Muscular System
MUSCLE TYPES ● Also known as voluntary muscle
● Skeletal and smooth muscle cells
are elongated (REMEMBER: muscle
cell = muscle fiber)
● Contraction and shortening of
muscles are due to the movement of
microfilaments
● All muscles share some terminology
○ Prefixes myo- and mys- refer
to “muscle”
○ Prefix sarco- refers to “flesh”
Skeletal muscle
● Most skeletal muscle fibers are
attached by tendons to bones
● Skeletal muscle cells are large,
cigar-shaped, and multinucleate
● Also known as striated muscle
because of its obvious stripes
because it is the only muscle tissue
subject to conscious control
● Whereas all muscle types produce
movement, skeletal muscle has
three other important roles:
• Maintain posture and body position
• Stabilize joints
• Generate heat
Special functional properties of skeletal
muscles
Irritability (aka responsiveness)
● ability to receive and respond to a
stimulus
Contractility
● ability to forcibly shorten when an
adequate stimulus is received
Extensibility
● ability of muscle cells to be stretched
Elasticity
● ability to recoil and resume resting
length after stretching
Skeletal muscle cells are surrounded and
bundled by connective tissue:
Endomysium
● encloses a single muscle fiber
Perimysium
● wraps around a fascicle (bundle) of
muscle fibers
Epimysium
● covers the entire skeletal muscle
Fascia
● on the outside of the epimysium
The epimysium of skeletal muscle blends
into a connective tissue attachment such as:
Tendons
● cordlike structures
● Mostly collagen fibers
● Often cross a joint because of their
toughness and small size
Aponeuroses
● sheetlike structures (in contrast to
tendons that are cordlike)
● Attach muscles indirectly to bones,
cartilages, or connective tissue
coverings
Smooth muscle
● No striations
● Involuntary—no conscious control
● Found mainly in the walls of hollow
visceral organs (such as stomach,
urinary bladder, respiratory
passages)
● Spindle-shaped fibers that are
uninucleate
● Contractions are slow and sustained
Cardiac muscle
● Striations
● Involuntary
● Found only in the walls of the heart
● Uninucleate
• Branching cells joined by gap
junctions called intercalated discs
● Contracts at a steady rate set by
pacemaker
MICROSCOPIC ANATOMY OF
SKELETAL MUSCLE
A skeletal muscle is covered by the epimysium. If I cut
the muscle cross-sectional, I can see bundles of
muscle fibers or fascicles covered by the perimysium
(see red boxes). Within a fascicle or bundle of muscle
fiber is of course a muscle fiber (see purple box). In a
muscle fiber there are myofibrils (see green box). A
sarcomere is present in the myofibril (see orange box)
Muscle ->bundle of muscle fiber -> muscle fiber ->
myofibril -> sarcomere
Myofibril - Thick filaments = myosin
Banding Patterns filaments
I Band - Thin filaments = actin
● light band filaments
● Contains only thin filaments
● Z disc is a midline interruption
A Band
● Dark band
● Contains the entire length of the
thick filaments
● H zone is a lighter central area
● M line is in center of H zone

As seen in the figure of a myofibril above, 1

sarcomere is delineated by two Z-discs at both ends.
Within a sarcomere you have thin filaments (blue) and
thick filaments (red). Remember that in a length of a
myofibril you have more than one sarcomere.

Thick filaments
● Myosin filaments
A myofibril is considered a complex organelle.
Remember that it is found within a muscle fiber which
● Composed of the protein myosin
is a muscle cell (of course you have organelles within ● Contain ATPase enzymes to split
a cell). Now, as you can see, in the area of the I band ATP to release energy for muscle
you can only see blue lines that represent thin contractions
filament. In the area of the A band you can see red
● Possess projections known as
lines, that represents thick filament
myosin heads
Sarcomere ● Myosin heads are known as cross
● contractile unit of a muscle fiber bridges when they link thick and thin
● Structural and functional unit of filaments during contraction
skeletal muscle
● Contraction is kind of
“initiated”/occurs in this structure
● Always remember that when the
gross structure of the muscle
contracts (the one you observe
through your naked eye) that
actually was initiated/that started
from microscopic structures like the
sarcomere (remember level of
As you can see, the thick filament is composed of a
organization) “bouquet” of myosin heads. One myosin head
● Organization: contains an ATP binding site and an actin binding site
• Myofilaments produce banding (see purple arrows) that you'll know the importance of
(striped) pattern later when you read about contraction.
Thin filaments MUSCLE CONTRACTION
● Actin filaments Muscle contraction occurs in the contractile
● Composed of the contractile protein units called sarcomere.
actin For muscle contraction
● Actin is anchored to the Z disc to occur, the sarcomere
● At rest, within the A band there is a needs to be shortened
(contracted). As seen in
zone that lacks actin filaments called
the figure, the relaxed
the H zone
sarcomere is longer in
● During contraction, H zones length compared to fully
disappear as actin and myosin contracted. See how
filaments overlap the H zone is long and
present in relaxed and
absent in fully
contracted.

How do we shorten the sarcomere so

As you can see, the thin filament is not only
that the muscles can contract?
composed of “grape-like” actin filaments but also
contains the “rope-like” tropomyosin and attached to it ● Skeletal muscles must be stimulated
is the troponin complex. Focus on the black dots in an by a motor neuron (nerve cell) to
actin pointed by the red arrow. These are the myosin contract
binding sites where the actin-binding site of the ● Motor unit—one motor neuron and
myosin head will attach. So that actin and myosin
interacts. However, prior to contraction like in this
all the skeletal muscle cells
picture, the binding site is covered/blocked by the stimulated by that neuron
tropomyosin. ● Thus, we focus first on the interplay
between nervous and muscular
Sarcoplasmic reticulum (SR) system since skeletal muscles
● Specialized smooth endoplasmic needs an impulse from the nervous
reticulum system in order to
● Surrounds the myofibril contract
● Stores and releases calcium (you Motor unit 1 with the red
have to remember this function axons and motor unit 2
with the purple axons.
because of its importance during
Focus on each motor unit
contraction) and how each of their
axons are attached to the
muscle fibers. Remember
that by definition from last
slide, a motor unit is one
motor neuron and all
skeletal muscle cells
stimulated by it

