MT1710: WEEK 7 - 2021/22

Chapter III: Integration

Section 3.1: Introduction.

Definition 3.1: If f is a continuous function defined for a ≤ x ≤ b, divide the interval

[a, b] into n subintervals of equal length δn = (b−a)/n. Let the k-th subinterval contain
a point xk . Then the definite integral of f from a to b is defined by
Z b n
X
f (x) dx = lim f (xk )δn .
a n→∞
k=1

Rb
N.B. The integral a
f (x) dx is a constant which may equally well be written as
Z b Z b
f (u) du or f (t) dt .
a a

Theorem 3.1: Let f be an even function, then

Z a Z a
f (x) dx = 2 f (x) dx .
−a 0

Let g be an odd function, then

Z a
g(x) dx = 0 .
−a

Theorem 3.2: The Fundamental Theorem of Calculus:

Given that the function f is continuous on [a, b],
Z x
(a) F (x) = f (t) dt
a

is such that
dF
= f (x) ;
dx
Z b
(b) f (t) dt = F (b) − F (a) ,
a

where F is any function such that

dF
= f (x) .
dx
Definition 3.2: An antiderivative of a given function f is a function F such that

dF
= f (x) .
dx

F (x) is alternatively said to be an indefinite integral of f (x), written as

Z x
F (x) = f (t) dt .

Example 3.1: Evaluate

Z
dx
√ .
1 − x2

(see video 1)

Section 3.2. - Techniques of integration. (see videos 2 and 3)

Sub-section 3.2.1 - Standard forms.

Examples 3.2: Find the most general antiderivative of each of the following functions:

(i) f (x) = xn , n ≥ 0;

(ii) f (x) = x−n , n > 1 and x 6= 0;

(iii) f (x) = cos x.

The next page shows you a list of familiar standard integrals to be recognised.
If unfamiliar with any, you need to check it!
F unction → P articular Anti − Derivative

c f (x) → c F (x)

xn+1
xn n 6= 1, x 6= 0 →
n+1

x−1 x 6= 0 → ln |x|

ex → ex

−1/2 x
a2 − x2 → arcsin , |x| < a
a

1/2 !
2 −1/2
x x + x2 + a 2
a2 + x


→ arcsinh = ln
a a

1/2 !

−1/2 x x + x2 − a2
x2 − a2 → arccosh = ln
a a

−1 1 x
x2 + a2 → arctan
a a

cos (x) → sin (x)

sin (x) → − cos (x)

cosh (x) → sinh (x)

sinh (x) → cosh (x)

2
sec2 (x) = (sec (x)) → tan (x)

2
cosec2 (x) = (co sec (x)) → − cot (x)

tan (x) → ln |sec (x)|

cot (x) → ln |sin (x)|

df (x)
dx f 0 (x)
= → ln |f (x)|
f (x) f (x)
Examples 3.3 Evaluate the integrals
R2
(i) 0
|x(1 − x)| dx

R2 x; 0≤x≤1,
(ii) f (x) dx , where f (x) =
0 (2 − x)2 ; 1≤x≤2.

Sub-section 3.2.2 - Substitution techniques. (see videos 4 and 5)

Examples 3.4 Integrate

x x2 + 6x + 3
(i) , (ii) ,
2x + 1 x2 + 2x + 1
2x + 3
(iii) .
x2 + 2x + 10
Workout:  
x 1 2
(i)After changing the given expression to 2x+1 = 2 1 − 2(2x+1) , which can be
achieved either by inspection, by partial fractions or by long division, we integrate
the function by using
Zx Zx  
t 1 2
dt = 1− dt
2t + 1 2 2 (2t + 1)

(completed in week 7 videos, as other examples)

(ii) Change the given expression according to,

x2 + 6x + 3 x2 + 2x + 1 4x + 2
2
= 2
+ 2
x + 2x + 1 x + 2x + 1 x + 2x + 1
4(x + 1) − 2
=1+ 2 .
(x + 1)
4 2
=1+ −
(x + 1) (x + 1)2

Then, integrate using the substitution x + 1 = u implicitly:

Zx 2 Zx !
t + 6t + 3 1 4 2
dt = 1+ − dt
2
t + 2t + 1 2 (t + 1) (t + 1)2
2
= x + 4 ln |x + 1| + + C,
(x + 1)

for C a constant of integration.

 2x+3 2x+2 1
(iii) Change the given expression to x2 +2x+10 = x2 +2x+10 + (x+1)2 +32
then integrate

Zx Zx !
2t + 3 2t + 2 1
dt = + dt.
2
t + 2t + 10 t + 2t + 10 (t + 1)2 + 32
2

(completed in week 7 videos, as other examples)

The following examples show substitutions that are more elaborated.

