  and since

1 1
Similarly, cos 4 2 x  2

4 4

1
cos 2 4 x  1  cos8 x  , we have that
2

1 1  3 1 1
cos 4 2 x  1  2 cos 4 x  1  cos8 x     cos 4 x  cos8 x.
4 2  8 2 8
 1 1 3 1 13 1 1 
 sin 6 x cos 2 x    cos 2 x  cos 2 x  cos 6 x    cos 4 x  cos8 x  
8 2 4 4 28 2 8 
1 1 3 1 3 1 1
  cos 2 x  cos 2 x  cos 6 x   cos 4 x  cos8 x
16 8 32 32 128 32 128
5 1 1 1 1
  cos 2 x  cos 4 x  cos 6 x  cos8 x.
128 32 32 32 128
 5 1 1 1 1 
  sin 6 x cos 2 xdx     cos 2 x  cos 4 x  cos 6 x  cos8 x  dx
 128 32 32 32 128 
5 1 1 1 1
 x  sin 2 x  sin 4 x  sin 6 x  sin 8 x  c.
128 64 128 192 1024

(c) Even Powers of Secant or Odd Powers of Tangent

We consider the integral of the form

 sec  tan n  d .
m
(3.2)

Using the identity tan 2   1  sec 2  , two cases arise:

1. If (3.2) has an odd power of tangent, i.e. n  2k  1, k  , let u  sec so that

du  sec tan  d and the integral reduces to

 sec  tan n  d   secm1  tan 2k  sec tan  d   u m1 (u 2 1)k du,

m

which can easily be evaluated.

2. If (3.2) contains even powers of secant, then let u  tan so that du  sec2  d , and the
integral becomes

 sec  tan n  d   sec2( k 1)  tan n  sec2  d   (u 2  1)k 1 u n du,

m

which can easily be evaluated.

(d) Even Powers of Cosecant or Odd Powers of Cotangent

For the integral of the type

 csc  cot n  d ,
m
(3.3)

we use the identity cot 2   1  csc2  . Then, two cases arise:

 d
1. Since (csc  )   csc  cot  , if (3.3) has an odd power of Cotangent, i.e.
d
n  2k  1, k  , then we let u  csc so that

 csc  cot n  d   cscm 1  cot 2 k  csc  cot  d

m

   u m 1 (u 2  1) k du,

which can easily be evaluated.

2. If (3.3) contains an even power of Cosecant, then let u  cot  so that du   csc  d and
2

so

 csc  cot n  d    csc 2( k 1)  cot n  ( csc 2  ) d

m

   u m 1 (u 2  1) k du

   (cot 2   1) k 1 cot n  ( csc 2  ) d

   (u 2  1) k 1 u n du,

which can easily be evaluated.

Example 3.1.7

(a)  sec6 x tan8 xdx (b)  tan

4
xdx (c)  csc3 2x cot 3 2x dx .

Solutions:

(a) Here, we have even powers of Secant. So we let u  tan x  du  sec2 xdx

  (sec2 x)2 tan 8 x sec2 xdx   (u 2  1)2 u 8 du

   u12  2u10  u 8  du

u13 2u11 u 9
   c
13 11 9
1 2 1
 tan13 x  tan11 x  tan 9 x  c.
13 11 9

(b) Since Tangent is not of odd power, we use the other case by introducing a special “1”.

tan 4 x tan 4 x
 tan x dx    
4 2
.sec x dx .sec2 x dx.
2
sec x (tan x  1)
2
Let u  tan x  du  sec2 x dx

u4  1 
  tan 4 x dx   du    u 2  1  2  du
u 1
2
 u 1 
u3
  u  tan 1 u  c
3
tan 3 x
  tan x  tan 1 (tan x)  c
3
tan 3 x
  tan x  x  c.
3

 
(c) csc 2x cot 2x dx   csc 2x cot 2x ( csc 2x cot 2x )dx.
3 3 2 2

1
Let u  csc 2x  du   csc 2x cot 2x dx
2

2 2
  csc3 2x cot 3 2x dx  2  (u 2  1)u 2 dx   u 5  u 3  c
5 3
2 5x 2 3x
  csc 2  csc 2  c.
5 3

3.1.5 INTEGRALS OF HYPERBOLIC FUNCTIONS

Recall that the hyperbolic sine and cosine are given by

cosh x 
2
e  e 
1 x x

sinh 
2
e  e 
1 x x

and from these we get other hyperbolic functions

sinh x e2 x  1
tanh x  
cosh x e2 x  1
1 cosh x e2 x  1
coth x   
tanh x sinh x e 2 x  1
1 ex
sech x   2. 2 x
cosh x e 1

1 ex
csch x   2. 2 x .
sinh x e 1
Using Osborn’s rule, which states that “cos” should be converted to “cosh” and “sin” into
“sinh” and multiply a negative when there is a product of two sines, we get the following basic
identities for hyperbolic functions:

cosh 2 x  sinh 2 x  1
tanh 2 x  sech x  1
coth 2 x  1  csch 2 x
sinh 2 x  2sinh x cosh x
cosh 2 x  cosh 2 x  sinh 2 x

cosh 2 x 
1
2
 cosh 2 2 x  1

sinh 2 x   cosh 2 2 x  1 .
1
2

Other identities for the addition of angles can be obtained in a similar way.