Neuromuscular junction
● Association site of axon terminal of
the motor neuron and sarcolemma**
of a muscle
 *or simply a junction where the axon Step 3
terminal of a motor neuron and ● entry of calcium ions triggers the
sarcolemma of a muscle meets release of acetylcholine (see green
**sarcolemma-is a cell membrane dots) from the synaptic vesicle (see
that surrounds skeletal muscle orange box). See the acetylcholine
inside the synaptic vesicle.
What occurs during creation of action • Acetylcholine- a neurotransmitter
potential that will lead to contraction? that stimulates muscle contraction
Step 1
● a nerve impulse (see pink arrows)
(specifically an impulse for the
muscle to contract) reaches the
axon terminal in the neuromuscular
junction

Step 4
● acetylcholine (green dots) diffuses in
the synaptic cleft (see red arrow)
and binds to the receptors in the
sarcolemma (see purple-arrows). As
you can see there are several
receptors for Ach found in the folds
of the sarcolemma
Step 2 • Acetylcholine- a neurotransmitter
● due to the nerve impulse that stimulates muscle contraction
(specifically an impulse for the • Synaptic cleft- gap between neuron
muscle to contract) calcium and muscle fiber
channels will open (see green box), • Sarcolemma- cell membrane of a
and calcium ions enter the axon skeletal muscle fiber
terminal
● The nerve impulse kind of acted like
a key to open the calcium
channels…

Other steps that will occur in the receptor of

Acetylcholine
Step 5
● binding of acetylcholine (green dot)
to its receptor (see purple arrow)
causes entry and exit of sodium and
potassium ions... which leads to the
formation of an action potential.
 Think of an action potential as an
explosion of electrical activity.
● When an action potential is created
it becomes unstoppable and will
travel end-to- end of a muscle fiber
(kind of like burning a branch of tree,
the fire is the action potential that will
spread from one end of the branch
to the other)
Step 6
● Since only a single nerve impulse is
used to create an action potential
that will travel along a muscle fiber
causing contraction, acetylcholine is
then broken down (through the
enzyme acetylcholinesterase)
ending the contraction
● Acetylcholinesterase- an enzyme
that breaks down acetycholine to
acetic acid and choline
*remember that suffix -ase indicates
an enzyme
How does such action potential really leads
to contraction which occurs when
sarcomeres are shortened?
Step 7
● (see red box) the action potential
triggers the sarcoplasmic reticulum
to release Calcium
Step 8
● Calcium binds to troponin of the thin
filament
● When calcium is not present/when
contraction is not occurring, troponin
and tropomyosin of the thin filament
blocks the myosin binding site (black
circles in the actin as pointed by red
arrow)
Step 9
● Due to calcium binding to the
troponin, the troponin attached to the
tropomyosin will “sway” exposing the
myosin- binding sites.
● See the image on the left and how
the black dots in the actin are now
exposed in contrast to the image
below (see red arrows)
Step 10
● Since the myosin-binding site in the
actin is already exposed, the
actin-binding site in the myosin head
can now easily attach to the actin.
 In a (going back to) relaxed state:
Since there are no action potential to
stimulate the skeletal muscles:
The figure above shows one sarcomere, where the
myosin head is already attached to the actin (as
achieved by the previous steps). Now, as mentioned
earlier, the goal is to shorten the sarcomere, so that
contraction will occur, this will be done through the
help of ATP (in the figure above,and prior to
shortening of sarcomeres/contraction, ATP is already
broken down to ADP and a phosphate group, thus
energy is available for work to occur; remember that
the myosin head has an ATP-binding site)
Step 11
● With the myosin head now attached
to myosin-binding site in actin,
myosin will now pull the thin filament
to the center causing the sarcomere
to shorten
Grades Responses
● You can imagine STEP 11 this way...
by pulling the thin filament, inward or
towards the center, the distance
between Z-bands/discs shorten, thus
shortening the sacromere leading to
contraction
● This is called as the sliding-filament
theory
● Calcium is not released from
Sarcoplasmic reticulum
● Myosin-binding site in actin is
blocked by troponin + tropomyosin
● Myosin and actin/ thin and thick
filament are apart (see image)
● Sarcomere is longer
● ATP is attached to the myosin head
(see image), always ready to be
broken down in case contraction will
occur
CONTRACTION OF SKELETAL
MUSCLE AS A WHOLE
● Muscle fiber contraction is
“all-or-none,” meaning it will contract
to its fullest when stimulated
adequately
● Within a whole skeletal muscle, not
all fibers may be stimulated during
the same interval
● Different combinations of muscle
fiber contractions may give differing
responses
● Graded responses—different
degrees of skeletal muscle
shortening
● Graded responses can be produced
in two ways
• By changing the frequency of
muscle stimulation
 • By changing the number of muscle
cells being stimulated at one time
Muscle response to increasingly rapid
stimulation
Muscle Twitch
● Single, brief, jerky contraction
● Not a normal muscle function
Summing of contractions
● In most types of muscle activity,
nerve impulses are delivered at a
rapid rate
● As a result, contractions are
“summed” (added) together, and one
contraction is immediately followed
by another
Unfused (incomplete) tetanus
● When stimulations become more
frequent, muscle contractions get
stronger and smoother
● The muscle now exhibits unfused
(incomplete) tetanus
Fused (complete) tetanus
● Fused (complete) tetanus is
achieved when the muscle is
stimulated so rapidly that no
evidence of relaxation is seen
● Contractions are smooth and
sustained
Muscle response to stronger stimuli
● Muscle force depends upon the
number of fibers stimulated
● Contraction of more fibers results in
greater muscle tension
● When all motor units are active and
stimulated, the muscle contraction is
as strong as it can get
PROVIDING ENERGY FOR MUSCLE
CONTRACTION
Three pathways to regenerate ATP (remember
that ATP was used during contraction
specifically by the myosin/thick filament)
Direct phosphorylation of ADP by
creatine phosphate (CP)
● Fastest
● Muscle cells store CP, a high-energy
molecule
● After ATP is depleted, ADP remains
● CP transfers a phosphate group to
ADP to regenerate ATP
● CP supplies are exhausted in less
than 15 seconds
● 1 ATP is produced per CP molecule
Simply, the
phosphate attached
to creatine will
be transferred to
ADP forming ATP
Aerobic Respiration
● Supplies ATP at rest and during
light/moderate exercise
● A series of metabolic pathways,
called oxidative phosphorylation, use
oxygen and occur in the
mitochondria
● Glucose is broken down to carbon
dioxide and water, releasing energy
(about 32 ATP)
● This is a slower reaction that
requires continuous delivery of
oxygen and nutrients
Anaerobic glycolysis and lactic acid
formation
● Reaction that breaks down glucose
without oxygen
● Glucose is broken down to pyruvic
acid to produce about 2 ATP
● Pyruvic acid is converted to lactic
acid, which causes muscle soreness
● This reaction is not as efficient, but it
is fast
● Huge amounts of glucose are
needed
TYPES OF MUSCLE CONTRACTION
Isotonic contractions
● Myofilaments are able to slide past
each other during contractions
● The muscle shortens, and
movement occurs
● Example: bending the knee; lifting
weights, smiling
Isometric contractions
● Muscle filaments are trying to slide,
but the muscle is pitted against an
immovable object
● Tension increases, but muscles do
not shorten
● Example: pushing your palms
together in front of you
MUSCLE TONE
● State of continuous partial
contractions
● Result of different motor units being
stimulated in a systematic way
● Muscle remains firm, healthy, and
constantly ready for action
EFFECTS OF EXERCISE
Exercise increases muscle size, strength, and
endurance
Aerobic (endurance) exercise (biking,
jogging)
● results in stronger, more flexible
muscles with greater resistance to
fatigue
● Makes body metabolism more
efficient
● Improves digestion, coordination
Resistance (isometric) exercise
(weight lifting)
● Increases muscle size and strength
● Individual muscle fibers enlarge
MUSCLE FATIGUE AND OXYGEN
DEFICIT
● If muscle activity is strenuous and
prolonged, muscle fatigue occurs
● Suspected factors that contribute to
muscle fatigue include:
○ Ion imbalances (Ca2+, K+)
○ Oxygen deficit and lactic acid
accumulation
○ Decrease in energy (ATP)
supply
● After exercise, the oxygen deficit is
repaid by rapid, deep breathing
● Remember how ions are important
in producing action potential and
how ATP and oxygen (if you are to
use aerobic pathway for ATP
source) are important during
contraction
THE FIVE GOLDEN RULES OF
SKELETAL MUSCLE ACTIVITY
● With a few exceptions, all skeletal
muscles cross at least one joint
● Typically, the bulk of a skeletal
muscle lies proximal to the joint
crossed
● All skeletal muscles have at least
two attachments: the origin and the
insertion
● Skeletal muscles can only pull; they
never push
● During contraction, a skeletal muscle
insertion moves toward the origin
TYPES OF BODY MOVEMENTS
● Muscles are attached to no fewer
than two points
• Origin: attachment to an
immovable or less movable bone
• Insertion: attachment to a movable
bone
● When the muscle contracts, the
insertion moves toward the origin
● Body movement occurs when
muscles contract across joints
shows the brachialis muscle and its origin the
humerus and insertion in the ulna. Remember that an
origin is an attachment to an immovable or less
movable bone while insertion is attachment to a
movable bone. As you can see, insertion of this
muscle is at the proximal end of the ulna near the joint
where movement can freely occur
Flexion
● Decreases the angle of the joint
● Brings two bones closer together
● Typical of bending hinge joints (e.g.,
knee and elbow) or ball-and-socket
joints (e.g., the hip)
Extension
● Opposite of flexion
● Increases angle between two bones
● Typical of straightening the elbow or
knee
● Extension beyond 180 is
hyperextension
*extension=extend=increase (in
angle)
Rotation
● Movement of a bone around its
longitudinal axis
● Common in ball-and-socket joints
● Example: moving the atlas around
the dens of axis (i.e., shaking your
head “no”)

