Chinese Society of Pavement Engineering

International Journal of
Pavement Research and Technology
Journal homepage: www.springer.com/42947

A study on the suitability of solid waste materials in pavement construction:

A review
T.B. Vishnu*, Kh. Lakshman Singh
Department of Civil Engineering, National Institute of Technology, Silchar, Assam 788010, India

Received 19 October 2019; received in revised form 10 November2020; accepted 10 November 2020

Abstract

This paper describes the various ways in which huge volumes of waste formed from urban and semi-urban areas can be optimally reutilized as an
additive in the construction of bituminous pavements. It shows that different waste materials like scrap tyres, pl astic wastes, glass, coal waste, fly ash,
concrete waste, wood waste, etc. can be effectively reused in bituminous pavement construction. In countries like India, wast e derived from various sources
is usually incinerated, open burned, dumped into water bodies, disposed through landfills or ground, and discharged to sewers. This shows the potential of
waste being used as a construction material in pavement development in developing nations like India where consumption is mor e and the availability of
space for disposal is less. Moreover, the need for effective energy utilization and global climate change have made it mandatory to r educe pollution and
increase recycling and re-use. Hence, to satisfy environmental norms, such practices need to be introduced into civil engineering situations.This work
evaluates the various application of solid waste in sustainable pavement engineering and reviews the existing works on the re -utilization of solid wastes as
road construction material and their sustainability. Life cycle assesement (LCA) was conducted to evaluate the environmental impact of solid waste as a
construction material.
The principal findings of this study reveal that solid waste obtained from various sources could be effectively incorporated into construction materials
in the forms of aggregate, reinforcement fiber, filler material, additive etc. In summary, the study guides us in adopting st able and eco-friendly choices of
converting the wastes into superior environmentally friendly road construction materials. In addition to being a lesser burden to the environment, this practice
provides a satisfactory enhancement in the strength and durability of the pavements and also helps reduce energy and overall cost thereby proving to be a
very useful and effective choice for all pavement related works.

Keywords: Bituminous pavement; Sustainability; Solid waste; Incineration; Landfills; Sewers

