DEPARTMENT OF ELECTRICAL ENGINEERING

BASIC ELECTRICAL Code: ES-EE191

ENGINEERING INSTRUCTION MANUAL Year: 2019
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• Experiment No.:- ES-EE191-1

• Title:- Introduction of instruments and demonstration of resistors, inductors,

capacitors & autotransformers.

• Objectives:
1. Introduction and uses of following instruments :
a. Voltmeter
b. Ammeter
c. Multimeter
d. Oscilloscope
2. Demonstration of
a. Resistors,
b. Capacitors
c. Inductor
d. Autotransformer.
• Theory:
1. Voltmeter:
A voltmeter is an instrument used for measuring electrical potential difference (voltage)
between two points in an electric circuit. Analog voltmeters move a pointer across a scale
in proportion to the voltage of the circuit; digital voltmeters give a numerical display of
voltage by use of an analog to digital converter.
According to the construction principle, we have different types of voltmeters, they are
mainly –
1. Parmanent Magnet Moving coil (PMMC) Voltmeter used for DC voltage
measurement
2. Moving Iron (MI) Voltmeter used for both AC & DC voltage measurement.
3. Digital Voltmeter (DVM)

Voltmeter symbol used in circuit diagram

Connection Diagram of a voltmeter.

Voltmeters are connected in parallel with whatever device’s
voltage is to be measured. A parallel connection is used
because objects in parallel experience the same potential
difference.

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 DEPARTMENT OF ELECTRICAL ENGINEERING

BASIC ELECTRICAL Code: ES-EE191

ENGINEERING INSTRUCTION MANUAL Year: 2019
LABORATORY
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Ammeter
An ammeter (from Ampere Meter) is a measuring instrument used to measure the current in
a circuit. Electric currents are measured in amperes (A), hence the name. Instruments used to
measure smaller currents, in the milliampere or microampere range, are designated
as milliammeters or microammeters.

Working Principle of Ammeter

The main principle of ammeter is that it must have a very low resistance and also inductive
reactance. It has very low impedance because it must have very low amount of voltage drop across
it and must be connected in series connection because current is same in the series circuit.
Also due to very low impedance the power loss will be low and if it is connected in parallel it
becomes almost a short circuited path and all the current will flow through ammeter as a result of
high current the instrument may burn. So due to this reason it must be connected in series. For an
ideal ammeter, it must have zero impedance so that it has zero voltage drop across it so the power
loss in the instrument is zero. But the ideal is not achievable practically.

Classification or Types of Ammeter

Depending on the constructing principle, there are many types of ammeter we get, they are mainly
–
• Permanent Magnet Moving Coil(PMMC) ammeter.
• Moving Iron (MI) Ammeter.
• Electrodynamometer type Ammeter.
• Rectifier type Ammeter.
Depending on this types of measurement we do, we have-
• DC Ammeter.
• AC Ammeter.

DC Ammeter are mainly PMMC instruments, MI can measure both AC and DC currents, also
Electrodynamometer type thermal instrument can measure DC and AC.

Symbol of Ammeter

Connection Diagram of an ammeter.

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 DEPARTMENT OF ELECTRICAL ENGINEERING

BASIC ELECTRICAL Code: ES-EE191

ENGINEERING INSTRUCTION MANUAL Year: 2019
LABORATORY
Page 3 of 18

Multimeter
A multimeter is a measuring instrument that combines several measurement functions in one unit.
A typical multimeter may include features such as the ability to measure voltage, current and
resistance. Multimeters may use analog or digital circuits—analog multimeters (AMM) and digital
multimeters (often abbreviated DMM). Analog instruments are usually based on a microammeter
whose pointer moves over a scale calibrated for all the different measurements that can be made;
digital instruments usually display digits. A multimeter can be a hand-held device useful for basic
fault finding and field service work which can measure to a very high degree of accuracy. They can
be used to troubleshoot electrical problems in a wide array of industrial and household devices such
as electronic equipment, motor controls, domestic appliances, power supplies, and wiring systems.

There are two common types of Multimeters, Analog and Digital. Digital Multimeters (DMMs)
are the most common. They use a liquid crystal display (LCD) technology to give more accurate
readings.

Analog Multimeters use a needle movement and calibrated scale to indicate values. These were
popular for years, but recently their numbers have declined.