Abduction
● Movement of a limb away from the
midline
*abduct=away
Adduction
● Opposite of abduction
● Movement of a limb toward the
midline
Circumduction
● Combination of flexion, extension,
abduction, and adduction
● Common in ball-and-socket joints
● Proximal end of bone is stationary,
and distal end moves in a circle
Dorsiflexion
● Lifting the foot so that the superior
surface approaches the shin (toward
the dorsum)
Plantar flexion
● Pointing the toes away from the
head
*as if trying to tip-toe
*plantar=to plant=plant toes/foot to
ground
TYPES OF BODY MOVEMENTS
Inversion
● Turning sole of foot medially
*in=inwards=towards center=medial
Eversion
● Turning sole of foot laterally
*e=exit=away from center/to
sides=lateral
Supination
● Forearm rotates laterally so palm
faces anteriorly (palms outward)
● Radius and ulna are parallel
Pronation
● Forearm rotates medially so palm
faces posteriorly
*p from pronation=p from posterior
● Radius and ulna cross each other
like an X
Opposition
● Moving the thumb to touch the tips
of other
 Try to remember these when you memorize the
location of the muscles in the body (agonist/
antagonists can be posterior/anterior to one another)
INTERACTION OF SKELETAL and their Origin, Insertion and Action (OIA)
MUSCLES Synergist
Prime mover (Agonist) ● Muscle that aids a prime mover in a
● Muscle with the major movement or reduces undesirable
responsibility for a certain movement movements
Antagonist Fixator
● Muscle that opposes or reverses a ● Specialized synergists that hold a
prime mover bone still or stabilize the origin of a
prime mover

brachioradialis and
brachialis that acts as
synergists working
together with the
prime mover which is
If you extend the arms, the triceps will contract, and it biceps brachii during
is the prime mover during extension. The antagonist contraction
will be the biceps

If you flex your arms, the biceps will contract, and it is deltoid as the fixator
the prime mover during flexion. The antagonist is the when the biceps
triceps. brachii contract. The
deltoid is used to
If you extend the knee, stabilize the arm
with flexed hip, the
quadriceps contract
and is the prime mover
(agonist). The
Remember the following generalities
hamstrings
at the back acts as the
antagonist.