Recall also that the logarithmic equivalents of inverse hyperbolic functions are:

 
sinh 1 x  ln x  x 2  1 , for all values of x

 
cosh 1 x  ln x  x 2  1 , x  1

1  1 x 
tanh 1 x  ln   , x  1.
2  1 x 

It can also be shown that the following are the derivatives of hyperbolic functions:

d
(sinh x)  cosh x
dx
d
(cosh x)  sinh x
dx

d
(csch x)   csch x coth x
dx
d
(sech x)   sech x tanh x
dx
d
(tanh x)  sech 2 x
dx
d
(coth x)   csch 2 x
dx

and for inverse hyperbolic functions, we have

 d 1
(sinh 1 x) 
dx 1  x2
d 1
(cosh 1 x)  , x  1, cosh 1 x  0
dx x 1
2

d 1
(cosh 1 x)   , x  1, cosh 1 x  0
dx x 1
2

d 1
(tanh 1 x)  , x  1.
dx 1  x2

It then follows that

 sinh xdx  cosh x  c

 cosh xdx  sinh x  c
 sech xdx  tanh x  c
2

 csch xdx   coth x  c

2

 1 
 
1
 dx  sinh x  c
1 x 
2

 1 
  x2  1  dx  cosh x  c, x  1
1

 1 
  1  x2  dx  tanh x  c, x  1
1

 1 
  1  x2  dx  coth x  c, x  1.
1

We will use hyperbolic substitution later to evaluate integrals of this nature.

Example 3.1.8

Evaluate

sech x .tanh x
 x sinh xdx  tanh 
2
(a) (b) 3xdx (c) dx.
x

Solutions:

(a) Using integration by parts, let u  x, dv  sinh x. Then, du  dx and v  cosh x.

  x sinh xdx  x cosh x   cosh xdx  x cosh x  sinh x  c.

 3xdx   1  sech 2 3x  dx   dx   sech 2 3xdx  x  tanh 3x  c.
1
 tanh
2
(b)
3

1
(c) Let u  x  du  dx
2 x

sech x .tanh x
 dx  2 sech u tanh udu  2sech u  c  2sech x  c.
x

3.1.6 OTHER SUBSTITUTIONS

In this section, we will consider substitutions such as rationalising substitution, trigonometric

and hyperbolic substitution and magic substitution.

1. RATIONALISING SUBSTITUTION

Some functions which are not rational can be changed into rational functions by means of
appropriate substitution. In particular, when an integrand contains an expression of the form
n g ( x), then the substitution u  n g ( x) may be effective.

Example 3.1.9

 x   1 x   1 
Evaluate (a)   1  x  dx (b)  
 x
 dx

(c)  
 x x
3  dx
 

Solution

(a) Let u  1  x  x  1  u  dx  2du

2

 x   1 u2  2 3
  dx    u   2udu  2 (u  1)du  3 u  2u  c
2

 1 x   
2
 
3
 1  x  2 1  x  c.
3

(b) Let u  1  x  u 2  1  x

 x  (u 2  1) 2
 dx  4u (u 2  1)du
  1 x  u u2
   dx   2 .4u (u 2
 1) du  4  u 2  1 dx
 x  (u  1) 2
 
1 1 1 1 
 4  du   du   du 
 2 u 1 2 u 1 

 2ln | u  1| 2ln | u  1| 4u  c

 1  x  1
 2ln    4 1  x  c.
 1  x  1

(c) Let u  6 x  x  u  dx  6u
6 5

 1  1 u3
  dx   u 3  u 2 .6u du  6 u  1 du
5

 x3 x
 1 
 6  u 2  u  1  du
 u  1 
 u3 u 2 
 6    u  ln | u  1|  c
3 2 
 2 x  3 3 x  6 6 x  6 ln | 6 x  1| c.

2. TRIGONOMETRIC AND HYPERBOLIC SUBSTITUTION

So far, we have seen that sometimes it helps to replace a subexpression of a function by a single
variable. Occasionally, it can help to replace the original variable by something more
complicated. This seems like a “reverse” substitution, but it is really no different in principle
than ordinary substitution. In this subsection, we will evaluate integrals by making substitutions
involving trigonometric and hyperbolic functions. The following table summarises possible
substitutions:

EXPRESSION TRIGONOMETRIC SUBSTITUTION HYPERBOLIC SUBSTITUTION

a2  x2 x  a sin  ,  2 , 2  x  a tanh

a2  x2 x  a tan  ,   2 , 2  x  a sinh 

x2  a2 x  a sec  , 0, 2  x  a cosh 

Example 3.1.10

x3 x2  2x  3
Evaluate (a)  dx (b)  dx
 4x  9 x 1
3
2 2

using both trigonometric and hyperbolic substitution.

Solutions:

3 3
  9  2  9 2
(a)  4 x  9 
3
2
 4  x2    8  x2   .
2

  4   4

3 3 2x
Using trigonometric substitution, let x  tan   dx  sec2  d and tan  
2 2 3

 27 3 
x3  8 tan  3 2 
 dx    3 3 . sec   d
 4x  9  3 sec  2
3
2

2

 

3 tan 3  3 tan 2  tan  sec 

16  sec  16 
 d  d .
sec2 

Let u  sec  du  sec tan d . Then,

3 tan 3  3 (sec 2  1) 3 u 2 1 3

16 sec 
d   
16 sec  2
sec  tan  d   
16 u 2
du   (1  u 2 )du
16
3
 u  u 1   c
16
3 3 1
 sec   .  c.
16 16 sec 

2x 4 x2  9


3
 3  4x 2
 9
 cos   , sec  
 4x 2
 9 3

x3 3  4x 2
 9 3 3
 dx  .  . c
 4x  9  4 x2  9
3
2 2 16 3 16


1
4x 2
 9 
9
.
1
 c.
16 16  4x 2
 9

3 3
Using hyperbolic substitution, x  sinh   dx  cosh  d
2 2

x3 3 sinh 3 
 dx 
16  cosh 2 
d
 4x  9
3
2 2

Letting u  cosh  , we have that

3 sinh 2  sinh  3 u 2 1 3 3 3 1
16  cosh 2
d  
16 u 2
du   (1  u 2 )du  cosh   .
16 16 16 cosh 
c

4 x2  9
Since cosh   sinh 2  1, we have that cosh   so that
3

x3
 dx 
1
 4x 2
 9 
9
.
1
 c.
 4 x2  9  4 x2  9
3
2 16 16

(b) x  2 x  3  ( x  1)  4. Then, using trigonometric substitution, let x  1  2sec

2 2

x 1
 sec   and dx  2sec tan  d .
2

x2  2x  3 4sec2   4 tan 2  sec2 

 x 1
dx  
2sec 
.2sec tan  d  2
(1  tan 2  )
d .