Introduction
Urbanization and a rapid incline in human living standards are
the major two reasons for the high volume of waste generation and
disposal problems. There are human actions behind material
manufacturing and post usage that culminates in waste generation.
Most of these generated wastes are mainly managed by disposal in
landfills. Nevertheless, high cost and huge land consumptions are
the major drawbacks to this kind of waste management. The huge
solid waste production rises annually, even though only a small
portion is reutilized or landfilled properly, and a major proportion
being disposed in various water bodies like lakes, rivers, and
oceans.
Developing countries with industrial backgrounds contribute to
a major portion of the wastes produced on earth. Due to the linear
* Corresponding author
E-mail address: thanikkalvishnu91@gmail.com, (T.B. Vishnu).
Peer review under responsibility of Chinese Society of Pavement
Engineering.
ISSN: 1997-1400 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s42947-020-0273-z
Chinese Society of Pavement Engineering. Production and hosting by Springer Nature
process of material use, a large part of the resources extracted are
underutilized and hence termed virtually worthless. By processes
such as dumping, sanitary landfills, and incineration the residual
material formed after the utilization of said resources is then
disposed of. By considering recycling as a part of the
manufacturing process, a considerable amount of such waste
materials can be reutilized in the same production process (closed-
loop recycling). Recycling of waste materials in the production of
the same initial product has their maximum potential for possible
use in urban areas; but due to requirements of high machinery, skill,
and cost, this has only been partially possible and a large portion
of the waste is simply disposed of leading to loss of energy, space,
increased levels of pollution including risk of containment of land
and water bodies. Due to these circumstances, there is a possibility
of reclaimed waste being cherished as a primal ingredient in many
construction practices (such as road construction) [1].
Pavements are the nervous system of all economies. In countries
like India, pavement roads have helped in the transit of a majority
of the people and goods throughout the nation and have hence
contributed to the rapid economic growth in a massive way. The
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rising demands for wheel loads and increased traffic density has
meant that the older norms of road construction needed to be
improved to accommodate them. There has been a rise in the need
for aggregates, bitumen, and other performance-improving
admixtures, meaning that natural resources need to be further
exploited or other more eco-friendly solutions need to be found.
It’s necessary to solve the problems faced by the road industry due
to the rising number of heavy axle load vehicles and the deficiency
of natural raw materials available for construction [1].
A universal proposal embraced by various federations and
businesses, taking into account the economic, social, and
environmental attributes is “survivability complications
management” [2]. Environmental problems caused by the use of
non-renewable resources include soil pollution, Global warming,
natural resource depletion, ocean acidification, biodiversity loss,
ozone layer depletion, acid rain, etc. Therefore, Quantifiable
analysis is essential to assess environmental survivability; it helps
to scaffold the environmental impact evaluation. Different types of
waste materials have already been efficiently introduced into
pavement construction. This form of recycled waste material use
has been limited to few countries and even then are not widespread
in those countries. After an investigation related to the obstructions
faced while approaching recycled waste used in pavement
construction, it was noticed that higher cost and knowledge
deficiency were the main reasons that the parties involved
hesitated from using recycled wastes in construction [3].
Significant steps like source depletion, landfilling and
reutilization have been carried out to minimize the critical volume
of solid waste generated annually. Even so, by instantaneous
developments in all sectors, there has been a tenacious raise in the
quantity of solid waste generated. Thus, determining effectual
alternative approaches to recycle this solid waste will go a long
way in helping us sustain the ecological balance in the
environment. The opportunity to utilize solid waste for
construction purposes will not only save the marine environment
but also minimizes the overall environmental pollution. Besides,
the feasible utilization of solid waste for construction purposes will
benefit the construction industry to reach its sustainability goals.
A considerable decrease in carbon emission and energy utilization
will be achieved when the solid waste is reutilized, as the quantity
of new waste material produced will decline.
Previously many works were conducted over the waste material
management and utilization in pavement construction. This paper
has tried to incorporate the maximum number of waste materials
that can be used in different layers of pavement or asphalt mixture.
To attain the mission, papers from various journals that discuss
waste characterization, management, and economic and
environmental impact assessment were collected together. Then,
the scope of these waste materials was found based on their
purposes. In the end, all the available solid waste materials with
pavement construction applications were chosen for detail study
and review, particularly concrete waste, reclaimed asphalt
pavement, glass waste, scrap tyres, plastics, carbon black, ceramic
wastes, incineration ash, steel slag, textile waste, and wood waste.
The reason behind the filtered selection of these waste is based on
their large scale production and direct application. This review
paper consists of the structural properties of waste materials along
with asphalt mixture, processing methods, environmental
assessment, and economic analysis. The main intension of this
discussion is to build an environmentally friendly world by
constructing sustainable roads utilizing maximum solid wastes.
Overall, this study hopes to provide a scientific basement for
improved construction practices in pavement engineering, with
eco-friendliness being prominently highlighted. The objective of
this review paper is to carry out further discussions with recent
research outcomes, advancements, and limitations in this area.
Waste materials applicable for pavement construction
Aggregates and binders (bitumen, cement) are the main
constituents of asphalt bituminous mixture. Besides these main
components, certain efficiency enhancement additives like fibers
and polymeric substances are also generally used. The main
intention of reutilizing waste materials is to conserve resources and
to modify the properties of materials. For the performance
enhancement of materials, mixing polymers with bitumen and
certain other additives to the bituminous mixture has helped
improve the efficiency of the pavement [1].
This paper deals with some waste materials for the partial and/or
full replacement of the original base material. For the development
of high-performance pavements with a reasonable reduction and
re-utilization of waste materials, the following points are
considered (i) Similarity in the properties between the waste
material to be reused and original construction material (ii)
Obtainable volume of waste materials (iii) Sparsity of natural raw
materials (iv)Ease in the accessibility of the raw material(v)
Increase/Decrease in cost during the execution of work and
disposal of wastes [1].
2.1. Concrete
Concrete is the most common construction material in the world
and over ten billion tons of concrete is being produced each year
worldwide [4]. The world waste production is estimated to be
around 27 billion tonnes per year by 2050, Asia itself contributes
to one-third of the total waste, with major contributors being China
and India [5]. In India, almost 12 million tons/yr of inert waste is
being produced from streets, construction, and demolition
activities (C&D wastes). It has been found that almost one-third of
the MSW's are produced in this manner alone [6]. It is thus clear
that concrete waste is a major constituent of construction and
demolition waste (C&D waste) along with broken bricks, glass,
wood, construction steel, etc.
In India, approximately 50% of concrete waste is being recycled
and re-utilized, while surplus waste is generally landfilled. Due to
the high labor-intensive nature of the Indian construction industry,
the capital outlay of the country in continuous five-year plans and
other anticipated investments continues to exhibit an increasing
trend [7].
The continuous use of aggregates for road construction will lead
to the slow but dangerous depletion of natural resources. For
conserving the natural resources without affecting the performance
of the pavement, substitute materials are required to replace the
virgin aggregates. It helps not only for conserving the natural
resources but also in the reduction of energy consumption [8].
The use of recycled material has been a much-practiced concept
in recent years, especially in road construction. Better results were
seen when they were used in the base and sub-base construction of
pavements. It was observed that when a proportion of 25% crushed
concrete aggregates and 75% normal virgin aggregates was used;
the performance seen was very similar to that of pavements made
of 100% virgin aggregates [9].
From a few studies, it is clear that the primary layer thickness
can be decreased by the application of 30% of crushed concrete
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wastes and dust from cement kiln for the stabilization of pavement
subgrade and the construction of subbase layer of the pavement
[10]. The dynamic modulus can be increased and at the same time
the dynamic creep can be decreased by the use of waste materials
in the form of finer powder as filler in the bituminous asphalt
concrete [11]. With the help of laboratory assessment done by
various researchers, it has been observed that the marshall stability
of asphalt mixture with conventional aggregate is 10.15 kN and
with construction waste aggregate is 9.10 kN respectively. From
this, it is clear that the marshall stability (strength properties)
satisfies the minimum requirements for dense bituminous
macadam (DBM) according to Ministry of road transport
highways (MORTH) specification [7].
2.2. Retrieved asphalt road or reclaimed asphalt pavement (RAP)
Production of retrieved asphalt road materials: Re-utilization of
pavement layer of existing roads are termed as retrieved asphalt
road or reclaimed asphalt pavement. This re-utilisation can be done
directly at the site itself. The necessary gradation of retrieved
asphalt roads can be achieved by pulverizing these waste materials
in crushers. The main advantages of retrieved asphalt roads are as
follows:
1. Reduction in cost
2. The decrease in the consumption of natural resources
3. No increment in road thickness
4. The reduction in conveyance leads to energy saving (ie.
reduction in consumption of fuels)
Huge quantities of retrieved asphalt road materials are simply
disposed during the construction and maintenance of pavements.
If these waste materials can be re-utilized as base and sub-base
aggregates, then reduction of environmental impacts, minimizing
the waste stream and conveyance cost along with pavement
construction and maintenance work becomes possible. The water
absorption of this aggregate is less because of the asphalt coating
over the aggregates [12].
Retrieved asphalt roads provide good performance aggregates
and when combined with proper binders help in good pavement
construction. It is highly economical even after providing
invigorating promoters for regaining the binding property of past
binder. Cost can be brought down to about 25 to 30% by using
recycled asphalt in new road construction. Researchers have stated
that the performance of asphalt pavement having 30% reclaimed
asphalt pavement material exhibits a similar performance to that
of a pavement build with only natural aggregates [12].
In India, different projects of the National Highway
Development Plan (NHDP) have shown that up to 50% of
retrieved asphalt road material can be utilized for the replacement
of sub-base and wet mix macadam. From various studies, it is also
observed that the retrieved asphalt road materials can be used in
granular sub-base along with natural aggregate after blending to fit
the gradation according to MORTH specification [12]. Mechanical
performance and efficiency of bituminous asphalt containing a
huge quantity of recycled asphalt (almost 60%) give a comparable
performance to that of pavement build of normal aggregates [1].
Along with the cost reduction, it also conserves energy.
2.3. Glass waste
In an urban area, glass is considered to be one of the main waste
materials. Worldwide approximately more than 10 million tons of
glass waste is produced every year. Globally, 50.63 million metric
3
tons of volume of glass bottles and containers were produced in
2015. In 2022, this production is expected to rise to 65.42 million
metric tons. In India, 12 million tons of float glass is produced
yearly, out of which 77% is used up for domestic purposes [13].
The ideal property of glass is that it can be reutilized without
dropping its characteristics. Moreover, its use can conserve energy
by almost up to 60% during the manufacturing stage in comparison
to usual road construction materials [8].
Waste glass is categorized under industrial solid waste. The
majority of industrial solid wastes can be utilized in pavement
construction in various layers of pavement from the surface layer
to subgrade. Better performance and environmental genial roads
can be built by the utilization of these waste products instead of
conventional materials [14]. The behavior of asphalt mixtures can
be enhanced by the utilization of these waste materials, especially
glass waste. Glass waste can be utilized in asphalt mixture in the
form of fine aggregates and mineral fillers. While being used in
surface or wearing course, the glass waste is crushed at the desired
gradation. From studies, it is clear that the optimum dosages of
waste glass material range from 2.5% to 7.5% [15].
2.4. Scrap tyres
Complexity in deterioration and trouble due to the emission into
ground and air is the major problem associated with the disposal
of waste tyres. Worldwide, approximately 70 million tons of waste
tyres are produced per year out of which 52% of waste tyres are
disposed of by burning, 12% is utilized as the primary material for
rubber production, 16% is utilized for modifying bitumen and
asphalt concrete mixture in road construction, and 14% or less is
disposed of through landfills [16]. The waste tyre contribution by
India is almost 6-7% of the total global volume. Due to the rise in
the production of waste tyre, the tyre manufacturing companies
making use of such reclaimed tyre wastes are also rising at a rate
of 12% per year. India lies in the 2nd position in reclaimed rubber
production after China. According to 2011 records, 90,000 metric
tons of reclaimed rubber was produced using waste tyres [17].
2.4.1. Waste tyre grinding process:
Crumb rubber is produced by shredding waste tyres and
thereafter removing fibers and steels. The crumb rubber is usually
characterized by the sieve size or mesh size. To process crumb
rubber, it is very essential to decrease the size of the shredded
waste tyre pieces. The two major techniques to process or generate
crumb rubber are (i) cryogenic process and (ii) ambient grinding
[18]. The cryogenic process is comparatively faster, cleaner and
the operation produces fine size crumb rubber. The only
disadvantage of this method is the higher cost due to the use of
liquid nitrogen. The ambient grinding technique is subdivided into
two types based on the equipment used: granulations and cracker
mills. The ambient temperature characterizes the temperature at
which the waste tyre sizes decreases. The waste tyre is loaded into
granulators or cracker mills at ambient temperature [19].
The reclaimed rubber obtained from waste tyres can substitute
normal pavement construction materials. The main reason for
using waste tyres as road construction materials is due to their low
density, enhanced drainage property, and better thermal insulation
property. They not only enhance the properties of asphalt mix but
also make the whole process of production comparatively
economical [20]. From certain studies, it was determined that the
cracking resistance has been enhanced for crumb rubber modified
mixture compared to conventional mixture [21]. The crumb rubber
4 T.B. Vishnu and Kh. L. Singh / International Journal of Pavement Research and Technology xx (2020) xxx-xxx