Here are other muscles that acts as agonist

/antagonist of one another. (Remember that the remember that pectoralis major (anterior) produces
antagonist can also be the agonist or vice-versa flexion, thus latissimus dorsi (posterior) that is its
depending on the body movement) antagonist will produce extension
 Tips to remember muscles and their OIA
● Remember that origin is an
immovable/slightly movable bone
● It will be helpful if you can visualize
the body as a whole and the location
of each of the muscles in relation to
as you can see deltoids extend to the lateral side of one another so that you can also
the body since it attaches to the upper limbs which is
visualize their origin and insertion
found on the lateral side of the body. This can
produce abduction = away from midline = lateral. easily
● As for the action, it is helpful if you
can do the movement yourself so
that you can easily remember
● Do not forget muscles that works
together as agonists/antagonists
● The name of the muscle will also
as you can see teres major extend to the side of the
scapula near the midline of the body (see vertebral give you an idea of its location, how
column), thus medial. it looks like, action as described in
previous slide
NAMING SKELETAL MUSCLES ● RECITE IT REPEATEDLY.
Muscles are named on the basis of several Muscles in the anterior aspect of the
criteria body
By direction of muscle fibers
● Example: rectus (straight)
By relative size of the muscle
● Example: maximus (largest)
By location of the muscle
● Example: temporalis (temporal
bone)
By number of origins
● Example: triceps (three heads)
By location of the muscle’s origin and
insertion
● Example: sterno (on the sternum)
By shape of the muscle Muscles in the posterior aspect of the
● Example: deltoid (triangular) body
By action of the muscle
● Example: flexor and extensor (flexes
or extends a bone)
Based on the arrangement of the
fascicles/muscle bundle
 DEVELOPMENTAL ASPECT OF
MUSCULAR SYSTEM
● Increasing muscular control reflects
the maturation of the nervous
system
● Muscle control is achieved in a
superior/inferior and proximal/distal
direction
● To remain healthy, muscles must be
exercised regularly
● Without exercise, muscles atrophy
● With extremely vigorous exercise,
muscles hypertrophy
● As we age, muscle mass decreases,
and muscles become more sinewy
● Exercise helps retain muscle mass
and strength

Mainly, the muscular system provides

support and most importantly muscle
activity through exercise
stimulates/promotes other organ systems to
be “healthy” for example cardiovascular
system
 FUNCTIONS ORGANIZATION OF THE NERVOUS
Sensory Input SYSTEM
● Gathering Information ● Nervous system classifications are
● Sensory receptors monitor changes, based on:
called stimuli, occurring inside and • Structures (structural classification)
outside the body • Activities (functional classification)
Integration ● Structural classification includes the
● Nervous system processes and central and peripheral nervous
interprets sensory input and decides system
whether action is needed ● Functional classification includes the
Motor Output sensory (afferent) and motor
● A response, or effect, activates (efferent division)
muscles or glands ● Structural vs. Functional
classification can be remembered
this way: the structural classification
mainly pertains to structures such as
the brain and spinal cord of the
central nervous system and the
nerves of the peripheral nervous
system; functional classification
pertains to divisions that are
involved mainly on the functioning of
If you still remember homeostasis which is the
maintenance of relatively stable conditions in the
the nervous system in relaying
body, the nervous system as well as endocrine information
system are the main controlling system involved in
this process. As mentioned in the previous slide and Structural Classification
as shown in the image above, sensory receptors are
involved in sensory input by detecting the stimuli,
Central Nervous System
control center is where integration occurs and motor Organs/structures included
output involves the effectors and the response ● Brain
● Spinal Cord
Function
● Integration; command center
● Interprets incoming sensory
information
● Issues outgoing instructions

Peripheral Nervous System

Structures included
● Nerves extending from the brain and
spinal cord
Spinal Nerves
● Carry impulses to and from the
spinal cord
Cranial Nerves
● Carry impulses to and from the brain
Functions
● Serve as communication lines
among sensory organs, the brain
and spinal cord, and glands or
muscles
Functional Classification
Sensory (afferent) division
● Nerve fibers that carry information
from the sensory receptors to the
central nervous system
• Somatic sensory (afferent) fibers
carry information from the skin,
skeletal muscles, and joints
• Visceral sensory (afferent) fibers
carry information from visceral
organs
Motor (efferent) division
● Nerve fibers that carry impulses
away from the central nervous
system organs to effector organs
(muscles and glands)
● Has two subdivisions
Somatic nervous system
● Consciously (voluntarily) controls
skeletal muscles
Autonomic nervous system
● Automatically controls smooth and
cardiac muscles and glands
● Further divided into the sympathetic
and parasympathetic nervous
systems
Nerve fibers of the sensory (afferent) division will pass
information from the stimulus detected by the
receptors, specifically sensory receptors and will pass
the information to the CNS (the control center/set
point). On the other hand, the motor (efferent) division
will pass information away from the CNS (the control
center/set point) to the effector in order to cause a
response that will correct the effect of the stimulus
causing a state of stability or homeostasis.
NERVOUS TISSUE
● Nervous tissue is made up of two
principal cell types
• Supporting cells
○ Called neuroglia, or glial
cells, or glia
○ Resemble neurons
○ Unable to conduct nerve
impulses
○ Never lose the ability to
divide
• Neurons
Supporting Cells
CNS glial cells
Astrocytes
● Abundant, star-shaped cells
● Brace and anchor neurons to blood
capillaries
● Determine permeability and
exchanges between blood capillaries
and neurons
● Protect neurons from harmful
substances in blood
● Control the chemical environment of
the brain
Microglia Neurons
● Spider-like phagocytes Agnkjdasgsja kajPARTSjfjkafjsnfkjsnfkj
● Monitor health of nearby neurons ● Nerve cells
● Dispose of debris ● Cells specialized to transmit
● Remember: Phagocytes are cells messages (nerve impulses)
that protect the body by ingesting ● Major regions of all neurons
foreign particles, bacteria and even • Cell body
debris. This coincides with the ○ Nucleus and metabolic
function of a microglia to monitor center of the cell
health and dispose debris • Processes
○ Fibers that extend from the
cell body