Let u  tan   du  sec  d

2

tan 2  sec2  u2
 2 d  2 du  2u  2arctan u  c  2 tan   2  c.
(1  tan 2  ) 1 u2
 x 1 2
Since sec   , cos  
2 x 1

x 1 ( x  1)2  4

( x  1) 2  4
 tan  
2

x2  2 x  3  2 
 dx  x 2  2 x  3  2arccos    c.
x 1  x 1 

Exercise: Use hyperbolic substitution to evaluate the same integral.

3. MAGIC SUBSTITUTION

We can transform an integral of a rational function involving sin x and cos x into a rational
function of just one variable, say z. The magic substitution we use in such situations is
x
z  tan . We notice that
2

1 x 
dz  sec 2 dx   tan 2  1 dx   z 2  1 dx. Hence,
1 x 1
2 2 2 2  2

2
dx  dz. (3.4)
1 z2

Then, using the identity cos 2 A  cos A  sin A, we have

2 2

1 2 2 2 1 z2
cos x  2cos 2 x
 1  2. 1  2 x 1  1  1  ,
2 1
cos2 2x
sec 2 1  tan 2 2x 1 z2 1 z2
 1 z2
 cos x  (3.5)
1 z2

sin 2x
sin x  2sin cos  2.
x
2
x
2 x
.cos 2 2x
cos 2
sin 2x 1 1
 2. x
. 1  2 tan 2x . 2 x
cos 2 cos2 x sec 2
2

1
 2 tan 2x .
tan 2 x
2 1
2z
 ,
z2 1

2z
 sin x  (3.6)
z 1
2

Example 3.1.11

1
Evaluate  4 cos x  3sin x dx.
Solution

We let z  tan 2x and use (3.4), (3.5) and (3.6).

4(1  z 2 ) 3(2 z ) 4  4 z 2  6 z
4cos x  3sin x   
1 z2 1 z2 1 z2

1 1 dz 1 1 2 dz 1 dz 
 4 cos x  3sin x dx  4 4 z 2 6 z
.
1 z 2

4  4z  6z
2
dz      
2  5 2 z  1 5 z  2 
1 z 2

1 dz 1 dz 1 1 1 z2
   
5 2 z  1 10 z  2
  ln | 2 z  1|  ln | z  2 |  c  ln
10 10 10 2 z  1
c

1 tan 2x  2
 ln c
10 2 tan 2x  1
 3.2 DEFINITE INTEGRALS

Before we discuss definite integrals, recall the sum of n terms a1 , a2 ,..., an can be written as

a
i 1
i  a1  a2  ...  an ,

where i is the index of summation, ai is the i th term of the sum and the upper and lower

bounds of the summation are n and 1 respectively. For example,

 i  1  2  3  4  10
i 1

and

 f ( x )x
i 1
i i  f ( x1 )x1  f ( x2 )x2  ...  f ( xn )xn .

Two important properties of sums are:

n n
1.  kai k  ai , where k is a constant.
i 1 i 1

n n n n
2.  a   b  a   b .
i 1
i
i 1
i
i 1
i
i 1
i

The following summation formulas are very useful and can be proved by induction:

n
(a)  k  k  k  k  ...  k  nk
i 1

n
n(n  1)
(b)  i  1  2  3  ...  n 
i 1 2
n
n(n  1)(2n  1)
(c) i
i 1
2
 12  22  32  ...  n 2 
6
n
n2 (n  1)2
(d)  i3  13  23  33  ...  n3 
i 1 4
Example 3.2.1

Evaluate

n
 i 1
1.  
i 1
 , for n  7
n2 
n
 4(i  1) 2 
2.  
i 1 n2
  , for n  10.
n

Solutions:

We use properties of sums and summation formulas.

n
 i 1 1 n
1 n
1 n
1.  
i 1

n2  n2
 (i  1)  n  i  n 1
1
2
1
2
1

1  n(n  1)  1
  ( n)
n 2  2  n 2
n 1 1
 
2n n
n3
 .
2n

n
 i 1  7  3 5
Thus, for n  7,  
i 1
  .
n 2  2(7) 7

n
 4(i  1) 2  4 n
2 n
2.  
i 1 n 2
   2
n n
 (i  1)  n 1
i 1 i 1

4  n n
 2 n
  
n 2  i 1
i  1
i 1 
  n 1
i 1

4  n(n  1)  2
 2  n   ( n)
n  2  n
2
 .
n

When n  10,

n
 4(i  1) 2  2 1
 
i 1 n 2
    .
n 10 5
 3.2.1 RIEMANN SUM

Let f be continuous on the closed interval [ a , b] and let  be a partition of [ a , b] given by

a  x1  x2  ...  xn 1  xn  b,

where xi is the width of the i subinterval. If ci is any point in the i subinterval [ xi 1 , xi ],
th th

then the sum

 f (c )x ,
i 1
i i xi 1  ci  xi

is called the Riemann sum of f for the partition .