is applicable in both hot and cold mixes. The viscosity and the
viscoelastic property is enhanced by the addition of crumb rubber
to the bitumen or asphalt mixture, hence the permanent
deformation of pavement declines [22]. Some investigators
performed few tests on asphalt mixtures modified with crumb
rubber obtained from different automobile tyres and concluded
that heavy automobile waste tyre is the best among them [23].
According to a few studies conducted in India, it was concluded
that 5% crumb rubber modified bitumen is suited for cold regions
and 15% crumb rubber modified bitumen was fit for regions with
a hot climate [24]. Moreover, 20% of crumb rubber modification
could not fit any grade as per IS: 15462 specifications.
Fig. 1. Flow chart for the dry process of plastic utilization in
2.5. Plastics pavement construction.

From a few studies, it is clear that in 65 years starting from the

1950s (decade which started plastic production) almost 8.3 billion
metric tons of plastics was produced out of which 60% (4.9 billion
metric tons) was finished off/disposed (after their purpose was
fulfilled) thereby still causing environmental problems [25]. A lot
of research exists related to the adoption of different waste plastics
in road construction. Some commonly used waste plastics are
polyvinyl chloride (PVC), polyethylene (PE), polypropylene (PP),
polyethylene terephthalate (PET), polyurethane (PU), etc. [26].
The introduction of small quantities of polymers (approximately 3
to 6% which may vary based on the polymer type) enhances the
binders cracking resistance [27]. Mohammad investigated the
performance of asphalt mixtures with light density polyethylene
(LDPE) and high-density polyethylene (HDPE) and concluded
that waste plastic content of about 12% by weight of bitumen
showed better results for stability, air voids, and density, etc. [28].
The main two techniques for disposal of waste plastic by use in
pavement construction are:
1. Dry process: for the construction of bituminous pavements,
heated aggregates (170⁰C) are mixed with heated bitumen
(160⁰C) and the mixture is laid for road surfacing. Based on
water absorption capacity, strength and porosity according to
IS code, the aggregates are selected. In this dry process,
aggregates are coated with plastics, thus it improves
properties such as voids, soundness, water absorption, etc.
Fig. 1 illustrates the flow chart for the dry process of plastic
utilization in pavement construction.
2. Wet process: This method helps to produce plastic modified
bitumen by directly introducing waste plastic to bitumen
after which it is heated to a temperature of about 160⁰C to
formulate a proper blend with adequate dispersion of waste
plastic into bitumen. After mixing this modified bitumen and
aggregates, it is laid over the surface and compacted with the
help of rollers [29]. Fig. 2 illustrates the flow chart for the
wet process of plastic utilization in pavement construction.
2.5.1. Polyethylene terephthalate (PET)
Polyethylene terephthalate (PET) is a polymer of thermoplastic
nature and it belongs to a polyester family with partly crystalline
and biodegradable nature. A huge quantity of PET is reutilized into
other products, even though a considerable amount of waste is still
not disposed of properly. From certain studies, it is clear that a
large area is required for the disposal of PET bottles. In some
studies, waste PET was utilized in the pavement constructions.
PET was used as a substitute in 3 forms- (i) PET pellets, used as
a substitute for pavement aggregate in bituminous asphalt (ii) PET
threads for bitumen modification and strengthening mix (iii)
Fig. 2. Flow chart for the wet process of plastic utilization in
pavement construction.
Chemically handled reutilized PET as an anti-stripping agent. 25%
by weight of the total asphalt mixture can be replaced by the PET
pellets of sizes ranging from 1.2mm to 2.4mm, as has already been
established [30]. Depolymerized PET and chemically handled PET
with pentaerythritol (PENTE) are used to enrich the characteristics
of the binder [31].
2.5.2. Polyethylene (PE)
Polyethylene is called the common plastic. Almost 80 million
tons of polyethylene is produced every year globally. Its chemical
formula is (C2H4). The Marshall stability and Marshall Quotient
values of the bituminous mixtures are improved by the addition of
High-Density Polyethylene (HDPE) to bitumen [32]. Bituminous
mixture derived from bitumen modified with HDPE showed
increased permanent deformation resistance and fatigue resistance
as compared to normal polymer induced mixture. From some tests,
it has been determined that the optimum HDPE content as a
modification binder is 8% [33]. Bitumen modified with low-
density Polyethylene (LDPE) has better performance at low
temperatures compared to bitumen modified with HDPE [34]. In
some studies, researchers converted plastic wastes into paving
blocks. They utilized pit sand and sea sand along with plastic for
the pavement block production and determined the peak
compressive strength of PPPB (plastic-pit sand pavement block)
and (plastic-sea sand pavement block) PSPB as 36.96 N/mm2and
27.81 N/mm2 respectively. Furthermore, they found out the
maximum tensile strength values of PPPB and PSPB as 8.2 N/mm2
and 6.1 N/mm2 respectively. The penetration resistance also
improved with the increment in the plastic addition for both PPPB
and PSPB. From the results, they concluded PPPB as superior
compared to PSPB [35].
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2.5.3. Polyurethane (PU)
Polyurethane (PU) is a type of polymer which consists of an
organic unit connected with urethane channels. Major PU
polymers are thermosetting with its molecular formula
C27H36N2O10. Cars, mattresses, medical devices, shoes, etc are
manufactured by using PU. When mixed with bitumen, it must be
treated with modified clay to avoid compatibility problems of PU
with bitumen [36]. Bitumen-modified PU prepolymer was used for
the production of moisture-proof coating, which is used for
construction purposes [37]. This also helps to modify bitumen with
low viscosity [1]. It was also found that the rheology of bitumen
was affected by PU polymer modification [38].
2.6. Carbon black
Carbon black is formed by the addition of a small quantity of
vegetable oil to partly combusted petroleum products. Carbon
black is a carbon of para-crystalline form. The improved Energy
self-sufficiency and decreased susceptibility to variations in fuel
costs are the reasons for using plastics as basic material for fuel
production. Landfill disposal leads to environmental problems,
deficiency of energy resources, and ultimately, pollution. The
pyrolysis of mixed plastic waste produces a carbon abundant
residue, synthetic oil, and gas. The high carboned powder (carbon
black) can be extracted from the working unit continuously.
Mechanical and rheological properties are enhanced by the
introduction of carbon black to bitumen. Jahromi and Khodaii
conducted a study on the fatigue performance of asphalt mixtures
with carbon fiber content ranging from 0.1% to 0.5% by weight of
the mix and concluded that 0.3% carbon fiber addition is the
optimum percentage for asphalt mix modification [39]. After
performing various bitumen tests, researchers concluded that 5%
of carbon black content by weight of bitumen is the best-suited
percentage for bitumen modification [40].
2.7. Other polymer types
Different types of other polymers also prove to be good
modifiers for bituminous concrete. For bitumen modification, PP
has also been established as a successful bitumen modifier by
using up to 15 % of the weight of bitumen, which is shown by the
improvement in the Marshall stability value, indirect tensile
strength value, and resistance to rutting of the asphalt mixture [41].
The durability and performance were enhanced by the utilization
of waste 3% of polypropylene in warm mix asphalt [42]. Some
studies were conducted on porous asphalt modified with plastic
wastes and cellulose fibers [43]. Torn plastics were confirmed for
the successful application in the porous asphalt with better
moisture susceptibility.
2.8. Ceramics wastes
In India, almost 100 million tons of ceramic products are
produced annually. Out of this, approximately 15 % to 30% of
ceramic waste is taken out [44]. Ceramic wastes are classified into