Ependymal cells
● Line cavities of the brain and spinal
cord
● Cilia assist with circulation of
cerebrospinal fluid

● As evidenced by the schwann cells labelled

in the diagram forming myelin sheath around
the axon, we can deduce that this neuron is
a part of peripheral nervous system.
Oligodendrocytes Remember that in the PNS, schwann cells
● Wrap around nerve fibers in the produce myelin sheath while
central nervous system oligodendrocytes are used in CNS.
● Specifically based on the book, this is a
● Produce myelin sheaths
motor neuron which is a part of the motor
(efferent) division as it pass information from
the CNS to the effector organs. Remember
that motor division is under PNS.

Cell body
PNS glial cells ● The metabolic center of the neuron
Schwann cells Nucleus
● Forms myelin sheaths around nerve ● With large nucleolus
fibers in PNS (this is in contrast to Nissl bodies
oligodendrocytes in CNS) ● Are rough endoplasmic reticulum
Satellite cells Neurofibrils
● Protect and cushion neuron cell ● Intermediate filaments that maintain
bodies cell shape
Processes (fibers) Terminology
Dendrites Nuclei
● Conduct impulses toward the cell ● Clusters of cell bodies in the CNS
body Ganglia
● Neurons may have hundreds of ● Collections of cell bodies outside the
dendrites CNS in the PNS
Axons Tracts
● Conduct impulses away from the cell ● Bundles of nerve fibers in the CNS
body Nerves
● Neurons have only one axon arising ● Bundles of nerve fibers in the PNS
from the cell body at the axon hillock White matter
● End in axon terminals, which contain ● Collections of myelinated fibers
vesicles with neurotransmitters (tracts)
● Axon terminals are separated from Gray matter
the next neuron by a gap ● Mostly unmyelinated fibers and cell
Synaptic cleft bodies
● Gap between axon terminals and the
next neuron Ak STRUCTURAL CLASSIFICATION kj
Synapse ● Based on number of processes
● functional junction between nerves extending from the cell body
where a nerve impulse is transmitted
Multipolar neurons
Myelin ● Many extensions from the cell body
● White, fatty material covering axons ● All motor and interneurons are
● Protects and insulates fibers multipolar
● Speeds nerve impulse transmission ● Most common structural type

Myelin sheaths
Schwann cells
● Wrap axons in a jelly roll–like
fashion (PNS) to form the myelin
sheath Bipolar neurons
Neurilemma ● One axon and one dendrite
● part of the Schwann cell external to ● Located in special sense organs,
the myelin sheath such as nose and eye
Nodes of Ranvier ● Rare in adults
● Gaps in myelin sheath along the
axon
Oligodendrocytes
● Produce myelin sheaths around
axons of the CNS
● Lack a neurilemma
Unipolar neurons
● have a short single process leaving
the cell body
● Sensory neurons found in PNS
ganglia
● Conduct impulses both toward and
away from the cell body
Ak FUNCTIONAL CLASSIFICATION kj
Sensory (afferent) neurons
● Carry impulses from the sensory
receptors to the CNS
● Receptors include:
• Cutaneous sense organs in skin
• Proprioceptors in muscles and
tendons
Motor (efferent) neurons
● Carry impulses from the central
nervous system to viscera and/or
muscles and glands
Interneurons (association neurons)
● Cell bodies located in the CNS
● Connect sensory and motor neurons
Ak FUNCTIONAL PROPERTIES kj
Irritability
● Ability to respond to a stimulus and
convert it to a nerve impulse
Conductivity
● Ability to transmit the impulse to
other neurons, muscles, or glands
Electrical condition of resting neuron
● The plasma membrane at rest is
inactive (polarized)
● Fewer positive ions are inside the
neuron’s plasma membrane than
outside
• K+ is the major positive ion inside
the cell
• Na+ is the major positive ion
outside the cell
● As long as the inside of the
membrane is more negative (fewer
positive ions) than the outside, the
cell remains inactive
Initiation, generation, propagation of the influx of Na ions. This is due to the strong stimulus
and great amount of influx of Na ions.
Action Potential
Action potential initiation and generation
Propagation of the action potential
● A stimulus changes the permeability
● If enough sodium enters the cell, the
of the neuron’s membrane to sodium
action potential (nerve impulse)
ions
starts and is propagated over the
● Sodium channels now open, and
entire axon
sodium (Na+) diffuses into the
● All-or-none response means the
neuron
nerve impulse either is propagated
● The inward rush of sodium ions
or is not
changes the polarity at that site and
● Fibers with myelin sheaths conduct
is called depolarization
nerve impulses more quickly