y y  f ( x)

ci

a x1 x2 xi 1 xi b x

Definition 3.2.1

If f is defined and continuous on [a, b], and the limit of the Riemann sums over 

n
lim
xi 0
 f (c )x
i 0
i i

exists, then f is said to be integrable on [a, b], and the limit

 f (c )x  
b
lim i i f ( x) dx
xi  0 a
i 0

is called the definite integral of f from a to b. The numbers a and b are the lower and
upper limits of the integral.
NOTE: 1. The limit is just the area under the graph. Since n is the number of subintervals

ba
obtained by partitioning by [a, b], it follows that xi  xi  xi 1 
n

and as xi  0, n  . Thus,

n
Area  lim  f (ci )xi   f ( x) dx.
b

n  a
i 0

2. If we choose ci to be the right endpoint of each subinterval, then ci  a  i (xi ).

Example 3.2.2

Find the area under the graph y  x on the interval [0, 2].
2
1.

2
2. Use Riemann sums to evaluate  2
2 x dx.

Solutions:

1. y y  x2

0 2 x
ba 2 2i 2i  2i  4i
2
xi   and ci  a  i(xi )  0    f (ci )  f   2
2 n n n n n
n 
n
 4i 2   2   8  n(n  1)(2n  1) 
 
2
 2 2 x dx  lim
n 
i 0
f ( ci )xi  lim
n 
  
i  0  n   n  
2    lim 3 
n  n
 6


4
  lim
3  n
2n 2  3n  1  4
n2
  lim(2
 3 n 
 n3  n12  
4 8
 (2)  .
3 3
2. y y  2x

2 0 2 x

ba 4 4i  4i   4i 
xi   and ci  a  i (xi )  2   f (ci )  f  2    2  2  
2 n n  n  n

n n
  4i    4   8 n  4i 
 Area  lim  f (ci )xi  lim   2  2        lim   2  
i  0   n    n  n i 1  n
n  n  n 
i 0

8 4  n(n  1)  
 lim  2n   
n  n
 n  2  
 16 
 lim  16  16  
n 
 n
 0.

It is clear from the diagram that the area cannot be zero. Direct computation has given us zero
because the area above and below the x  axis are equal but the area below the x  axis is
negative.

PROPERTIES OF DEFINITE INTEGRALS

If f (x ) and g (x) are continuous on the interval of integration [ a , b ] , then

b b
1. a kf ( x) dx  k a f ( x) dx, k is a constant
b b b
2.  a
[ f ( x)  g ( x)] dx   f ( x) dx   g ( x) dx
a a

b c b
3.  a
f ( x) dx   f ( x) dx   f ( x) dx, provided that a  c  b and that f is integrable
a c

in [ a , c ] and [c, b].

b a
4.  a
f ( x) dx    f ( x) dx
b

a
5.  a
f ( x) dx  0
Theorem 3.2.1 (Fundamental Theorem of Calculus)

1. Let f be integrable on a closed interval [a, b]. Let c satisfy the condition a  c  b,
and define a new function

x
F ( x)   f (t )dt , if a  x  b.
a

Then the derivative F ( x ) exists at each point x in the open interval (a, b), where f is
continuous and F ( x)  f ( x).

2. Assume that f is integrable on the closed interval [ a , b] and continuous in the open

interval (a, b). Let F be any antiderivative so that F ( x)  f ( x),

for each x in (a, b). If a  c  b, then for any x in (a, b)

x
 c
f (t )dt  F ( x)  F (c).

If the open interval on which f is continuous includes a and b , then we may write

b
a
f ( x)dx  F (b)  F (a).

Theorem 3.2.2 (Mean Value theorem for integrals)

If f is continuous on the closed interval [a, b], then there exists a number c in the closed
interval [ a, b] such that

b
 a
f ( x) dx  f (c)(b  a ).

Proof:

Define the function F by

x
F ( x)   f (t )dt , for every x  [a, b].
a
Then by the fundamental theorem of calculus, F is continuous on [ a, b] and differentiable on
(a, b) and that F ( x)  f ( x). By the mean value theorem for derivatives, there exists a number
c  (a, b) such that

F (b)  F (a)
F (c)  .
ba

implying that F (c)  f (c) and

a
F (a)   f (t )dt  0
a

Thus,

F (b) 1 b
b  a b  a a
f (c )   f (t )dt ,

b
i.e.  a
f ( x) dx  f (c)(b  a ).

Definition 3.2.1

If f is integrable over [a, b], then the average value of f , denoted by AV ( f ( x)), is given by

1 b
b  a a
AV ( f ( x))  f ( x)dx.

Example 3.2.3

2 2
1. Evaluate (a)  2
2x dx (b)  | 2 x  1| dx.
0

2. Find the average of f ( x)  x over the interval [1, 9].

Solutions:

1. (a) We got zero when we evaluated this integral using Riemann sums. We now apply
property (3):
2 0 2
 2 x dx    2 x dx   2 x dx   x 2
0 2
 x 2  4  4  8.
2 2 0 2 0

2 x  1, x  12
(b) Since | 2 x  1|  we have that
1  2 x, x  2
1
 2 1 2 1
5
 | 2 x  1| dx   (1  2 x) dx  1 (2 x  1) dx  ( x  x 2 ) 2  ( x 2  x ) 1 
2 2

