MT1810 – 2021/22 10

Notes for Week 3 (∀m ∈ Z) 4|m2 (false)

(∃m ∈ Z) 4|m2 (true)
3.1 Predicates
(∀m ∈ N) [ (∃n ∈ N) 4|(n + m) ] (true)
We saw earlier that a proposition is a sentence that is
(∃n ∈ N) [ (∀m ∈ N) 4|(n + m) ] (false)
unambiguously true or false. Here is a statement that
is not a proposition: “n ≥ 3 .” This statement depends
on the variable n. We cannot determine its truth value 3.3 Proving statements containing quantifiers
without knowing n. However, we can find out whether
Example (i):
the statement is true or false for any particular choice
(∀a ∈ R \ {0}) (a + a−1 )2 − (a − a−1 )2 = 4
 
of n.
Statements like this are known as predicates. Proof:
If we write P (n) for “n ≥ 3”, we have: Assume that a ∈ R\{0} and assume nothing else about
a. Then (a + a−1 )2 − (a − a−1 )2 = a2 + a−2 + 2aa−1 −
P (1) is the proposition “1 ≥ 3” (false),
(a2 + a−2 − 2aa−1 ) = 4, q.e.d.
P (2) is the proposition “2 ≥ 3” (false),
Shorter:
P (3) is the proposition “3 ≥ 3” (true), etc.
Assume that a ∈ R \{0}. Then (a+a−1 )2 −(a−a−1 )2 =
A predicate P (n) is a statement which de- a2 + a−2 + 2aa−1 − (a2 + a−2 − 2aa−1 ) = 4, q.e.d.
pends on a variable n and which becomes Even shorter:
a proposition for any particular choice of n
from some set, often the set N. Let a ∈ R \ {0}. Then (a + a−1 )2 − (a − a−1 )2 =
a2 + a−2 + 2aa−1 − (a2 + a−2 − 2aa−1 ) = 4, q.e.d.
More examples of predicates:
Example (ii):
Q(x): “x + 1 > x .” (As x is not specified, Q(x) is a
predicate, even though Q(x) is true for all x ∈ R.) (∃m ∈ Z) 4|m2
5n − 1 Proof:
R(n): “ is an integer.”
4
Often the easiest way to prove an existence statement
S(n): “ 1 + 2 + 3 + . . . + n = 12 n(n + 1) .” is to find a single example. E.g.,
T (n): “ 2n−1 > n .” Choose m = 6 =⇒ m2 = 36 =⇒ 4|m2 , q.e.d.
Example (iii):
3.2 Quantifiers  
2
(∀m ∈ Z) 4|m is false.
Let X be a set and let P (x) be a predicate defined for
x ∈ X. Proof:
If P (x) is true for every x ∈ X, we write To prove this, we need to find a single counterexample.
E.g.,
(∀x ∈ X) P (x) .
Choose m = 3 =⇒ m2 = 9 =⇒ 4 6 |m2 , q.e.d.
The symbol ∀ (“for all”) is called the universal quan-
tifier. Example (iv):
If P (x) is true for some but not necessarily all x ∈ X, (∀m ∈ N) [ (∃n ∈ N) 4|(n + m) ]
we write
Proof:
(∃x ∈ X) P (x) .
Let m ∈ N. Choose n = 3m. Then n ∈ N and n + m =
The symbol ∃ (“there exists”) is called the existential 4m, hence 4|(n + m), q.e.d.
quantifier.
Examples:
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3.4 Negating statements containing quantifiers (ii) for any fixed k ∈ N, if P (k) is true then P (k + 1)
is true.
The following tautology shows how to negate a state-
ment involving quantifiers. This principle is known as the principle of mathemat-
ical induction (PMI).
¬[ (∀x ∈ X) P (x) ] ⇐⇒ [ (∃x ∈ X) ¬P (x) ]

3.7 PMI: proof scaffold

3.5 Example
[Use the text in bold verbatim in your proofs.]
To “prove” the claim that f (n) = n2 − n + 41 is a
prime number for all n ∈ N, a student works out: Let P (n) be a predicate defined for all n ∈ N. Prove
that P (n) holds for all n ∈ N.
f (1) = 41 (prime)
Proof:
f (2) = 43 (prime)
(i) base case: Show that P (1) is true.
f (3) = 47 (prime)
(ii) induction step: Let k ∈ N be fixed and as-
f (4) = 53 (prime) sume that P (k) holds.
f (5) = 61 (prime) Use P (k) to show that P (k + 1) holds.
This looks promising, but to be really sure, the student By the PMI, P (n) holds for all n ∈ N.
tries a few more:
f (6) = 71 (prime)
f (7) = 83 (prime)
...
f (20) = 421 (prime)
f (21) = 461 (prime)
Mathematica gives:
In[3]:= Table[n2 − n + 41, {n, 1, 40}]

Out[3]= {41,43,47,53,61,71,83,97,113,131,151,
173,197,223,251,281,313,347,383,421,461,503,
547,593,641,691,743,797,853,911,971,1033,1097,
1163,1231,1301,1373,1447,1523,1601}

In[4]:= PrimeQ[%]

Out[4]= {True,True,True,True,True,True,True,
True,True,True,True,True,True,True,True,True,
True,True,True,True,True,True,True,True,True,
True,True,True,True,True,True,True,True,
True,True,True,True,True,True,True}

Is the student justified to conclude that f (n) is prime

for all n ∈ N ?

3.6 The principle of mathematical induction

Let P (n) be a predicate defined for all n ∈ N, i.e.,
P (1), P (2), . . . are propositions. To prove that P (n) is
true for all n ∈ N, it is sufficient to prove that
(i) P (1) is true, and