Remember: at rest, the inside of the membrane is

more negative than the outside BUT due to the influx
Due to the depolarization of one side of the axon, the
of positively-charged Sodium ions, the inside of the
permeability of the succeeding lengths/areas of the
cell will gradually accumulate positive ions changing
axon also changes thus allowing also influx of Na ions
the polarity of the inside of the cell from negative to
making the inside more positive. Now the action
positive. It is important also to remember that the
potential is kind of like “creeping” or “traveling” from
whole length of the axon will not immediately
one end of the axon to the next as the length
depolarize, it will start at one end/one part of the
becomes depolarized.
membrane/axon first as shown in the photo
near/pointed by the arrow
Repolarization
● A graded potential (localized ● Membrane permeability changes
depolarization) exists (in simple again—becoming impermeable to
words, not the entire length of the sodium ions and permeable to
axon is more positive in the inside, it potassium ions
will start first in just a small patch or ● Potassium ions rapidly diffuse out of
area of the axon length) where the the neuron, repolarizing the
inside of the membrane is more membrane
positive and the outside is less ● Repolarization involves restoring the
positive inside of the membrane to a
● If the stimulus is strong enough and negative charge and the outer
sodium influx great enough, local surface to a positive charge
depolarization activates the neuron
to conduct an action potential (nerve
impulse)
Remember: as the action potential travels along the
entire length of the axon, the part of the axon which
was first depolarized, in this photo depicted in the far
left end, will become repolarize, meaning that from a
Remember: now compared to step 2, the specific
positively charged internal membrane it will go back to
area of the axon now becomes completely
it negative state, as in a resting state
depolarized as it becomes positively charged due to
 ● Transmission down neuron is
electrical (as we have discussed
earlier due to the changes in positive
or negatively charged situations in
the inside of the cell)
Remember: Until repolarization is complete in the ● Transmission to next neuron is
entire length of the axon, a neuron cannot conduct
chemical (as we are about to
another nerve impulse or cannot propagate another
action potential discuss, through the use of
neurotransmitters)
Even if positively charged potassium ions are pumped
inside, per pump only about 2 K ions are pumped
inside, less than the amount of Na ions usually
pumped inside, which is 3, causing depolarization.
Also, since the inside of the cell is already an area of
higher concentration of K ions compared to outside,
by virtue of diffusion (movt. Of solutes from H->L
solute conc), potassium will still diffuse out. Thus, still,
maintaining the inside to be negative even if we pump
K ions inside

Transmission of signal at synapses

Now, as we have
discussed, the action Reflexes
potential will travel from
one end of the axon to the
● Reflexes are rapid, predictable, and
other, specifically the axon involuntary responses to stimuli
terminal. Now what will ● Reflexes occur over neural
happen as it reaches the pathways called reflex arcs
terminal and how will the
● Two types of reflexes
impulse or “message” be
passed to the another • Somatic
neuron (for example • Autonomic
interneuron or motor
neuron) Somatic reflexes
● Reflexes that stimulate the skeletal
muscles
● Involuntary, although skeletal
muscle is normally under voluntary
control
● Example: pulling your hand away
from a hot object
Autonomic reflexes
● Regulate the activity of smooth
muscles, the heart, and glands
● Example: regulation of smooth
muscles, heart and blood pressure,
● Transmission of an impulse is glands, digestive system
electrochemical
Five elements of a reflex arc
Sensory receptor
● Reacts to a stimulus
Sensory neuron
● Carries message to the integration
center
Integration center
● Processes information and directs
motor output
Motor neuron
● Carries message to an effector
Effector neuron
● Is the muscle or gland to be
stimulated
Functional Anatomy of the Brain:
Brain Regions
Three-neuron reflex arcs
● Consists of five elements: receptor,
sensory neuron, interneuron, motor
neuron, and effector
● Example: flexor (withdrawal) reflex
● The one discussed earlier is a
three-neuron reflex arc.
● This is because the 5 elements are
present and three neurons are used:
sensory, inter-, and motor neuron
Two-neuron reflex arcs
● Simplest type
● Example: patellar (knee-jerk) reflex
● Only sensory and motor neuron is
used
CENTRAL NERVOUS SYSTEM
Ak CEREBRAL HEMISPHERES kj
● paired (left and right) superior parts
of the brain
● Include more than half of the brain
mass
● The surface is made of:
• ridges (gyri)
• grooves (sulci)
● Fissures are deeper grooves
● Lobes are named for the cranial
bones that lie over them
● Has three main regions
• Cortex is superficial gray matter
• White matter
• Basal nuclei are deep pockets of
gray matter

Based on the previous slide, the cerebral hemisphere
contains a cortex with gray matter and a cerebral
white matter. As will be discussed in slide 104, white
matter in the cerebral hemisphere is mainly fiber
tracts or “bundles” as indicated in the image above.
This is in contrast to the gray matter which contains
most of the cell bodies
Figure 7.20a shows two of the regions of the cerebral
hemisphere: cortex (gray matter) and white matter as
well as how sulcus, fissure and gyrus looks. On the
other hand, figure 7.20b shows the lobes present in
the cerebral hemisphere named after the cranial
bones that lie over them (still familiar with occipital,
frontal, parietal and temporal bones in the skull?)
Cortex
Primary somatic sensory area
● Located in parietal lobe posterior to
central sulcus
● Receives impulses from the body’s
sensory receptors
• Pain, temperature, light touch
(except for special senses)
● Left side of the primary somatic
sensory area receives impulses from
right side (and vice versa)
Primary motor area
● Located anterior to the central
sulcus in the frontal lobe
● Allows us to consciously move
skeletal muscles
● Motor neurons form pyramidal
(corticospinal) tract, which descends
to spinal cord
Figure 7.22 shows a sensory and motor homunculus
(homunculus=humanoid creature, thus the images of
the face and other body appendages that surrounds
the brain) which is technically a spatial map of the
part of the brain cortex that controls specific parts of
the body. The precentral gyrus which is the motor
cortex is anterior to the postcentral gyrus which is the
primary somatic sensory cortex.
Areas involved in special senses
● Visual area (occipital lobe)
● Auditory area (temporal lobe)
● Olfactory area (temporal lobe)
Broca’s area
● Motor speech area
● Involved in our ability to speak
● Usually in left hemisphere
Other specialized areas
Anterior association area
● Frontal lobe
● Higher intellectual reasoning;
● Socially acceptable behavior
Posterior association area
● Posterior cortex
● Recognizing patterns and faces
● Blending several different inputs into
understanding whole situation
Speech area
● For sounding out words

Cerebral white matter

● Composed of fiber tracts deep to the
gray matter
Corpus callosum
● Connects hemispheres
● Tracts, such as the corpus callosum,
are known as commissures
Association fiber tracts
● connect areas within a hemisphere
Projection fiber tracts
● connect the cerebrum with lower
CNS centers
Thalamus
● Encloses the third ventricle
● Relay station for sensory impulses
passing upward to the cerebral
cortex
● Transfers impulses to the correct
part of the cortex for localization and
interpretation

