Fluids – is a substance that cannot maintain its own shape but takes the shape of tis container.

Liquids and gases are classified as fluids.

- A substance that deforms continuously when subjected to a shear stress
Fluid Mechanics – deals with the behavior of fluids at rest as well as in motion
a. Hydrostatics – studies the mechanics of fluids at absolute and relative rest
b. Kinematics – deals with translation, rotation and deformation of fluid without
considering the force and energy causing such motion
c. Dynamics – prescribes the relation between velocities and acceleration and the forces
which are exerted by or upon the moving of the fluids.
Characteristics of Fluids
1. Compressibility
a. Liquids are assumed incompressible
b. Gases are highly compressible
2. Resistance to Motion
a. Liquids resist changes in velocity because of its viscosity
b. Gases are low viscous fluids
3. Molecular Spacing
a. For liquids, the molecules are relatively close to each other but have low kinetic
energy
b. For gases, the molecules are far from each other but have high kinetic energy
4. Pressure
The pressure exerted by a fluid on any solid surface is always normal to the
surface
𝑃𝑔 = 𝑃𝑎𝑏𝑠 − 𝑃𝑎𝑡𝑚
5. Shear Resistance
Fluids cannot support shear forces
6. Shape and Volume
a. Liquids have fixed volume
b. Gases take the volume of the container

Types of Fluids
1. Ideal Fluids – are fluids that have no viscosity, incompressible, no resistance to shear, no
eddy currents and no friction between moving surfaces
2. Real Fluids – are fluids that are incompressible, non – uniform velocity distributions and
have friction and turbulence in flow.

Physics II – Fluid Mechanics

J. Marinay
Classification of Fluids
1. Newtonian Fluids – viscous real fluid and whose shear stresses are a linear function of
the fluid strain. Ex. Air, water, gases, steam
2. Non – Newtonian Fluids – are real fluids like pastes, gels, electrolyte solutions, slurries,
etc.
Fluid Properties
1. Density, Specific Weight and Specific Volume
𝑘𝑔
a. Density – mass per unit volume of a fluid 𝑚3
For Ideal Gas:
𝑃
𝜌 = 𝑅𝑇
𝑘𝑁
b. Specific Weight – weight of fluid per unit volume 𝑚3
c. Specific Volume – the volume occupied by the fluid per unit mass, reciprocal of
density

2. Specific Gravity – a dimensionless ratio of fluids to the density of the standard fluid.
𝐷𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑜𝑓 𝑙𝑖𝑞𝑢𝑖𝑑
a. For Liquid: 𝐷𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑜𝑓 𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟

𝐷𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑜𝑓 𝑔𝑎𝑠 𝑘𝑔
b. For Gas: ; Density of air = 1.2 𝑚3 at 101.325 kPa and 21.1
𝐷𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑜𝑓 𝑎𝑖𝑟
o
C

3. Mole Fraction – assuming a composition of Fluids A, B and C, the mole fraction can be
expressed as 𝑋𝐴 , 𝑋𝐵 and 𝑋𝐶 . The mole fraction of Fluid A will be equal to
𝑁𝐴
𝑋𝐴 =
𝑁𝐴 + 𝑁𝐵 + 𝑁𝐶
4. Viscosity – the fluids resistance to flow or the property of fluid to resist shear
deformation.
a. Viscosity index – the rate at which viscosity changes with temperature
b. Viscometer – an instrument consisting of standard orifice.

A. Absolute Viscosity, 𝜇 - viscosity which is determined by direct measurement of shear

resistance (in Poise)
𝐹/𝐴
𝜇=
𝑑𝑣/𝑑𝑦
Where: F/A = shear stress of the fluid
dv/dy = shear strain on the fluid
Units:
𝑑𝑦𝑛𝑒−𝑠𝑒𝑐 𝑔𝑟−𝑐𝑚
1 𝑃𝑜𝑖𝑠𝑒 = 1 = 0.1 Pa –sec 1 𝑑𝑦𝑛𝑒 = 1
𝑐𝑚2 𝑠𝑒𝑐 2

Physics II – Fluid Mechanics

J. Marinay
 𝑙𝑏 − 𝑠𝑒𝑐
1 𝑟𝑒𝑦𝑛 = 1
𝑖𝑛2

B. Kinematic Viscosity, v
𝑎𝑏𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑡𝑒 𝑣𝑖𝑠𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝜇
𝑣= =𝜌
𝑑𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑦

𝑓𝑡 2 𝑚2 𝑐𝑚2
Units: , , 1 stoke = 1
𝑠𝑒𝑐 𝑠𝑒𝑐 𝑠𝑒𝑐

5. Reynolds Number, 𝑁𝑅𝑒 – dimensionless number which is the ratio of the forces of inertia
to viscous forces of the fluids.
𝜌𝐷𝑉 𝐷𝑉
𝑁𝑅𝑒 = 𝑜𝑟
𝜇 𝑣
Where: D = inside diameter
V = velocity
v = kinematic viscosity
𝜇 = absolute viscosity
Types of Flow:
a. Laminar Flow – particles run parallel to each other, 𝑁𝑅𝑒 < 2100
b. Turbulent Flow – particles run not in same direction, 𝑁𝑅𝑒 > 4000
c. Transitional Flow – also termed as critical flow in which this type of flow
occurs in 2100 < 𝑁𝑅𝑒 < 4000
Example: Water is flowing in a pipe with a radius of 25.4 cm at a velocity of 3 m/s. The
viscosity of water is 1.13 Pa-s. What is the Reynold’s number?
25.4 ∗ 2
𝜌𝐷𝑉 1000 ∗ 100 ∗ 3
𝑁𝑅𝑒 = = = 1348.67
𝜇 1.13

6. Surface Tension and Capillary Action

a. Surface Tension – the membrane formed on the free surface of the fluid which is
due to cohesive forces. The tension decreases as the temperature increases.
b. Capillary Action – this is done through the behavior of a surface tension between
the liquid and a vertical solid surface.

Physics II – Fluid Mechanics

J. Marinay
 7. Compressibility and Bulk Modulus
a. Compressibility, 𝛽 – the measure of the change in volume of a substance when a
pressure is exerted on the substance
−∆𝑉
𝑉𝑜
𝛽=
∆𝑃

b. Bulk Modulus, EB – the inverse of the compressibility

Pressure – defined as force per unit area

- For liquid pressure, the medium is considered as a continuous distribution of matter
- For gas pressure, it is calculated as the average pressure of molecular collisions on the
container.
- A scalar quantity
Pascal’s Law is a principle in fluid mechanics given by Blaise Pascal that states that a pressure
change at any point in a confined incompressible fluid is transmitted throughout the fluid such
that the same change occurs everywhere.
Hydrostatic Pressure – the pressure of the fluid exerted on the walls of the container.
a. Pressure is a function of depth or height and varies linearly with vertical depth.
b. A particle in a liquid exert pressure in all directions.
c. All points at the same horizontal plane have the same pressure.
d. Pressure is always normal to the surface.
Pressure = Height x Weight Density (𝜌𝑔ℎ)
Buoyancy (also known as the buoyant force) is the force exerted on an object that is wholly or
partly immersed in a fluid.
o The symbol for the magnitude of buoyancy is B or FB
o As a vector it must be stated with both magnitude and direction.
 Buoyancy acts upward for the kind of situations encountered in everyday experience.
o As with other forces, the SI unit of buoyancy is the newton [N].
 Buoyancy is caused by differences in pressure acting on opposite sides of an object immersed
in a static fluid.
o A typical situation:
1. The pressure on the bottom of an object is greater than the top (since pressure
increases with depth).
2. The force on the bottom pushes up and the force on the top pushes down (since force
is normal to the surface).
3. The direction of the net force due to the fluid is upward.

Physics II – Fluid Mechanics

J. Marinay
 o Pressure variations in a fluid are typically caused by gravity (sinceP = P0 + ρgh), but in
general buoyant forces act opposite the direction of the frame of reference acceleration.
 Under conditions of apparent weightlessness there can be no buoyant forces.
 Archimedes' Principle
o The magnitude of the buoyant force on an object is equal to the weight of the fluid it
displaces.