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BASIC ELECTRICAL Code: ES-EE191

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The Digital Multimeter (DMMs) feature a digital or liquid crystal display (LCD). Measurement
readings are displayed as numerical values on the LCD Display. The display also alerts you to any
pertinent symbols and warnings.
1. Hold Button
When you’ve taken your reading, you can press the hold
button to lock in your measurement. This is extremely useful
if you need to have the measurement on hand while you
work on your project.
2. Min/Max Button
Save input values. The multimeter will beep when a
high/low value is exceeded and the new value is saved.
3. Range Button
Allows you to click through meter ranges.
4. Function Button
Allows you to activate secondary functions around the dial
usually indicated with yellow text or icons. Comparable to a
Ctrl or Alt key on a keyboard.
5. AC Voltage: Denoted by a capital V with a wavy line on top. In a circuit diagram, however,
voltmeter symbols are usually represented by a capital V inside of a circle. This is the setting that
you’ll use more often than anything else, and it measures the voltage of the object that you’re
working with.
6. DC Voltage: Denoted by a capital V with three hyphens above it and a single line on top of that.
Think of it as a V with part of a road above it. You’ll make use of your DC voltage button when
you’re measuring smaller circuits.
7. AC Millivolts: Denoted with an mV and a squiggly line on top tests smaller circuits using low
AC voltage settings. Similarly, there’s the DC millivolts button, three hyphens with a straight line
over them, and is usually right next to the AC millivolts button. You’d use the Function button to
switch to the DC setting.
8. Resistance: Looks like an omega letter and measures ohms to help you get an accurate resistance
reading. It can also help you determine whether or not a fuse has blown by displaying the letters
OL.
9. Continuity: Denoted by the symbol you usually see to indicate sound waves. This measures
whether or not two points have a continuity, and it’ll help you determine whether or not you have
any open or short circuits.
10. Diode Test:Denoted by an arrow pointing right with a plus sign beside it. Determines whether
or not you’ve got a good or bad diode.
11. AC Current: Denoted by a capital A with a squiggly line on top, which can measure the load
that an object is using
12. DC Current: Denoted by a capital A with three hyphens and a line above it. Measures the
direct current of the object you’re working with.
13. On/Off Switch: Self-explanatory
14. Auto-V/LoZ: Found on some models, it prevents false measurements because of ghost voltage

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BASIC ELECTRICAL Code: ES-EE191

ENGINEERING INSTRUCTION MANUAL Year: 2019
LABORATORY
Page 5 of 18

Oscilloscope
An oscilloscope, or scope for short, is an electronic test instrument that is used to observe an
electronic
signal, typically voltage, as a function of time. In other words it is a voltage versus time plotter.
Oscilloscopes come in two basic types, analogue or digital, and support various features and
functions
useful for measuring and testing electronic circuits. An oscilloscope is a key piece of test
equipment for any electronics designer.

In addition to those fundamental features, many scopes have measurement tools, which help to
quickly quantify frequency, amplitude, and other waveform characteristics. In general a scope can
measure both time-based and voltage-based characteristics:

• Timing characteristics:
o Frequency and period -- Frequency is defined as the number of times per second a waveform
repeats. And the period is the reciprocal of that (number of seconds each repeating waveform
takes). The maximum frequency a scope can measure varies, but it's often in the 100's of MHz
(1E6 Hz) range.
o Duty cycle -- The percentage of a period that a wave is either positive or negative (there are
both positive and negative duty cycles). The duty cycle is a ratio that tells you how long a
signal is "on" versus how long it's "off" each period.
o Rise and fall time -- Signals can't instantaneously go from 0V to 5V, they have to smoothly
rise. The duration of a wave going from a low point to a high point is called the rise time, and
fall time measures the opposite. These characteristics are important when considering how
fast a circuit can respond to signals.
• Voltage characteristics:
o Amplitude -- Amplitude is a measure of the magnitude of a signal. There are a variety of
amplitude measurements including peak-to-peak amplitude, which measures the absolute
difference between a high and low voltage point of a signal. Peak amplitude, on the other
hand, only measures how high or low a signal is past 0V.
o Maximum and minimum voltages -- The scope can tell you exactly how high and low the
voltage of your signal gets.
o Mean and average voltages -- Oscilloscopes can calculate the average or mean of your
signal, and it can also tell you the average of your signal's minimum and maximum voltage.

The o-scope is useful in a variety of troubleshooting and research situations, including:

• Determining the frequency and amplitude of a signal, which can be critical in debugging a
circuit's input, output, or internal systems. From this, you can tell if a component in your circuit
has malfunctioned.
• Identifying how much noise is in your circuit.
• Identifying the shape of a wave -- sine, square, triangle, sawtooth, complex, etc.
• Quantifying phase differences between two different signals.