Hypothalamus
● Makes up the floor of the
Basal nuclei diencephalon
● “Islands” of gray matter buried deep ● Important autonomic nervous
within the white matter of the system center
cerebrum • Regulates body temperature
● Regulate voluntary motor activities • Regulates water balance
by modifying instructions sent to • Regulates metabolism
skeletal muscles by the primary ● Houses the limbic center for
motor cortex emotions
● Regulates the nearby pituitary gland
Ak DIENCEPHALON kj ● Houses mammillary bodies for
● Sits on top of the brain stem olfaction (smell)
● Enclosed by the cerebral
hemispheres Epithalamus
● Made of three structures ● Forms the roof of the third ventricle
● Houses the pineal body (an
endocrine gland)
● Includes the choroid plexus—forms
cerebrospinal fluid
Ak BRAIN STEM
● Attaches to the spinal cord
● Parts of the brain stem
• Midbrain
• Pons
• Medulla oblongata
Midbrain
● Extends from the mammillary bodies
to the pons inferiorly
● Cerebral aqueduct (tiny canal)
connects the third and fourth
ventricles
● Two bulging fiber tracts, cerebral
peduncles, convey ascending and
descending impulses
● Four rounded protrusions, corpora
quadrigemina, are visual and
auditory reflex centers
kj • Swallowing
• Vomiting
● Fourth ventricle lies posterior to
pons and medulla
Reticular formation
● Diffuse mass of gray matter along
the brain stem
● Involved in motor control of visceral
organs
● Reticular activating system (RAS)
• Plays a role in awake/sleep cycle
and consciousness
• Filter for incoming sensory
information
Ak CEREBELLUM kj
● Two hemispheres with convoluted
surfaces
● Outer cortex of gray matter and
inner region of white matter
● Controls balance
● Provides precise timing for skeletal
muscle activity and coordination of
body movements

Pons
● The rounded structure protruding
just below the midbrain
● Mostly composed of fiber tracts
● Includes nuclei involved in the
control of breathing
Ak SUMMARY kj
Medulla oblongata
● The most inferior part of the brain
stem that merges into the spinal
cord
● Includes important fiber tracts
● Contains important centers that
control:
• Heart rate
• Blood pressure
• Breathing
 Arachnoid layer
● Middle layer
Weblike extensions
● (thus the word “arachnoid”) span the
subarachnoid space to attach it to
the pia mater
Subarachnoid space
● is filled with cerebrospinal fluid
Arachnoid granulations
● protrude through the dura mater and
absorb cerebrospinal fluid into
venous blood

Pia mater
Protection of the CNS ● Internal layer
Ak MENINGES kj ● Clings to the surface of the brain and
● consist of three connective tissue spinal cord
membrane
• Dura mater, Ak CEREBROSPINAL FLUID (CSF) kj
• Arachnoid mater/layer ● Similar to blood plasma in
• Pia mater composition
● Formed continually by the choroid
plexuses
• Choroid plexuses: capillaries in the
ventricles of the brain
● CSF forms a watery cushion to
protect the brain and spinal cord
● Circulated in the arachnoid space,
ventricles, and central canal of the
Dura mater spinal cord
● Outermost leathery layer
● Double-layered external covering
• Periosteum: attached to inner
surface of the skull
• Meningeal layer: outer covering of
the brain
● Folds inward in several areas
• Falx cerebri
• Tentorium cerebelli

Figure 7.28 shows how CSF circulates from its

production in the choroid plexus. To put simply, the
CSF travels/flows to fill the spaces (for instance the
subarachnoid space)
Ak BLOOD-BRAIN BARRIER kj ● Numbness, temporary paralysis,
● Includes the least permeable impaired speech
capillaries of the body
● Allows water, glucose, and amino Spinal Cord
acids to pass through the capillary ● Extends from the foramen magnum
walls of the skull to the first or second
● Excludes many potentially harmful lumbar vertebra
substances from entering the brain, ● Cauda equina is a collection of
such as wastes spinal nerves at the inferior end
● Useless as a barrier against some ● Provides a two-way conduction
substances pathway to and from the brain
● 31 pairs of spinal nerves arise from
Brain Dysfunctions the spinal cord
Ak TRAUMATIC BRAIN INJURIES kj
Concussion
● Slight brain injury
● Typically little permanent brain
damage occurs
Contusion
● Marked nervous tissue destruction
occurs
● Coma may occur
Death may occur after head blows due to:
Intracranial hemorrhage Gray matter of the spinal cord and spinal
● Bleeding within skull roots
Cerebral edema ● Internal gray matter is mostly cell
● excessive accumulation of fluid in bodies
the intra- and extracellular spaces of ● Dorsal (posterior) horns house
the brain interneurons
• Receive information from sensory
Ak CEREBROVASCULAR ACCIDENT fd neurons in the dorsal root; cell
(CVA), OR STROKE kj bodies housed in dorsal root
● Results when blood circulation to a ganglion
brain area is blocked and brain ● Anterior (ventral) horns house motor
tissue dies neurons of the somatic (voluntary)
● Loss of some functions or death may nervous system
result • Send information out ventral root
• Hemiplegia: one-sided paralysis ● Gray matter surrounds the central
• Aphasia: damage to speech center canal, which is filled with
in left hemisphere cerebrospinal fluid

TRANSIENT ISCHEMIC ATTACK (TIA) kj

● Temporary brain ischemia
(restriction of blood flow)
 PERIPHERAL NERVOUS SYSTEM ● Only the pair of vagus nerves
● PNS consists of nerves and ganglia extends to thoracic and abdominal
outside the CNS cavities
● Most are mixed nerves, but three are
Structure of a Nerve sensory only:
● Nerves are bundles of neurons • Optic
found outside the CNS • Olfactory
Endoneurium • Vestibulocochlear
● a connective tissue sheath that
surrounds each fiber 12 Cranial nerves mnemonic device
Perineurium Oh – Olfactory
● wraps groups of fibers bound into a Oh – Optic
fascicle Oh – Oculomotor
Epineurium To – Trochlear
● binds groups of fascicles Touch – Trigeminal
And – Abducens
The three connective Feel – Facial
tissues that protect the
Very – Vestibulocochlear
nerves. This is almost
similar in logic to the Green – Glossopharyngeal
epimysium-perimysium- Vegetables – Vagus
endomysium in muscles as A – Accessory
muscle fibers are also
H – Hypoglossal
arranged in bundles. The
epineurium surrounds the
outermost nerve. Inside the
nerve are bundles/
fascicles of neurons, each
bundle/ fascicle is covered
by the perineurium. Each
neuron inside that bundle is
covered by the
endoneurium.