B = ρgVdisplaced

o The factors that affect buoyancy are…

 the density of the fluid
 the volume of the fluid displaced
 the local acceleration due to gravity
o The buoyant force is not affected by…
 the mass of the immersed object
 the density of the immersed object
 Objects immersed in a fluid have an apparent weight that is…
o reduced by the buoyant force (less than their actual weight)

W′ = W − B (W′ < W)

o directly proportional to the relative density (ρ′ = ρobject − ρfluid)

W′ = ρ′gV

Example:
1. A 70 kg statue lies at the bottom of the sea. Its volume is 3.0 x 104 cm3. How much force
is needed to lift?
𝐹𝐵 = 𝑚𝑔 = 𝜌𝑔𝑉
𝐹𝐵 = 1025 ∗ 9.8#3.0𝑥10−2 = 3.0𝑥102 𝑁
Force needed to lift it up = Weight of statue – Bouyant force = 390 N

2. What volume of helium is needed if a balloon is to lift a load of 800 kg?

𝐹𝐵 = (𝑀𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑜𝑓 ℎ𝑒𝑙𝑖𝑢𝑚 + 800 𝑘𝑔)(𝑔)
ρgVair = (ρVhelium + 800)g
800 800
𝑉=ρ = 1.29−0.18 𝑘𝑔/𝑚3 = 720 𝑚3
𝑎𝑖𝑟 −ρ𝐻𝑒

Physics II – Fluid Mechanics

J. Marinay
Pressure Head, h
From Hydrostatic Law: “The intensity of the pressure exerted by a liquid at rest is
directly proportional to the weight density of the liquid”

𝑃
ℎ=
𝜌𝑔
General Flow Equations:
1. Volume flow rate (q) of a fluid is a measure of the volume flow of a fluid passing through
a point per unit time.
2. Mass flow rate (m) of a fluid is measure of the mass flow of a fluid passing through a
point per unit time.

𝑞 = 𝐴𝑟𝑒𝑎 𝑥 𝑉𝑒𝑙𝑜𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦 (𝐴𝑉)

𝑚 = 𝑑𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑥 𝑞

Example:
1. The flow of water through cast iron pipe is 10,000 GPM. The pipe is 18 inches in
diameter. What is the flow velocity?
𝐴𝑟𝑒𝑎 = 𝜋𝑟 2 = 𝜋(92 ) = 254.46 𝑖𝑛2
𝑞 (10000 ∗ 3.7854 ∗ 61.0237)
𝑉𝑒𝑙𝑜𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦 = = = 9078.01𝑖𝑛/𝑠
𝐴 254.46
2. Water is flowing through the pipe with an inside diameter of 4 inches. The flow rate
is 24 GPM. What is the mass flow rate and the average velocity of the water?

Physics II – Fluid Mechanics

J. Marinay
Conservation of Mass – states that all mass flow rates into a control volume are equal to all
mass flow rate out of the control volume.
Continuity Equation:
𝑚1 = 𝑚2
𝜌1 𝐴1 𝑉1 = 𝜌2 𝐴2 𝑉2
Note that for incompressible fluid, densities are the same.

Example:
1. Water flows through a pipe with a cross – sectional area of 10 cm2 at 3 m/s. what is the
flow of the speed in the pipe if the area is reduced to 5 cm2?
𝜌1 𝐴1 𝑉1 = 𝜌2 𝐴2 𝑉2
102 5
( ∗ 3) = ( ∗ 𝑋)
1002 1002
𝑚
𝑋=6
𝑠

2. Water flows through a circular pipe with a radius of 4 cm at a speed of 5 m/s. a.) if the
radius of the pipe is doubled, what is the new velocity of the water in the pipe? b.) What
is the volume flow rate in the pipe? c.) calculate the mass flowrate at both points.
𝜌1 𝐴1 𝑉1 = 𝜌2 𝐴2 𝑉2

4 2 8 2
𝜋( ) (5) = 𝜋 ( ) (𝑉) = 𝑉 = 1.25 𝑚/𝑠
100 100
Volumetric flow rate: 𝐴1 𝑉1 = 0.025 𝑚3 /𝑠
Mass Velocity: 𝜌1 𝐴1 𝑉1 = 25.13 𝑘𝑔/𝑠

Physics II – Fluid Mechanics

J. Marinay
 3. In an adult, the aorta’s radius is normally 1.5 cm and blood moves through it at around 30
cm/s. If the typical capillary has a radius of 5x10-6 m, and blood passes through them
with a velocity of 0.1 cm/s, approximately, how many capillaries are there in the body?