0 0 2
0 2 2

 
9
1 b 1 9 1 2 32 13
b  a a 9  11
2. AV ( f ( x))  f ( x ) dx  x dx  . x 
8 3 1 6

Theorem 3.2.3

If f is continuous on an open interval I containing a, then for every x in the interval

d  x
f (t ) dt   f ( x).
dx  a 

Example 3.2.4

d  x 2
t  1 dt 
dx  0
1. Evaluate

x3
2. Find the derivative of F ( x)   cos t dt.
2

Solutions:

1. Note that f (t )  t 2  1 is continuous on . Thus,

d  x 2
t  1 dt  
dx  0
x2  1


2. Letting u  x , we have that

3

 cos u.3 x 2  3 x 2 cos  x 3 

dF du
F ( x)  .
du dx

3.2.2 IMPROPER INTEGRALS

In the definition of a definite integral, f ( x ) was assumed to be bounded in the interval

b
a  x  b. If f ( x ) is not bounded in a  x  b, then the integral a
f ( x)dx is said to be an

improper integral. In other words, integrals with infinite limits of integration are improper
integrals. In addition, integrals of functions that become infinite at a point within the interval
of integration are improper integrals. When the limits involved exist, we evaluate such integrals
with the following definitions:

1. If f is continuous on  a,   , then

 b
 a
f ( x)dx  lim f ( x)dx.
b a

2. If f is continuous on  , b  , then

b b

f ( x)dx  lim  f ( x)dx.
a  a

3. If f is continuous on  a, b , then

b b
 a
f ( x)dx  lim  f ( x)dx.
c a c

4. If f is continuous on  a, b  , then

b c
 a
f ( x)dx  lim  f ( x)dx.
c b a

5. If f becomes infinite at an interior point d of  a, b  , then

b d b
 a
f ( x)dx   f ( x)dx   f ( x)dx.
a d

The integral from a to b converges if the integrals from a to d and from d to b both
converge. Otherwise, the integral from a to b diverges.


6. If f is continuous on  ,   , and if
a
 
f ( x)dx and 
a
f ( x)dx both converges, we say

that 

f ( x)dx converges and

 a 


f ( x) dx   f ( x)dx   f ( x) dx.
 a

If either or both of the integrals on the right hand side diverges, the integral from  to  is
said to diverge as well.
Example 3.2.5

Evaluate

1 1

0

 1 1 1 2x 6 2x
  
6
(a) dx (b) tanh xdx (c) dx (d) dx (e)  dx (f) dx
1 x
x  4 x 4
x3  0 2
2 x 0 0 2
2
3 0

 1
(g)   1  x2
dx.

Solutions:

 1 b  1 2 b
 1  1 1 1
 b  2
3
(a) dx  lim x dx  lim  x    lim  2   .
b  
2 x3  2 2 2 b 
b 4 8

(b) 
0


tanh xdx  lim
a  a 
0
tanh xdx  lim
a 
ln | cosh x |   lim ln 2  ln cosh a   .
0
a a 

 The integral diverges.

1
(c) The function is discontinuous at x  0.
x

1 1 1 
1  11  1

 dx  lim  x dx  lim  2 x 2   lim  2  2c 2   2.
2
c 0   c 0 
c 0 c

0
x  c

1
(d) The function is discontinuous at x  1.
1 x


11

0 1 x
dx  lim 
c 1
c 1 0 1  x
dx  lim
c 1
  ln |1  x |    lim  ln |1  c |  
c
0 c 1

 The integral diverges.

(e) In the interval 0,6 , the function

2x
2 is discontinuous at x  2.
( x 2  4) 3

6 2x 2 2x 6 2x
 dx   dx   dx
x  4 x  4 x  4
2 2 2
0 2 3 0 2 3 2 2 3

c 2x 6 2x
 lim  dx  lim  dx
 x2  4  x2  4
2 2
c2 0 3 c2 c 3
  
 
1 6

 lim 3  x 2  4   lim  3  x 2  4  
c
3

c2 0 c2
 c 

 lim 3  c 2  4   3(4) 3   lim 3  32  3  3(c 2  4) 3 

1 1 1 1
3

c2   c 2  
1 1
 3.4 3  3.(32) 3
1
 9.4 3.

(f) The integrand is discontinuous at x  2. Thus,

6 2x c 2x 6 2x
 dx  lim  2 dx  lim  2 dx
x 4    3
2 
c2 c2
 
0 0 2 3 c 2
x 4 x 4

 lim
c2
ln | x  4 |   lim ln | x  4 | 
2
c

0 c  2
2
6

 lim  ln | c  4 |  ln 4   lim  ln 32  ln | c  4 |  .
2 2
c  2 c  2

Since lim  ln | c 2  4 |  ln 4    and lim  ln 32  ln | c 2  4 |   , the integral diverges.

c  2 c  2

1
(g) We try to sketch the graph of .
1  x2

0 x

The graph is symmetric at x  0. So

 1 0 1  1 0 1 b 1
 1  x 2
dx  
 1  x 2
dx  
0 1 x 2
dx  lim 
a  a 1  x 2
dx  lim 
b  0 1  x 2
dx

    
 lim arctan x a  lim arctan x 0         .
a 
0

b 
b

 2 2
 
 3.3 APPLICATION OF INTEGRATION

The use of the integral as a limit of a sum enables us to solve many physical and geometrical
problems such as determination of areas, volumes, arc length, surface area, centre of mass and
moments of inertia.

3.3.1 THE AREA BETWEEN TWO CURVES

Suppose we want to find the area A of the region R bounded by two curves y1  f1 ( x) and

y2  f 2 ( x), and two vertical lines x  a and x  b. We assume that the curve y2  f 2 ( x) lies

above the curve y1  f1 ( x) such that f 2 ( x)  f1 ( x), for a  x  b. Then

A    f 2 ( x)  f1 ( x)dx.
b

Similarly, if R is bounded by two curves x1  f1 ( y ) and x2  f 2 ( y ) and two horizontal lines

y  c and y  d in such a way that f 2 ( y )  f1 ( y ), for c  x  d , then

 f 2 ( y)  f1 ( y)dy.
d
A
c

Example 3.3.1

x5
Find the area bounded by the curves x  y and y  using
16

(a) vertical strips

(b) horizontal strips.