two, based on the origin of primal material. The first type is waste
of ceramic products manufactured by utilizing only red pastes like
roof tiles, bricks, blocks. The second type is waste of ceramic
products formed in stoneware ceramics like sanitary products, wall,
and floor tiles [45]. Ceramic waste can be effectively utilized in
pavement construction as aggregates due to its chemical and
5
mechanical properties [1]. For the development of the sub-base
layer of low traffic and concrete pavements, these reclaimed
aggregates from ceramic wastes have broad applications [46].
Ceramic waste products can also be utilized as filler in asphalt
concrete. By the addition of ceramic waste as a filler (10% weight
of mix) to stone matrix asphalt, it enhances the stiffness as well as
the resistance to rutting compared to normal lime filler [47]. Some
studies have also been conducted on the suitability of Ceramic
aggregate recycled from electrical insulators being integrated into
the sub-base layer of the asphalt concrete [48]. A few other studies
have also been done to determine the thermal conductivity and
performance of the asphalt concrete by the addition of various
percentages of recycled ceramic waste [49]. Thermal conductivity
and rutting resistance were improved by the introduction of a small
amount of ceramic recycled aggregate.It was found that 40% of
traditional aggregates could be replaced by the recycled ceramic
aggregates with satisfactory surface course performance [1].
Ceramic is a material that has a porous structure with high moisture
absorption, thus the performance gets enhanced compared to the
traditional mixture with more bitumen content. The optimum
binder content (OBC) also increased in the asphalt mixture by
increasing the ceramic waste ratio. It was observed that the ceramic
waste, upto 30% by wieght can be utilized in asphalt mixture by
considering the economic asphalt limits [50].
2.9. Incineration ash from municipal solid waste (MSWI)
2.9.1. Bottom ash
After the incineration of solid municipal wastes, its mass
declines by 65% to 80%, and volume declines by 85% to 90% [1].
Depending upon the properties, this ash is classified into two; fly
ash and bottom ash. Approximately 80% of waste materials after
incineration is basically fly ash that accounts to almost 800 million
kilograms globally [51]. MSWI bottom ash contains coarser
particles along with low level hazardous substances [52]. Bottom
ash is a granular type material. It is an industrial by-product
obtained from the incineration of domestic waste. Due to the
combustion action, it cleans and differentiates the inert materials
and metals from the bottom ash. Partial replacement of traditional
aggregate can be achieved by bottom ash resulting in better
mechanical strength compared to the normal asphalt pavement
[53]. Bottom ash is coarser than fly ash. Almost 2.7 million tons
of bottom ash was utilized in the construction sector. Out of this,
48% of the bottom ash was utilized as fine aggregate for the
manufacture of concrete blocks, 33% in pavement construction,
and almost 14% for the preparation of cement and concrete. From
various test results, it was observed that strength performance
increased with higher bottom ash content of about 20% to 25% in
the asphalt mixture whereas, the stability or strength performance
did not exhibit an increasing trend when the bottom ash content
was less than 15% in the asphalt mixture [54].
2.9.2. Fly ash
Fly ash obtained from municipal solid waste incineration is fine
in texture and consists of a large amount of chloride content and a
considerable quantity of toxic materials(like excessive metal
content and organic substances) [51]. For the partial replacement
of ordinary Portland, cement-fly ash is effectively used. The
residual fly ash left out after being used in the cementitious organic
matrix, is then disposed of in landfills. Fly ash is considered as an
economical material to substitute in the asphalt concrete. The rate
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of addition of fly ash is sometimes lower than that of the normal
materials used in asphalt, mainly based on the place of origin.
Another attractive property of fly ash is that it is hydrophobic. By
the addition of fly ash to asphalt concrete mixture, it will increase
the stiffness, enhance the rutting resistance, improve the stripping
resistance, decrease the drain down of mixture, and improve its
durability [55]. From various studies, it is revealed that the
existence of high calcium oxide in fly ash is a major factor that
governs the strength performance of asphalt mixture. Fly ash
content of 7% can be utilized as filler in pavement construction
[56]. Based on the Marshall stability the optimum percentage of
fly ash was determined as 8% [57].
2.10. Steel slag
In the Industrial sector, the steel industry plays an important role
due to its cost-effectiveness. Almost 50 million tons of steel is
produced annually [55]. Due to the favorable behavior and
mechanical properties of steel slag, it is highly favorable for
pavement construction [1]. Steel slag obtained from Electric Arc
Furnace (EAF) is used as artificial aggregates in road construction
[58]. Results of certain microstructure analysis like scanning
electron microscopy (SEM) have indicated that steel slag
contained asphalt, which proved that it is suitable for the
replacement of virgin aggregates in pavement construction [13]. It
has also been used for the substitution of traditional aggregates
[59]. Steel slag containing asphalt showed improved efficiency
compared to asphalt made of normal aggregates. Various
researchers have discovered that high specific gravity, rough
surface texture, and angular shape of steel slag aggregate (SSA)
produced a pavement with high skid resistance, better mechanical
locking, stability and rutting resistance [60]. By considering
stability and air voids, it was determined that steel slag content of
15% (by weight of mix) and size ¾ inch were optimal for pavement
construction [61]. From the study conducted on the performance
of asphalt mixture, it is clear that the steel slag waste provides
sufficient performance and is also economical for pavement
construction (at an optimum 15% by weight substitution) [62].
2.11. Textile waste
The worldwide textile manufacture which includes fiber
synthesized mixed materials and nonwoven materials reaches
almost 90 million tons per year [63]. India claims the second
position in textile production globally. 13 percent of the overall
exports in India are from the textile industry [64]. Synthetic
products contribute 60% of the world's textile manufacture
whereas natural fibers (cotton, wool) contribute 30%. Due to
environmental concerns, textile waste disposal is strictly omitted,
and recycling is preferred [1]. While handling textile wastes, two
different wastes need to be processed; the first one is industrial
waste, and the second one is consumer waste [65]. Industrial waste
is formed at various stages of textile manufacturing and the main
advantage of this waste is its ease in recycling. Consumer waste
includes various anonymous fibers and non-fibrous materials
(metals, buttons, etc.) [1]. Some studies have been conducted over
the utilization of recycled textile waste in pavement construction
as reinforcement. Fibers like Nylon, Polypropylene, Carbon,
Polyester, and Cellulose have been used effectively in the
pavement construction. By the introduction of fibers, the moisture
sensitivity resistance, resistance to rutting, freeze and throw
resistance, dynamic modulus, creep compliance, and
viscoelasticity was enhanced. Moreover, the overlay of these fibers
over such roads will prevent reflective cracking. For decreasing the
drain down of bitumen, porous bituminous fibers can be utilized
[66]. In the construction sector, one of the main demanding areas
is the construction of roads, which must be capable of withstanding
continuous traffic impacts. Up to 10% of textile sludge addition in
pavement construction enhances the mechanical properties of
pavement [67].
2.12. Wood waste
The process of converting wood waste into
serviceable/beneficial items is called wood waste recycling.
Green-O-Tech India is a major waste wood recycling service
benefactor that came into existence in 2014. Approximately 500
tons of waste wood is recycled by Green-O-Tech every month [68].