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 DEPARTMENT OF ELECTRICAL ENGINEERING

BASIC ELECTRICAL Code: ES-EE191

ENGINEERING INSTRUCTION MANUAL Year: 2019
LABORATORY
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Probes
The voltage signals that are to be measured must be transferred to the oscilloscope. This is done
using oscilloscope probes. Probes are specially designed to minimize noise and interference, while
also creating a known load effect on the circuit (so it can be accounted for). Some probes also have
protective features to prevent any damage a signal may cause to the oscilloscope (such as
overvoltage)

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 DEPARTMENT OF ELECTRICAL ENGINEERING

BASIC ELECTRICAL Code: ES-EE191

ENGINEERING INSTRUCTION MANUAL Year: 2019
LABORATORY
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Resistor
A resistor is a component or device designed to have a known value of resistance.
Resistance: The opposition offered to the flow of electric current or free electrons, is called
resistance. Its unit is ohm. where 1Ω = 1V/1A. which is derived from the basic electrical Ohm’s
law = V = IR
Resistance of a resistor depends on their length (l), resistivity (ρ) and its cross sectional area (a)
which is also known as laws of resistance … R = ρ (l/a).
Types of Resistor

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BASIC ELECTRICAL Code: ES-EE191

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BASIC ELECTRICAL Code: ES-EE191

ENGINEERING INSTRUCTION MANUAL Year: 2019
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Page 9 of 18

Resistor Band Colors

As shown above, a carbon-composition resistor can have 4 to 6 bands. A 5-band resistor is
more precise compared to a 4-band type because of the inclusion of a third significant digit. A
6-band resistor is like a 5-band resistor but includes a temperature coefficient band (the 6th
band).
4-band 5-band 6-band

1st band 1st significant digit 1st significant digit 1st significant digit
2nd band 2nd significant digit 2nd significant 2nd significant digit
digit
3rd band multiplier 3rd significant digit 3rd significant digit
4th band tolerance multiplier multiplier
5th band N/A tolerance tolerance
6th band N/A N/A temperature coefficient

Each color represents a number if it's located from the 1st to 2nd band for a 4-band type or 1st to
3rd band for a 5-band and 6-band type.

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BASIC ELECTRICAL Code: ES-EE191

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Color Significant Multiply Tolerance Temp.Coeff. Fail Rate

Figures (%) ppm/°c (%)
Black (2nd and 0 0 0 X1 250
3rd bands
only)
Brown 1 1 1 X 10 1(F) 100 1
Red 2 2 2 X 100 2(G) 50 0.1
Orange 3 3 3 X 1k 15 0.01
Yellow 4 4 4 X 10k 25 0.001
Green 5 5 5 X 100K 0.5(D) 20
Blue 6 6 6 X 1M 0.25(C) 10
Violet 7 7 7 X 10M 0.1(B) 5
Grey 8 8 8 X 100M 0.05(A) 1
White 9 9 9 X 1G
Gold X 0.1 5(J)
Silver X 0.01 10(K)
None 20(M)

The following simple mnemonics can be memorize to remember the color code sequence for resistor color codes.
• B B ROY of Great Britain had a Very Good Wife who wore Gold and Silver Necklace.

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 DEPARTMENT OF ELECTRICAL ENGINEERING

BASIC ELECTRICAL Code: ES-EE191

ENGINEERING INSTRUCTION MANUAL Year: 2019
LABORATORY
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Capacitor
The capacitor is a two terminal electrical device used to store electrical energy in the form of
electric field between the two plates. It is also known as a condenser and the SI unit of its
capacitance measure is Farad “F”, where Farad is a large unit of capacitance, so they are using
microfarads (µF) or nanofarads (nF) nowadays.

A capacitor is similar to a battery, as both stores electrical energy. A capacitor is a much simpler
device that can’t produce new electrons, but stores them. Inside the capacitor the terminals
connected with the two metal plates separated by dielectric material (such as waxed paper, mica,
and ceramic), that separate the plates and allows them to hold opposite electrical charges
maintaining electrical field.

Capacitance is the ability of a capacitor to stores the charge into it . There are some factors which
affect the capacitance.
1. Plate’s Area 2. Gap between the plates 3. Permittivity of the insulating material
Capacitance Equation: C=Q/V
Where,
C = Capacitance in Farads (F)
Q = Electrical Charge in Coulombs
V = Voltage in Volts

A capacitor has wide range of applications in electronics, such as Energy Storage, Power
Conditioning, Power factor correction, Oscillators and filtration.