Mixed nerves
● Contain both sensory and motor
fibers
Sensory (afferent) nerves
● Carry impulses toward the CNS
Motor (efferent) nerves
● Carry impulses away from the CNS

Cranial Nerve
● 12 pairs of nerves serve mostly the
head and neck
 Figure 7.33 shows the distribution of the spinal
nerves. There are a total of 31: 5 from cervical, 12
thoracic, 5 lumbar, 5 sacral and 1 coccygeal pair not
shown in the photo

● Spinal nerves divide soon after

leaving the spinal cord into a dorsal
ramus and a ventral ramus
Ramus
● branch of a spinal nerve
● contains both motor and sensory
fibers
Dorsal rami
● serve the skin and muscles of the
posterior trunk
Ventral rami (T1–T12)
● form the intercostal nerves that
supply muscles and skin of the ribs
and trunk
Ventral rami (except T1–T12)
● form a complex of networks (plexus)
Spinal Nerve for the anterior
● 31 pairs
● Formed by the combination of the
ventral and dorsal roots of the spinal
cord
● Named for the region of the spinal
cord from which they arise
Plexus
● Networks of nerves serving motor
and sensory needs of the limbs
● Form from ventral rami of spinal
nerves in the cervical, lumbar, and
sacral regions
● Four plexuses
• Cervical
• Brachial
• Lumbar
Posterior view of the
• Sacral
sacral plexus

Somatic nervous system

● Motor neuron cell bodies originate
inside the CNS
● Axons extends to skeletal muscles
Anterior view of the that are served
brachial plexus Autonomic nervous system
● Chain of two motor neurons
• Preganglionic neuron is in the brain
or spinal cord
• Postganglionic neuron extends to
the organ
● Has two arms
• Sympathetic division
• Parasympathetic division
● Motor subdivision of the PNS
• Consists only of motor nerves
• Controls the body automatically
(and is also known as the
involuntary nervous system)
Anterior view of the • Regulates cardiac and smooth
lumbar plexus muscles and glands
A ANATOMY OF PARASYMPATHETIC FS
DIVISION j
● Parasympathetic division is also
known as the craniosacral division
● Preganglionic neurons originate in:
• Cranial nerves III, VII, IX, and X
• S2 through S4 regions of the spinal
cord
● Preganglionic neurons synapse with
terminal ganglia; from there,
postganglionic axons extend to
organs that are served

A ANATOMY OF SYMPATHETIC FS A AUTONOMIC FUNCTIONING F S

DIVISION j ● Body organs served by the
● Sympathetic division is also known autonomic nervous system receive
as the thoracolumbar division fibers from both divisions (para- and
● Preganglionic neurons originate from sympathetic)
T1 through L2 • Exceptions: blood vessels,
• Axons pass through a ramus structures of the skin, some glands,
communicans to enter a sympathetic and the adrenal medulla
trunk ganglion • These exceptions receive only
• Sympathetic trunk, or chain, lies sympathetic fibers
near the spinal cord ● When body divisions serve the same
organ, they cause antagonistic
effects due to different
neurotransmitters
• Parasympathetic (cholinergic)
fibers release acetylcholine
• Sympathetic postganglionic
(adrenergic) fibers release
norepinephrine
• Preganglionic axons of both
divisions release acetylcholine
Sympathetic Division
● Fight or flight
● Response to unusual stimulus when
Figure 7.39 shows the organs associated emotionally or physically stressed or
with the para- and sympathetic divisions. threatened
Remember that parasympathetic is also ● Takes over to increase activities
called craniosacral division since it is
● Remember as the “E” division
associated with organs or nerves at the
cranial or sacral areas. The sympathetic is
• Exercise
also called thoracolumbar division since it is • Excitement
associated with organs/nerves in the thoracic • Emergency
and lumbar areas • Embarrassment
Parasympathetic Division
● Housekeeping activities
● Rest and digest system
● Conserves energy
● Maintains daily necessary body
functions
● Remember as the “D” division
• Digestion
• Defecation
• Diuresis
DEVELOPMENTAL ASPECT OF THE
NERVOUS SYSTEM
● The nervous system is formed
during the first month of embryonic
development
● Any maternal infection can have
extremely harmful effects
● Oxygen deprivation destroys brain
cells
● The hypothalamus is one of the last
areas of the brain to develop
● Severe congenital brain diseases
include:
• Cerebral palsy: causes permanent
movement disorder; can be a result
of oxygen deprivation during
development.
• Anencephaly: baby is born without
parts of brain or skull
•Hydrocephalus: due to
accumulation of CSF in the brain
• Spina bifida: occurs when spine
and spinal cord are not formed
properly
● Premature babies have trouble
regulating body temperature
because the hypothalamus is one of
the last brain areas to mature
prenatally
● Development of motor control
indicates the progressive
myelination and maturation of a
child’s nervous system
● Brain growth ends in young
adulthood.
● Neurons die throughout life and are
not replaced; thus, brain mass
declines with age
● Orthostatic hypotension is low blood
pressure due to changes in body
position (this cause you to be dizzy
or faint when you suddenly stand up
from sitting position)
● Healthy aged people maintain nearly
optimal intellectual function
● Disease: particularly cardiovascular
disease—is the major cause of
declining mental function with age
• Arteriosclerosis is decreased
elasticity of blood vessels