Nowadays wood waste is not normally utilized in road
construction. Wood waste can be utilized in two ways in pavement
construction, the first one is as a chemical supplement and the
second is for aggregate replacement with recycled waste wood
chips [26]. For the replacement of bitumen (binder), the Bio-oil
obtained from waste wood can be used. Some studies were held to
determine the performance of asphalt with 3 different types of bio-
oil and with varying percentages (0%, 5%, and 10%). Based on the
performance of the asphalt mixture, it was determined that 5%
enrichment with bio-oil enhanced fatigue life, rutting resistance,
dynamic modulus, and indirect tensile strength [21]. Pavement
with normally dried waste wood chips gave a tensile strength of
0.2 N/mm2 to 1.1 N/mm2 and the addition of a limited percentage
of urethane resin along with these wood chips prevented the
strength of the pavement from falling at the time of inundation.
Waste wood chips have been utilized for the development of
permeable roads because they have a permeability coefficient
range of 0.5 to 0.8 mm/s which is more than the minimum
permeability coefficient (0.1mm/s) required for permeable road
making. By the addition/replacement of normal aggregate with
waste wood chips, it also slightly improved the flammability
resistance and skid resistance in sidewalk pavements [1].
Sources of waste materials
Various sources of different waste materials are discussed below.
3.1. Construction and demolition wastes
In India, approximately 530 million tons of construction and
demolition (C&D) waste are produced every year. Construction &
Demolition Waste Management Rules (2016) was established to
solve the problem of disposal of wastes and the resulting pollution
(construction& demolition waste management rules 2016). Mainly
there are two sources of C&D wastes (i) Bulk generators and (ii)
Small generators [24]. Fig. 3 shows the various sources of
construction and demolition waste. While talking about the
management of C&D wastes, attention should be paid to a few
points- (i) Possibility to conserve natural resources (ii)
Requirement of land spaces for landfilling (iii) Disturbance of
biodegradation. The government of Maharashtra,India has
provided sufficient space for C&D waste in its action plan by the
SWM cell. They utilized the C&D waste as cover material in the
closure project at Gorai, Mumbai. In Delhi, C&D waste has not
been considered as a municipal solid waste even though its
appropriate disposal has been a headache. Some feasibility studies
 T.B. Vishnu and Kh. L. Singh / International Journal of Pavement Research and Technology xx (2020) xxx-xxx
Fig. 3. Sources of construction and demolition waste.
have also been conducted on C&D wastes as pavement
construction material by Central Road Research Institute (CRRI)
and the studies proved that C&D wastes are suitable for (i)
Concrete road construction (ii) Sub-base layer constructions (iii)
Baselayer construction and (iv) Embankment and subgrade
construction [69].
3.2. Bulky Waste
Bulky waste or Bulky refuse is the high-tech word adopted in
waste management which consists of waste that is huge in volume
but can be handled by daily waste collection. Bulky waste is a
particular kind of waste generated from households like carpets,
electrical wastes (refractories, ovens, TVs), furniture(couches,
tables), plasterboards, fixtures(bathtubs, toilets, sinks), green
wastes, etc. In several countries, it is normally collected daily from
streets and side roads. They are usually disposed of through
landfills [1]. The Swachh Bharat Mission (SBM) was developed
with the mission of 100% collection, processing, and disposal of
MSW by 2019. In India without pretreatment, almost 62 million
tons of MSW is dumped every year and has required
approximately 3,40,000 cubic meters of landfill space for its
disposal [70].
3.3. End-of-life vehicles (ELVs)
The ELV waste is usually formed after the usefulness period of
the vehicle expires. Generally, a vehicle consists of 75% metal, 25%
glass, plastic components, textiles, rubber, etc. Almost 25% of
these substances when disposed cause environmental problems
like ozone depletion, air and water pollution, etc. The ELVs waste
includes chassis, other ferrous and non-ferrous materials, rims of
wheels, electronic components, Tyres, glass wool, broken
tempered glass, rubber piping for windows, seat covers, and foam.
These wastes are disposed of commonly by dumping. In states like
Chennai, traders collect the waste parts and dispose them by
dumping in landfills. In areas like Jamshedpur, traders usually just
dump these wastes along with the MSW waste into normal
disposal areas without any segregation [71].
3.4. Wastes from appliances
A broadly used material in freezers and refrigerators is
Polyurethane rigid foam (PUR). The various sources of
Polyurethane wastes include end of life vehicles, useless
refrigerators, different heating tubes, and many other sources. In
India, the production of refrigerators is close to 8.42 million units
in 2014(The Statistics Portal: Refrigerator production in India
7
from 2010 to 2014 (in million units). As a result of the broad use
of refrigerators and freezers, a huge volume of PUR (Polyurethane
rigid foam) waste is produced. High thermal conductivity, sound
insulation property, lightweight ness are the main properties of
PUR. This PUR waste is disposed of by dumping in landfills which
inturn lead to environmental problems. Because of its properties,
it is utilized for the partial replacement of aggregate in concrete,
and by the addition of this material, the tensile and compressive
strength of the mix is enhanced compared to normal mix [72].
3.5. Thermal waste treatment plants
It is an arrangement/provision that facilitates the conversion of
solid waste to power/electricity by the process of burning. Trash to
energy is another name of this plant. Ash handling systems extract
metal from ash and the remaining bottom ash is utilized in the
construction sectors [73].
3.6. Ceramic and steel industries
Steel slag is an inevitable secondary product (consisting of
silicon oxide and metal oxides) formed from iron and steel
manufacturing industries. Steel slag is classified into High Sulphur
slag, Ladle furnace slag (LF slag) or Electric Arc Furnace (EAF)
slag, Linz-Donawitz slag (LD slag) (Steel Furnace slag–SFS)
based on the type and process of steel manufacturing. In India,
approximately 12 million tons of steel slag is produced per year
[74].
The annual production capacity of Indian ceramic industries is
almost 100 million tons. Almost 15% to 30% of ceramic waste is
generated from these ceramic industries [75].
Approach to the utilization of waste materials
When waste materials are purposed for pavement construction,
it must be appraised for the chemical, physical, and engineering
properties, environment, and economic fitness, field efficiency, etc.
If the selected material is not satisfying the health, environmental,
and safety concerns, it will be denied from the list of road
construction material. Additional assessments (chemical, physical,
engineering properties) will be carried out if the material fulfills
the health, environmental, and safety concerns. Table 1 illustate
the waste materials and their application in pavement construction.
Life cycle assessment (LCA)
LCA is the assemblage and interpretation of influence on the
environment linked with entire life stages of a product (which
includes handling, production, transportation/circulation,
consumption, maintenance, and disposal). It deals with resources
associated with the product's emission, or waste generated from
the entire life of the product. LCA is an analytical and iterative
program that studies the environmental impact of a product during
its life cycle. From 1970 onwards LCA has been conducted to
evaluate consumer products. At present LCA is also used to
analyze the environmental impact of complicated structures like
pavement construction [8].
Based on the ISO 14040 standard, LCA possesses 4 different
stages. The initial stage is the description of aim and scope, which
indicates the reason behind the need for this study and gives the
explanation of the product associated with its restrictions and
8 T.B. Vishnu and Kh. L. Singh / International Journal of Pavement Research and Technology xx (2020) xxx-xxx