Using integration by substitution, remember there are three steps to follow,
*express the integrand function in the new variable,
*replace the integration element, expressing it in the new variable,
*replace the integral end limits to the values in the new variable.

Examples 3.5 Evaluate the following integrals:

x
√ x
t(t2 + 1)
Z Z
cos t
(i) √ dt, (ii) √ dt .
t 5 + t2
Workout:
(i) the form of the integral suggests the use of the substitution t = u2 .
(completed in week 7 videos, as other examples)
p
(ii) The factor (5 + t2 ) present in the denominator of the integrand function suggests
the use of the substitution 5 + t2 = u2 .
(completed in week 7 videos, as other examples) √
Hwk: Try reworking this integral with the substitution t = 5 sinh u.

Quadratic Substitutions: some standard substitutions. (see videos 6 and 7)

1/2
a 2 − x2 is x = a sin θ (or x = a cos θ)

1/2
x2 − a2 is x = a cosh θ (or x = a sec θ)

1/2
x2 + a2 is x = a sinh θ (or x = a tanθ)
x2 + a2


is x = a tan θ

To understand these substitutions just use the formulae,

sin2 x + cos2 x = 1, cosh2 x − sinh2 x = 1 and 1 + tan2 x = 1 cos2 x.


N.B.- Every quadratic form may be rewritten in such standard form since
1n 2
o
ax2 + 2bx + c = (ax + b) + ac − b2 , a 6= 0
a
Several examples will now illustrate the use of quadratic forms. (see videos 6, 7 and
8)
Examples 3.6 What are the substitutions appropriate to evaluate integrals with the
expressions:
p p
(i) 2x2 + 6x − 9 , (ii) 3 + 2x − x2 ?

Examples 3.7 Evaluate: Z x

dt
(i) √ ,
1 − 2t − 4t2
Z x
dt
(ii) √ ,
3t2 + 2t
Z x
1
(iii) (a2 − t2 ) 2 dt .

Workout: h √
2 i
2 1 2
(i) Show that 1 − 2t − 4t = 4 5 − (4t + 1) and then use the substitution
√
5 sin θ = 4t + 1.
√
rh i
2
(ii) Show that 3t2 + 2t = (3t + 1) − 1 and then use the substitution 3t + 1 =
cosh θ to get
Zx arccosh(3x+1)
dt √ Z
1 sinh θ dθ
√ = 3 q
3t2 + 2t 3 cosh2 θ − 1

1
= √ arccosh (3x + 1) + C,
3
where C is a constant of integration.
(iii) one possible way to solve this integral is to use the substitution t = a sin θ.

Trigonometric Substitutions (see online session this week, recorded in video 9)

Examples 3.8 Evaluate:

Z 1
x
12
(i) dx ,
0 1−x
Z b
dx
(ii) √ √ , 0<a<b.
a x−a b−x

Workout:
(i) Use the substitution x = sin2 θ.
(ii) one possible way is to use the substitution x = asin2 θ + bcos2 θ. Then, following
the steps needed for integration by substitution, it is easy to show that
Zb Z0
dx 2 (a − b)
√ √ = dθ = π.
x−a b−x (b − a)
a π/2

(complete it as homework)

In dealing with the trigonometric functions, sin θ and cos θ, the evaluation of
Rx p
sin θcosq θ dθ, for p and q integers, is mostly done with the substitution sin θ = u,
or with cos θ = u, or by the use of double angles, or, by the reduction formula, which
we shall study.

In dealing with rational functions of (sin θ) and (cos θ), i.e.,

Zx
P (sin θ, cos θ)
dθ,
Q (sin θ, cos θ)
the standard substitution is  
θ
u = tan
2
because then, as seen in the lecture,
2u 1 − u2
sin θ = and cos θ = .
1 + u2 1 + u2

Examples 3.9 Evaluate:

Z x
(i) cos3 θ sin θ dθ ,
Z x
dθ
(ii) dθ .
5 + 4 cos θ
Workout of (ii) (more details in video 9 of this Week 7-Online Session):
2
Following above, use the substitution tan θ2 = u, giving cos (θ) = 1−u


1+u , giving
2

Zx tan(x/2)
Z
dθ du
=2
5 + 4 cos θ (9 + u2 )

2h  u itan(x/2)
= arctan
3 3
2 1  x 
= arctan tan + C,
3 3 2

where C is a constant of integration.