Solutions:

(a) y

x
Solving the two equations simultaneously, we find

16x  x 5 or x(16  x 4 )  0  x  0 or x  2.

0 2
 x5 
0 2 x5   x6 x2   x2 x6  8
 A     x dx    x  dx          .
2 16
  0
 16   96 2  2  2 96  0 3

(b) y

1
x  y, x  (16 y ) 5

0 2

 y  (16 y) dy      y2 5 6  5 y2  8
0 2
A 
1 1 1 1 6
5
(16 y )  y dy    .(16) 5 y 5    .(16) 5 y 5    .
5

2 0
 2 6  2  6 2 0 3

3.3.2 VOLUMES OF SOLIDS OF REVOLUTION

If a region in the plane is revolved about a given line, the resulting solid is a solid of revolution
and the line is called axis of revolution.

1. DISC METHOD

The simplest solid of revolution is a right circular cylinder which is found by revolving a
rectangle about an axis adjacent to one side of the rectangle. In this case, the cross sections of
the solid (slice or disc) are perpendicular to the x  axis of revolution. Two cases arise:

(i) The volume of the solid generated by a region under y  f ( x) bounded by the x  axis and
vertical lines x  a and x  b which is revolved about the x  axis is
 V    r 2 dx    y 2 dx     f ( x) dx.
b b b 2
a a a

Here the disc is with respect to x and r  y  f ( x).

(ii) The volume of the solid generated by a region under x  f ( y ) bounded by the y  axis and

horizontal lines y  c and y  d which is revolved about the y  axis is

 f ( y) dy.
d
V 
2
c

2. WASHER METHOD

Suppose that we are dealing with a hollowed object and two functions have been given instead
of one. Then we extend the disc method and take into account the difference of the two given
functions. This is the washer method and we have two cases:

(i) If the washer is with respect to x then the volume of the solid generated by a region between
y1  f ( x) and y2  g ( x) bounded by the vertical lines x  a and x  b, which is revolved
about the x  axis is

V     R2  r 2 dx     f ( x)    g ( x) 
b b 2 2
dx,
a a

where R is the outer radius and r is the inner radius.

(ii) If the washer being considered is with respect to y, then the volume of the solid generated

by a region between x1  f ( y ) and x2  g ( y ) bounded by the horizontal lines y  c and

y  d , which is revolved about the y  axis is

 f ( y)   g ( y)
b
V 
2 2
dy.
a

NOTE: The axis of revolution does not necessarily need be the x  or y  axis.

Example 3.3.2

1. Find the volume of the solid of revolution obtained by rotating the region under the curve
2
y  x 3 between x  0 and x  8

(a) about the x-axis (b) about the y-axis.

2. Determine the volume of the solid generated by rotating the region bounded by y  x and
3

x
y that lies in the first quadrant.
4

(a) about the x-axis (b) about the y-axis.

3. Determine the volume of the solid obtained by rotating the region bounded by y  x 2  2 x
and y  x about the line y  4.

Solution

1. (a) y

0 8 x

  384
2 8
8 3 7
V    x 3 dx   . x 3
2
 .
0 7 0 7

3
(b) When x  8, y  4 and x  y 2

x
8

  
4
4  y4 
V  8  y dy    64 y    192 .
3
2 2

0
 4 0
2. (a)

8 x

x x
, y  x 3   x 3  x  0 or x  8.
1 1
y
4 4

 1 
8

   3 52 x3  128
2
 x
V     R  r dx     x 3
8 8 2
2 2
  dx    x    .
0
0
 4   5 48 0 15

x
, y  x 3  x  4 y and x  y 3 . When x  8, y  2.
1
(b) y 
4

0 8 x

   dy    16 y  y   512 .
3 7
V     (4 y)  ( y
2
2 3)2
0    
 3 7 0 21
3. y

y4

y  x, y  x 2  2 x  x  x 2  2 x  x  x 2  3x  0  x  0 or x  3.

3
1  153
V     R  r  dx     4  ( x 2  2 x)    4  x  dx    x 5  x 4  x 3  12 x 2  
3
2 2
3 2 2 5
.
0  
0
5 3 0 5

3. SHELL METHOD

The shell method is a method of calculating the volume of a solid of revolution when
integrating along an axis parallel to the axis of revolution. The idea is that a “representative
rectangle” can be rotated about the axis of revolution, thus generating a hollow cylinder-a shell.
Then

Volume(V )   2 .radius.height.thickness

(i) The volume of the solid generated by a region bounded by the x  axis and vertical lines
x  a and x  b, which is revolved about the y  axis is

V   2 xydx 2  x  f ( x) dx,

b b

a a

where radius  r   x, height  h   y  f  x  and thickness  dx.