Table 1
Waste materials and their possible utilization in pavement construction.
Waste materials Source Application Advantages
Concrete waste Construction (i) Base/ Subbase material (i) Dynamic modulus can be increased, dynamic creep can
industry (ii) stabilization of subgrade be reduced.
(iii) filler in asphalt mixture (ii) Conservation of natural resources.
Retrieved asphalt Road industry (i) Base/ Subbase material (i) Enhance mechanical performance and efficiency of
road/ Reclaimed pavement.
asphalt pavement (ii) Conservation of natural resources.
Glass waste Glass industry (i) Glass fiber reinforcement (i) Enhance fatigue performance
(ii) filler in asphalt mixture
Scrap tyre waste Automobile (i) Bitumen modifier (i) Improves viscoelastic property of bitumen.
industry (ii) Aggregate in asphalt (ii) Enhance fatigue and rutting resistance of pavement.
mixture (ii) Reduce noise pollution.
Plastic waste Plastic industry (i) Bitumen modifier (i) Improves rheological properties of bitumen.
(ii) Aggregate in asphalt (ii) Enhance fatigue and rutting resistance of pavement.
mixture (iii) Enhance stiffness modulus
Carbon black Petroleum (i) Bitumen modifier (i) Improves mechanical and rheological properties of
industry (ii) Carbon fiber bitumen.
reinforcement (ii) Enhance fatigue performance.
Ceramic waste Ceramic industry (i) Base/ Subbase material (i) Enhance thermal conductivity and rutting resistance of
(ii) filler in asphalt mixture pavement
Bottom ash and Thermal power (i) Aggregate in asphalt (i) Enhance mechanical performance of pavement.
Fly ash station mixture (ii) Enhance stiffness
(ii) filler in asphalt mixture (iii) Enhance stripping and rutting resistance of pavement.
(iii) as subgrade stabilizer
Steel slag waste Steel industry (i) Base/ Subbase material (i) Enhance skid resistance
(ii) as subgrade stabilizer (ii) Improves modulus of resilience and reduce permanent
deformation
Textile waste Textile industry (i) Textile fiber reinforcement (i) Enhance mechanical performance of pavement
(ii) Enhance moisture susceptibility, rutting resistance,
freeze and throw resistance
(iii) Improves dynamic modulus, creep compliance etc.
Wood waste Wood/ furniture (i) Aggregate in asphalt mixture (i) Enhance fatigue and rutting resistance
industry (ii) Bio-oil bitumen modifier (ii) Improves dynamic modulus and skid resistance