Conservation of Energy - Bernoulli’s Principle

In fluid dynamics, relation among the pressure, velocity, and elevation in a moving fluid (liquid
or gas), the compressibility and viscosity (internal friction) of which are negligible and the flow
of which is steady, or laminar. First derived (1738) by the Swiss mathematician Daniel
Bernoulli, the theorem states, in effect, that the total mechanical energy of the flowing fluid,
comprising the energy associated with fluid pressure, the gravitational potential energy of
elevation, and the kinetic energy of fluid motion, remains constant. Bernoulli’s theorem is the
principle of energy conservation for ideal fluids in steady, or streamline, flow and is the basis for
many engineering applications.
Restrictions:
a. Incompressible
b. Non viscous
c. No turbulence
d. Constant density

𝜌𝑉1 2 𝜌𝑉2 2
𝑃1 + 𝜌𝑔ℎ1 + = 𝑃2 + 𝜌𝑔ℎ2 +
2 2

Physics II – Fluid Mechanics

J. Marinay
Example:
1. A water at a gauge pressure of 3.8 atm at street flows into an office building at a speed of
0.60 m/s through a pipe 50 mm in diameter. The pipe tapers down to 2.6 cm in diameter
by the top floor, 18m above the street, where a faucet has been left open. Calculate the
flow velocity and the gauge pressure in such a pipe at the top floor.

Physics II – Fluid Mechanics

J. Marinay
Physics II – Fluid Mechanics
J. Marinay
2. Through a refinery, fuel ethanol is flowing in a pipe at a velocity of 1 m/s and a pressure
of 101300 Pa. The refinery needs the ethanol to be at a pressure of 2 atm (202600 Pa) on
a lower level. How far must the pipe drop in height in order to achieve this pressure?
Assume the velocity does not change. The density of ethanol is 789 kg/m3 and gravity g
is 9.8 m/s2.)
1 1
2
𝜌𝑣12 + 𝜌𝑔ℎ1 + 𝑃1 = 2𝜌𝑣22 + 𝜌𝑔ℎ2 + 𝑃2
Since the velocity does not change (v1=v2), the velocity term can be subtracted
from both sides
𝜌𝑔ℎ1 + 𝑃1 = 𝜌𝑔ℎ2 + 𝑃2

Rearrange algebraically to solve for change in height

𝑃1 − 𝑃2
= ℎ2 − ℎ1 = ∆ℎ = −13.1 𝑚𝑒𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑠
𝜌𝑔

13.1 meters lower.

3. Water is flowing in a fire hose with a velocity of 1.0 m/s and a pressure of 200000 Pa. At
the nozzle – the pressure decreases to atmospheric pressure, there is no change in height.
Calculate the velocity at the nozzle.
1 1
2
𝜌𝑣12 + 𝜌𝑔ℎ1 + 𝑃1 = 2𝜌𝑣22 + 𝜌𝑔ℎ2 + 𝑃2

Since the height does not change (h1=h2), the height term can be subtracted from
both sides.
1 1
2
𝜌𝑣12 + 𝑃1 = 2𝜌𝑣22 + 𝑃2

Algebraically rearrange the equation to solve for v2, and insert the numbers

2
√𝜌 (12𝜌𝑣12 + 𝑃1 − 𝑃2 ) = 𝑣2 = 14 m/s

Physics II – Fluid Mechanics

J. Marinay
Velocity Head, V
From Torricelli’s Theorem: “The velocity of a liquid which discharges under a head is
equal to the velocity of a body which falls in the same head.”
𝑉2
ℎ=
2𝑔
Example:
1. Determine the velocity of the liquid in a tank, given that the surface h = 5m.

𝑉 = √2𝑔ℎ
𝑉 = √2(9.81)(5) = 9.9045 𝑚/𝑠

2. A tank containing water as high as 1 meter (g = 10 ms-2) and on the wall

there is a leak hole (see figure below). The speed of water coming out of the
hole is …
Known :

Height (h) = 1 m – 0.20 m = 0.8 meters

Acceleration due to gravity (g) = 10 m/s2
Wanted : Speed of water (v)
Solution :
vt2 = 2 g h = 2(10)(0.8) = 16
vt = √16 = 4 m/s

Physics II – Fluid Mechanics

J. Marinay