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 DEPARTMENT OF ELECTRICAL ENGINEERING

BASIC ELECTRICAL Code: ES-EE191

ENGINEERING INSTRUCTION MANUAL Year: 2019
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Capacitor color code

Band Digit Digit Multiplier Tolerance Tolerance Temperature
Colour A B D (T) > 10pf (T) < 10pf Coefficient (TC)
Black 0 0 x1 ± 20% ± 2.0pF
Brown 1 1 x10 ± 1% ± 0.1pF -33×10-6
Red 2 2 x100 ± 2% ± 0.25pF -75×10-6
Orange 3 3 x1,000 ± 3% -150×10-6
Yellow 4 4 x10,000 ± 4% -220×10-6
Green 5 5 x100,000 ± 5% ± 0.5pF -330×10-6
Blue 6 6 x1,000,000 -470×10-6
Violet 7 7 -750×10-6
Grey 8 8 x0.01 +80%,-20%
White 9 9 x0.1 ± 10% ± 1.0pF
Gold x0.1 ± 5%
Silver x0.01 ± 10%

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 DEPARTMENT OF ELECTRICAL ENGINEERING

BASIC ELECTRICAL Code: ES-EE191

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Capacitor Voltage code

Band Voltage Rating (V)

Colour Type J Type K Type L Type M Type N
Black 4 100 10 10
Brown 6 200 100 1.6
Red 10 300 250 4 35
Orange 15 400 40
Yellow 20 500 400 6.3 6
Green 25 600 16 15
Blue 35 700 630 20
Violet 50 800
Grey 900 25 25
White 3 1000 2.5 3
Gold 2000
Silver

Capacitor Voltage Reference

• Type J – Dipped Tantalum Capacitors.
• Type K – Mica Capacitors.
• Type L – Polyester/Polystyrene Capacitors.
• Type M – Electrolytic 4 Band Capacitors.
• Type N – Electrolytic 3 Band Capacitors.

An example of the use of capacitor colour

codes is given as:
• Metalised Polyester Capacitor

Disc & Ceramic Capacitor

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BASIC ELECTRICAL Code: ES-EE191

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Capacitor Tolerance Letter Codes Table

Letter B C D F G J K M Z

C <10pF ±% 0.1 0.25 0.5 1 2

Tolerance
+80
C >10pF ±% 0.5 1 2 5 10 20
-20

Capacitor Letter Codes Table

Picofarad Nanofarad Microfarad Picofarad Nanofarad Microfarad
Code Code
(pF) (nF) (uF) (pF) (nF) (uF)
10 0.01 0.00001 100 4700 4.7 0.0047 472
15 0.015 0.000015 150 5000 5 0.005 502
22 0.022 0.000022 220 5600 5.6 0.0056 562
33 0.033 0.000033 330 6800 6.8 0.0068 682
47 0.047 0.000047 470 10000 10 0.01 103
100 0.1 0.0001 101 15000 15 0.015 153
120 0.12 0.00012 121 22000 22 0.022 223
130 0.13 0.00013 131 33000 33 0.033 333
150 0.15 0.00015 151 47000 47 0.047 473
180 0.18 0.00018 181 68000 68 0.068 683
220 0.22 0.00022 221 100000 100 0.1 104
330 0.33 0.00033 331 150000 150 0.15 154
470 0.47 0.00047 471 200000 200 0.2 254
560 0.56 0.00056 561 220000 220 0.22 224
680 0.68 0.00068 681 330000 330 0.33 334
750 0.75 0.00075 751 470000 470 0.47 474
820 0.82 0.00082 821 680000 680 0.68 684
1000 1 0.001 102 1000000 1000 1 105
1500 1.5 0.0015 152 1500000 1500 1.5 155
2000 2 0.002 202 2000000 2000 2 205
2200 2.2 0.0022 222 2200000 2200 2.2 225
3300 3.3 0.0033 332 3300000 3300 3.3 335

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 DEPARTMENT OF ELECTRICAL ENGINEERING

BASIC ELECTRICAL Code: ES-EE191

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Inductor
An inductor is a two terminal passive electrical component that store energy in a magnetic field.

It is basically made up of a coil surrounding a core. Every coil is an inductor essentially. The
change of current through the coil produces a magnetic field around it. This magnetic field,
according to Lenz’s law, induces an EMF across the coil that is opposite in direction to the input
current. Thus an inductor opposes any change in supply current.

Symbol of Inductor:
There are different types of inductors. They are denoted with various symbols in a circuit’s
schematic. Symbols of some of the inductors are given below:

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BASIC ELECTRICAL Code: ES-EE191

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Types of Inductors

Based on their core Based on core design Based on their Usage

1. Air Core Inductor
2. Ferromagnetic/Iron Core
Inductor
3. Ferrite Core Inductor
4. Iron Powder Core
Inductors
5. Ceramic Core Inductors
6. Laminated Steel Core
Inductor
1. Toroidal Core Inductor
2. Drum/Bobbin Core
Inductor
1. Multi-Layer Inductor
2. Thin Film Inductor
3. Molded Inductor
4. Coupled Inductor
5. Power Inductor
6. Radio-Frequency RF
Inductor
7. Chokes
8. Variable Inductors

Factors affecting the Inductance of an Inductor

Capability of producing magnetic lines is referred as inductance. Standard unit of inductance is
Henry. The amount of magnetic flux developed or inductance of different types of inductors
depends on four basic factors discussed below.