functional entity [76]. The second stage of LCA is Life Cycle
Inventory (LCI) in which all activities inside the system are
explained, resources, and ejections are allotted, by utilizing
various imprints and ways to assemble them [77]. The next stage
details the environmental impact generated by resource utilization
and emissions, with the help of impact records and indicators. And
the final stage is the analysis stage where the data obtained from
the previous stages are analyzed based on importance,
changeability, and other aspects. The analysis also provides
closure and instructions for the improvement of the product, given
the aim and opportunity of the appraisements.
5.1. Carbon footprint
Carbon footprint is an approach used to quantify the emission of
greenhouse gases by corporations and companies (corporate
carbon footprint, CCF), along with the emissions during the
lifecycle processes of the product (product carbon footprint, PCF)
to assess its involvement in climate change [77]. Besides the
contribution of CO2 emissions, CF deals with all greenhouse gases
(GHG) which cause global warming and converts the separate
result of every GHG to CO2 equivalent [78]. ISO formed an array
of standards numbered from ISO 14064 to 14069 for its
computation, giving importance to its trustworthiness and
guarantee to emission report of GHG, for computation or reduction
[79].
Sustainability consideration
To illustrate the environmental and economic power of
pavement material produced from waste, carbon dioxide discharge
and finite energy necessity of a medium Indian pavement material
have been determined. This knowledge plays an important role in
decision making. By LCA/LCC analysis, proper opinion can be
reached relating to the feasibility of utilizing waste material in
pavement construction. An analysis of all the results until now
indicates that the utilization of waste materials in pavement
provides environmental and economic benefits.
6.1. Life Cycle (LC) studies
6.1.1. Incineration ash of municipal solid waste (MSWI)
Impact studies have been conducted in Denmark to determine
the emission produced due to the utilization of resources. This
experiment concentrated on the Life cycle and waste management
by substituting the subbase material of pavement with MSW. Here
the research considered two scenarios. The first case showed the
 T.B. Vishnu and Kh. L. Singh / International Journal of Pavement Research and Technology xx (2020) xxx-xxx
adoption of crushed stone in the sub-base layer of pavement and in
the second case the crushed stones were substituted by MSWI ash.
Due to the resources utilized, the aspect related to the environment
was assessed which include emissions to air (CO2, NOx, HC, SO2,
CH4, other particles) and emission to water (phenol, Pb, Cr, Ni, Zn,
etc.). Finally, with the help of LCA, the probable results were
displayed numerically and consistently. It concluded that the high
consumption of energy was due to the stone crushing action and
transportation of construction materials. However, in the case
where MSWI ash was used, it generated high leachate problem
[80].
6.1.2. Glass waste
The environmental impact of the bituminous pavement in
Heathrow Terminal 5 London was analyzed by substituting a small
part of conventional aggregates with the waste glass, ash from
incineration, and recycled asphalt pavement. 30,000 m2 of
pavement surface was considered for the analysis. From the results
obtained it was concluded that the energy utilization due to the
preparation of asphalt mixture, bitumen, and aggregates is
increased by almost 62%, 23%, and 6% respectively, meaning
greater emission compared to normal methods. It was also
determined that the substitution of waste glass and incineration ash
as aggregates in place of conventional aggregates declined the
energy utilized by approximately 7%. Moreover, it conserved
natural resources (traditional aggregates). It was also estimated
that glass containing mix had slightly lower gas production (869
tons Carbon dioxide) compared to a mixture having conventional
materials (888 tons Carbon dioxide) [81].
6.1.3. Steel slag
Fossil fuels like coal are the main energy sources of the steel
industry. This leads to large amounts of greenhouse gas emissions
from the different manufacturing stages, leading to environmental
problems. Also due to the huge volume of steel slag production
and the environmental problem resulting from improper waste
management or disposal, alternate methods were required. This led
to it being utilized as a substitute for conventional road materials
[82].
6.1.4. Rubber
In Taiwan, the environmental impact due to the utilization of
waste materials in pavement maintenance and repair using 3
various waste materials which included waste rubber, waste glass,
and Reclaimed asphalt pavement(RAP) related with hot mix
asphalt by LCA was assessed (eco indicator 99). The thickness and
mean life of the pavement was considered as 5cm and 6 years. 3.45
kPt2/lane environmental impacts was produced from this
conventional asphalt pavement. By the utilization of RAP in the
asphalt, the impact declined 23% for the same arrangement. By the
adoption of waste rubber, the impact inclined by 16% .For glass
waste the effect on impact was moreover the same (declines by
only about 1% compared to normal). This study was mainly carried
out on a pavement that had aged by 40 years. The conventional
bituminous mix produced an impact of 23.03kpt, but the adoption
of waste rubber and recycled asphalt pavement declined the impact
by 23%.In the case of waste glass, it increased the impact by 19%.
Also, they determined the causes of the fluctuations in impact for
these different materials, the nature of asphalt and the kind of
energy adopted in the managing stage of road construction [83].
9
6.1.5. Polymers
In 2014, Sweden examined the characteristics of a bituminous
mixture added with certain quantity of polymers. Due to the
addition of polymer to asphalt, the emission produced from various
stages was assessed. They also analyzed whether the material led
to conservation in energy. In this investigation, 3 polymers were
evaluated with by incorporating various amounts. The study
considered bituminous pavement of 1km length/4m lane and 25
yrs serviceable period. They examined the energy utilization,
resource utilized in the transportation stage, and quantity of carbon
dioxide gas liberated from various asphalt mixes. It was concluded
from this research that as the pavement layer depth decreased the
emissions declined and more energy was conserved [27].
6.1.6. Recycled asphalt
LCA studies were conducted by RMRC-3G on 2 pavement
renewal works in the USA. The work was conducted with the help
of PaLATE, meaning by substituting conventional materials with
RAP.PaLATE was used as a tool to asses the environmental impact
of each recycled materials[84]. The analyzed parameters were
energy consumption, water use, total charge, GWP; Recycling, etc.
This work deals with the commercial and environmental
advantages of utilizing waste material in pavement development.
It determined that the utilization of waste material in pavement
declined water and energy utilization, carbon dioxide liberation,
etc. [85]. Many other works were also carried on LCA to assess
the influence on the environment by the adoption of recycled waste
materials in the various stages of pavement construction and
renewal [86]. The assessed aspects were carbon footprint, energy
utilization, and resource consumption.
In 2014, the LCA study was conducted by replacing traditional
road materials with RAP. The evaluated aspects were GWP,
energy utilization, and gas liberation. The study was done with
varying percentages of RAP in pavement development. From that,
it was noticed that by the utilization of RAP the gaseous emissions
declined. The replacement of 50% of conventional material with
RAP declined 3% energy utilization, reduced 23% SO2 liberation,
and CH4, NO2, NOX emission by 15 % [86].
6.1.7. Fly ash
LCA studies were conducted considering the economic and
environmental impact of 2 asphalt mixtures, one with fly ash and
another with normal aggregates. The operational parameters
considered in the construction of 1500 m3 volume of pavement
were Energy utilization, GWP, acidification capacity, humanoid
toxicity capability, and other toxicity capabilities. The model
adopted data from an article and the CMLCA database. By the
addition of fly ash, it reduced the cost of the project and declined
the GWP and acidification capability. It was also noticed that by
the introduction of fly ash decreased the toxicity potentials
compared to that of conventional aggregates [87].
In the USA, some LCA was established to analyze the energy
utilization and gaseous liberation/emission from bituminous or
concrete mix having fly ash. They examined the separation phases,
handling, and conveyance of natural resources, managing activity,
and conveyance of asphalt mixture to work location. With the help
of this model, it was possible to assess the environmental impact
by considering collective mass utilization, collective energy
utilization, and collective industrial and ecological utilization. The
addition of fly ash to asphalt increased the emissions during the
cementing phase of the concrete [88].
10 T.B. Vishnu and Kh. L. Singh / International Journal of Pavement Research and Technology xx (2020) xxx-xxx