(ii) The volume of the solid generated by a region bounded by the y  axis and horizontal lines
y  c and y  d , which is revolved about the x  axis is
 V  2  y  f ( y ) dy.
d

NOTE: Sometimes two functions are involved and the axis of revolutions is not always the x 
or y  axis. These and other cases discussed above are summarised in the following graphs
below: y

y  f ( x)

rx

r h h  f ( x)

a b x

V  2  x  f ( x)dx
b

y  f ( x)

r h rx

y  g ( x) h  f ( x)  g ( x)

a b x

V  2  x  f ( x)  g ( x) dx
b

y  f ( x)

r r cx

h h  f ( x)

a b xc x

V  2   c  x   f ( x)dx
b

a
 y

y  f ( x)

h r r cx
y  g ( x) h  f ( x)  g ( x)

a b xc x

V  2  (c  x)  f ( x)  g ( x) dx
b

d x  f ( y)

h ry

r h  f ( y)

V  2  y  f ( y ) dy
d

d x  g ( x)

h ry

h  f ( y)  g ( y)

c x  f ( y)

V  2  y  f ( y )  g ( y ) dy
d

c
 ym

d r x  f ( y)

h r  m y

h  f ( y)

c
x

V  2  (m  y )  f ( y )dy
d

ym

d x  g ( x) r r  m y

h h  f ( y)  g ( y)

c x  f ( y)

V  2  (m  y )  f ( y )  g ( y )dy
d

Example 3.3.3

1. Find the Volume of the solid of revolution formed by rotating the finite region bounded by

the graphs of y  x  1 and y  ( x  1)

2

(a) about the x  axis (b) about the y  axis.


2. A region is bounded by y  cos x, y  sin x, x  0, x  . Find the volume when this region
2
is rotated about the line x  2.
Solutions:

1 (a) y

y  ( x  1) 2

1 y  x 1

r h

1 2 x

r  x, h  x 1  ( x 1)2

 
x  1  ( x  1) 2 dx  2   x x  1dx   ( x 3  2 x  x)dx 
2 1 2
V  2  x
1  1 1 
 2 2 3 
2
 x4 2 3 1 2  
2

 2  ( x  1)  ( x  1)     x  x  
5
2 2

 5 3 1  4 3 2 1 

 29 
 2  
 60 
29
 .
30

(b) y

y  ( x  1) 2

1 y  x 1

h r

1 2 x

r  y, h  y 2  1  ( y 2  1)  y 2  y 2
1 1

y  x  1  x  y 2  1y  ( x  1)2  x  y 2  1.
1

    3
1 1
V  2  y y 2  y 2 dy  2  y 2  y 3 dy 
1 3
.
0 0 10
2.

y  sin x

r
h

y  cos x


6 x

x2

h  cos x  sin x, r  2  x

V  2  (2  x)(cos x  sin x)dx  2 (2  x)(sin x  cos x) 06  (sin x  cos) 06 

 

 

   1 3 1 3   6  12 3     3 
 2  2         (2  1)   .
 6   2 2   2 2   6

3.3.3 LENGTH OF THE ARC

Recall from chapter two that if f ( x) is continuous in a  x  b, then the length L , of the arc

of the curve y  f ( x) between x  a and x  b is given by

L   1   f ( x) dx.
b 2
a

If the curve is given by x  g ( y ) between y  c and y  d , then

1   g( x) dy.

d
L
2
c

If a plane curve is given by  x(t ), y(t )  : t a, b , where x and y are continuous
functions, then

b
L ( x(t )) 2  ( y(t )) 2 dt.
a

If a curve is given in polar form r  f ( ), f ( )  0,      , then x( )  r ( )sin  ,

y ( )  r ( ) cos  and

2
  dr 
L r2    d .

 d 

Example 3.3.4

1 5
1. Find the length of the arc of the curve y  2 x3 between x  and x  .
3 3

2. Find the arc length of the cardioid r  2  2 cos  , 0    2 .

Solution

dy
1. y  x 3 , x  0 and 3 x
dx

 L  1 1   y( x)  dx  1 1  3 x  dx
5 5 2
3 2 3

3 3
5

 1 1  9 x 2 dx
3

1 2
 . 1  9 x  13
5

9 3 3

112
 .
27

dr
2. r  2  2 cos    2sin 
d

2
2  dr  2
L   r   d  0 (2  2 cos  )   2sin   d
2 2 2
0
 d 
2
 4  8cos   4 cos 2   4sin 2  d
0
2
 8  8cos  d
0
2
 2 2  2 cos  d
0
2
 2 4 cos 2 2 d
0
2
 4  cos 2 d
0

 8 cos 2 d
0

 16sin 2 0
 16.
 3.3.4 AREA OF A SURFACE OF REVOLUTION

Let y  f ( x), a  x  b determine a curve in the upper half of the xy plane.

yi si

xi

Partition the interval [ a, b] into n pieces by means of the points a  x0  x1  x2  ...  xn  b,

thereby also dividing the curve into n pieces. Let si denote the length of the i th piece and

ley yi be the y  coordinate of a point on this piece. When this curve is rotated about the x 
axis it generates a surface called a surface of revolution.

si

The surface area is given by

n
  lim  2 yi si
si 0
i 0
b
 2  y ds
a

 2  f ( x) 1   f ( x)  dx
b 2
a

Thus, we have the following theorem:

Theorem 3.3.1

Suppose that f ( x)  0 and f ( x) is continuous in the interval  a, b. Then, the area of the

surface of revolution generated by rotating the curve y  f ( x) between x  a and x  b about

the x  axis is given by

2
b  dy 
  2 y 1    dx.
a
 dx 
If x  g ( y ) is the curve between y  c and y  d rotated about the y  axis, then

2
d  dx 
  2 x 1    dy.
c
 dy 

NOTE: The axis of rotation could be any line. If y  n and x  m are axes of rotation, then

2
b  dy 
   2 (n  y ) 1    dx
a
 dx 

and

2
d  dx 
  2 (m  x) 1    dy
c
 dy 

respectively.

Example 3.3.5

The arc of the curve y  x 3 lying between x  0 and x  2 is rotated about the x-axis. Find
the area of the surface generated.