• Number of turns in a coil

If the number of turns are more, larger amount of magnetic field is produced, which results in more
inductance. Fewer turns result in less inductance.

• Material of the Core

If the material used for the core has high permeability, more will be the inductance of an inductor.
This is because high permeability materials offer the low reluctance path to the magnetic flux.

• Cross section area of the Coil

Greater cross section area results in greater inductance because this offers less opposition to the
magnetic flux in terms area.

• Length of the Coil

Longer the coil less will be the inductance. This is because, for a given amount of the field, force
opposition to the magnetic flux is more.

Fixed inductor doesn’t allow the user to vary the inductance once it is designed. But it is possible
to vary the inductance using variable inductors by varying the number of turns at any given time or
by varying the core material in and out of the coil.

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 DEPARTMENT OF ELECTRICAL ENGINEERING

BASIC ELECTRICAL Code: ES-EE191

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Autotransformer
Autotransformer is a special type of transformer that consists of a single winding. This winding is
used for both primary & secondary (High voltage & low voltage) sides. It is widely used for its
variable output voltage function, lower cost & small size.
Working of Autotransformer:
A standard autotransformer, as shown in the figure below, has one single winding around a
laminated core. This single winding is used for both primary & secondary circuit.

Their winding consists of at least three

terminals i.e. A, B & C as shown in the figure.
The terminals A & B are fixed terminals while
the terminal C is a variable tap point. The AC
supply is applied to fixed terminals A & B
while the load is connected between variable
Tap point C & B.
Types of Autotransformers:
Based on increasing & decreasing the voltage,
autotransformer is divided into two types i.e.
Step up transformer & step down transformer.

Step Up Autotransformer
Such kind of autotransformer’s output voltage
exceeds its input voltage & vice versa for its
current.
For performing the step-up function, the AC
supply is connected to the variable tap point C
& B. while the load is connected to the
terminal A & C as shown in the figure down
below.
In such configuration, the number of turns in
the primary winding N1 (input winding) which
between C & B, is less than the number of
turns in the secondary winding N2.
So the turn ratio (N2 / N1) becomes greater
than one, which is the condition for a step up
transformer.

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Step Down Autotransformer

In step down autotransformer, the output
voltage is less than the input voltage & the
output current is greater than the input current.
In order to perform step down function, the
connections are reversed to the step up
configuration. The AC supply is connected to
the fixed terminals (A & B) of the
autotransformer, while the load is connected
between terminals C & B.

The number of turns in the primary winding

N1 between point A & B exceeds the number
of turns in secondary winding N2. Hence the
turn ratio becomes less than 1, which is the
condition for step down transformer.
Advantages of Autotransformer:
• The most prominent feature of an autotransformer is that it saves copper. The amount of copper
used in an autotransformer is less than a two winding transformer of the same ratings. Thus it
reduces the capital required for its construction.
• The single winding used in the autotransformer significantly reduces its size & weight.
• Having small size & weight of the autotransformer, it enables it to have a high VA rating than
an ordinary two winding transformer for the same amount of material.
• The voltage regulation is much better than the two-winding transformer because of the
elimination of the losses in the second winding.
• Due to the electrical conduction, magnetic induction & reduction in the losses due to the second
winding, the efficiency of the autotransformer is higher than the two-winding transformer.
Disadvantages of Auto transformer:
• There is no electrical isolation between the windings. So grounding the primary of an
autotransformer won’t eliminate the risk of an electrical shock as both windings are electrically
connected. The circuit will still complete through the ground.
• Due to the electrical isolation present between the winding, two winding transformer blocks the
transfer of harmonics between the load & supply, while autotransformer actually can’t.
• Because of the low leakage flux between primary & secondary, the impedance of the
autotransformer is low. Thus it may result in large fault currents in the secondary.
Applications of Autotransformer:
• They are used for the compensation of the voltage drop in the distribution transformers.
• For starting induction & synchronous motors, several methods are used. One of the methods is
using an autotransformer.
• A variable autotransformer also known as Variac, which has continuous variable output
voltage is used in the laboratories.
• A break in the common winding of the autotransformer will result in full input voltage at the
load.

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