6.1.8. Industrial waste concrete waste, plastic waste, rubber tyres, steel slag, fly ash, glass
waste, textile waste, wooden waste, etc. as substitutes/ replacement
A research was conducted in Germany to analyze the
of natural raw materials. The main benefit of these materials is that
environmental problems produced due to leaching of hard metals
it reduces the environmental impact by preventing improper
like Pb, As, Cr, Cu, Zn, Sb, Ni, etc. into the soil by the adoption of
disposal. LCA also depends upon some demanding factors like
the industrial waste to replace the conventional materials in
cost-effectiveness and public effects cause by the effective
pavement construction. In this study, they considered granular
utilization of waste materials in pavement construction. LCA
particles produced from various metals. The addition of this waste
studies on pavements have mainly concentrated on heavy and
in pavement construction prevented the emission into groundwater.
medium traffic volumes and have mainly been conducted in
By LCA studies they investigated the features of the materials,
Europe and North America. Developing countries like India have
mechanical properties, topographical properties and type of
a disparate pavement pattern (i) Short (ii) Not paved with various
development material. They tried to quantify the environmental
commercial, public, environmental effects [7].
impact due to leaching, and also tried to find better approaches for
the disposal of these wastes in pavement construction zones [89].
Future scope

Conclusions
The utilization of different waste materials in the pavement is a
feasible choice, though it needs more wide-spread adoption. The
utilization of certain waste constituents like crumb rubber has not
only been scientifically developed but also legally exhibited in the
USA. The adoption of some other wastes like wood waste requires
more investigations. For higher accomplishments in this area, the
contribution from people in all areas of expertise and the stage of
construction is essential. There are two tributaries associated with
this process, first, being that waste administrative experts must
differentiate whether the available waste is applicable for
pavement construction or not and the second one is that pavement
development experts must assess the adoption and establishment
methods, expenditure and other aspects connected with the
utilization of waste materials in pavement construction. Hence a
lot more research effort is required in this area to enhance the
application of these materials in pavement construction. Proper
legalities, standards and operational procedures are to be
developed for proper reference when applying waste materials in
pavement construction. Because of the following four reasons,
waste materials are mainly being considered (i) Reduction in cost
(ii) Decline in CO2 emission (iii) Energy conservation (iv)
Improved performance compared to conventional road
construction materials [1].
LCA is broadly treated as an effective technique to promote and
enhance environmentally friendly techniques by evaluating the
aim through an organized, structured, experimental approach, and
by considering the various environmental impact magnitudes
accompanying the different phases of the product’s wheel of life.
Earlier, LCA was applied particularly for uncomplicated products,
but now it is adopted for complicated products as well, like in
construction zones, especially in pavement construction. The
functional entity considered for the study during LCA is usually a
1 km laid pavement whose results are then generalized. Although
the functional entity is an integral part of the overall picture, it
depends upon the geometrical arrangement of the pavement, traffic
capacity it can handle, architectural elements, and material features.
The prime objective of the adoption of LCA studies is for the
development of eco-friendly pavements with the utilization of
various waste materials in the construction. The global warming
possibility and energy utilization are the 2 main impact parameters
considered. Material manufacturing, construction, repair, and
destruction stage are the various stages considered for the
assessment of the LCA studies [7].
LCA is also adopted in the pavement construction sector to
assess the utilization of various waste materials like recycled
In the future studies lesser traffic volume roads can be added and
many other types of wastes also can be incorporated.
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