Solution:

dy
y  x3   3x 2
dx
2 2 3 2
 
. 1  9 x 4   (145) 2  1 .
2 2
  2  x3 1  (3x 2 ) 2 dx  2  x3 1  9 x 4 dx 
3
2

0 0 36 3 0 27  

3.3.5 CENTROID AND MOMENT OF INERTIA

To discuss the concept of the moment a body, consider the example of two bodies of masses
m1 and m2 placed on the seesaw at their respective distances d1 and d 2 from the fulcrum.

m1 d1 d2 m2

Then the seesaw will balance if and only if

 d1m1  d 2 m2 .

If the directed distance d 2 is negative, then the condition for balance is that d1m1  d 2 m2  0,
that is, the turning effect is zero. The moment of a body is a measure of its tendency to rotate
about a point.

Definition 3.3.1

Let be a plane system of particles of masses m1 , m2 ,..., mn located at the points

p1 , p2 ,..., pn , respectively. Let the line in the plane be taken as an axis and let l1 , l2 ,..., ln be

the directed distances from the line of the points p1 , p2 ,..., pn , respectively. Then, the

moment of this system of particles about the axis , denoted by M , is given by

n
M   mk lk  m1l1  m2l2  ...  mnln .
k 1

Thus, moments about x  and y  axes are given by

n
M x   mk yk
k 1

and

n
M y   mk xk ,
k 1

respectively.

For example, for the points p1 (1, 1), p2 (1,1), p3 (1, 2), and p4 (2,3) with their respective

masses m1  2, m2  1, m3  4 and m4  7, we have that

M x  2(1)  1(1)  4(2)  7(3)  28

M y  2(1)  1(1)  4(1)  7(2)  19.

If 1 is the line x  2 and 2 is the line y  2, then

M 1  2(1)  1(3)  4(1)  7(0)  1

M 2  2(3)  1(1)  4(0)  7(1)  0

 y

p4

2 p3 y2

p2

p1

x2

Definition 3.3.2

Let be a plane system of particles and let be the system obtained by concentrating the
total mass of the system at a single point ( x , y ). Let M and M denote the moments about

of the systems and respectively. If M  M for each axis , then ( x , y ) is

called the centre of mass of the system .

If the moment of the system is equal to the moment of the original system, then we must

have mx  M y and my  M x , where m is the total mass of the system. Thus, we have the

following theorem:

Theorem 3.3.3

If ( x , y ) is called the centre of mass of a system of particles of mass at pk ( xk , yk ),

k  1, 2,..., n, then

My
x
m

and

Mx
y ,
m

where m  m1  m2  ...  mn .
From our previous example,

m  2 1 4  7  14.

Hence,

My 19
x 
m 14

M x 28
y   2.
m 14

Instead of a plane system of particles , suppose that we have a plane region of particles .
Then, the centre of mass will be called centroid of the region.
d
y0 l ( y0 )

h ( x0 )

x
c a x0 b

Definition 3.3.3

Let be a plane region lying in the rectangle a  x  b, c  y  d . Let the line x  x0 intersect

this region in a line segment of length h( y0 ) for each x0 in a  x  b, and let the line y  y0

intersect this region in a line segment of length l ( y0 ) for each y0 in c  y  d . Then, M x and

M y , the moments of about the x  and the y  axes respectively, are given by

d
M x   yl ( y )dy,
c

b
M y   xh( x)dx
a
and the centroid ( x , y ) of the region is such that

My Mx
x and y  , where A is the area of .
A A

Example 3.3.6

x2
Find the centroid of the region bounded above by y  1 and below by y  .
4

Solutions: y

x2
1 y
4

x
2 2

2
2  x2  2 x2   x3  8
A   1  dx  2  1  dx  2  x   
2
 4 0
 4  12  0 3
1

  2 5 8
1 1 1
 M x   yl ( y )dy   y 2 y  2 y dy  4  y dy  4. . y 2  .
3
2

0 0 0 5 0 5
2
2 x2   x2 x4 
M y   x 1  dx      0.
2
 4  2 16  2

My Mx 8 3 3
x   0 and y   .  .
A A 5 8 5
 3
 P ( x , y )  P  0,  .
 5

We have discussed the moment of a particle about an axis as ml , where m is the mass and l
is the directed distance from the axis. This is also called the first moment of a particle. We
can also find the second moment ml 2 , the third moment ml 3 and so on. The second moment
is important in dynamics and in the mechanics of materials. It is called moment of inertia.
The moment of inertia is a measure of the resistance of a rotating body to change in motion.
Definition 3.3.4

With the notation and the condition of definition 3.3.3, the moment of inertia  I  of the region

about the x  axis, denoted I x , and about the y  axis ( I y ), is given by

d
I x   y 2l ( y )dy
c

and

b
I y   x 2 h( x)dx,
a

respectively.

Example 3.2.7

Find the moment of inertia for the region bounded by the parabola y  4 x  x 2 and the line
y  x.

Solutions:

2 3

   
3 4
I x   y 2 y  2  4  y dy   y 2 2  4  y  2  4  y dy
0 3

 
3 4
  y 3  2 y 2  y 2 4  y dy  2  y 2 4  ydy
0 3
 3 4
 y4 2 32 3
32 5
2 7 
 32 3
32 5
2 7

   y3   4  y  2   4  y  2   4  y  2   2    4  y  2   4  y  2   4  y  2 
 4 3 3 5 7 0  3 5 7 3
30167
 .
420
3
3 3 3 3 1  243
I y   x h( x)dx  
2
x (4 x  x  x )dx   (3x  x )dx   x 4  x 5  
2 2 3 4
.
0 0 0
4 5  0 20

THE END!