Author’s Accepted Manuscript

Thermal conductivity of concrete - A review

Iman Asadi, Payam Shafigh, Zahiruddin Fitri Bin

Abu Hassan, Norhayati Binti Mahyuddin

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PII: S2352-7102(18)30465-0
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jobe.2018.07.002
Reference: JOBE526
To appear in: Journal of Building Engineering
Received date: 22 April 2018
Revised date: 2 July 2018
Accepted date: 3 July 2018
Cite this article as: Iman Asadi, Payam Shafigh, Zahiruddin Fitri Bin Abu Hassan
and Norhayati Binti Mahyuddin, Thermal conductivity of concrete - A review,
Journal of Building Engineering, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jobe.2018.07.002
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 Thermal conductivity of concrete - A review

Iman Asadi*, Payam Shafigh, Zahiruddin Fitri Bin Abu Hassan, Norhayati Binti Mahyuddin
Department of Building Surveying, Faculty of Built Environment, University of Malaya, 50603 Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia
Center for Building, Construction & Tropical Architecture (BuCTA), Faculty of Built Environment, University of Malaya,
50603 Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia
*
Corresponding author: Tel: +601139976950; fax: +60379675318, asadi8564@gmail.com; asadi@siswa.um.edu.my

Abstract
The thermal conductivity (k-value) of cement-based materials like concrete is an important factor when
considering the amount of heat transfer through conduction. The amount of heat loss through walls and roofs
has a direct effect on the energy consumption of buildings. The steady state and transient methods are
considered the two main thermal conductivity measurement approaches. The moisture content, temperature,
type of aggregate, type of cementitious material and density of concrete are influential factors on the thermal
conductivity. The aim of this paper is to review the techniques most commonly used to measure the thermal
conductivity of concrete as well as to consider the factors affecting the thermal conductivity of cement-based
materials. In addition, a general equation for predicting the thermal conductivity of concrete is proposed in this
study based on data reported by researchers. The results of this review indicate that most researchers have
measured the k-value of cement-based materials based on transient methods. The reported k-value in saturated
conditions is higher than in dry conditions. Moreover, the measured k-value exhibits a declining trend with
increasing temperature. It is concluded that using lightweight concrete in structural and non-structural building
envelopes is a valuable method of reducing the amount of heat transfer and energy consumption owing to the
lower k-value of lightweight concrete compared to normal weight concrete.

Keywords: Concrete, Lightweight aggregate concrete, Density, Heat transfer, Thermal property, Thermal
conductivity

1
Nomenclature

A Area (m2) SSD Saturated surface density

C Moisture content by mass (%) TLPP Two linear parallel probe
k Thermal conductivity (W/m.°K) TPS Transient plane source
Q Heat flow (W) ULCCs Ultra-lightweight cement composites
q Heat flux (W/m2) w/c Water-cement ratio
T Temperature (°
V Volume percentage (%)
Temperature gradient (°K/m).
Temperature difference (°K)
Distance (m)
Φ Porosity (%)
ρ Density (kg/m3)

Subscripts and superscripts

a ambient
dry dry condition
w water

Acronyms

AAC Autoclaved aerated concrete

ALC Aerated lightweight concrete
APC Air permeable concrete
BA Bottom ash
BFS Blast furnace slag
DPF Date palm fibers
EPS Expanded polystyrene
FA Fly ash
FAC Fly ash cenosphere
FC Foamed concrete
FRSCC Fiber reinforced self-consolidating concrete
GLECC Green lightweight engineered cementitious composites
HGP Hot guarded plate
HIPS High impact polystyrene
HVAC Heating, ventilation and air conditioning
IAQ Indoor air quality
IOTs Iron ore tailings
LFC Lightweight-foamed concrete
LWA Lightweight aggregate
LWC Lightweight concrete
NWC Normal weight concrete
OPS Oil palm shell
OPSFC Oil palm shell foamed concrete
OPSFGC Oil palm shell foamed geopolymer concrete
PCM Phase change material
PHS Plane heat source
SCC Self-consolidating concrete
SCMs Supplementary cementations materials
SF Silica fume
SHC Sprayed Hemp Concrete
SLWAC Structural lightweight aggregate concrete

2
 1. Introduction

Energy conservation is required on account of the growing population and limited natural
energy sources. One third of the total energy consumption and 30% of greenhouse gas
emissions are attributed to buildings in most countries [1, 2]. Since most people spend around
90% of their lives indoors [3], energy conservation and thermal comfort in buildings are
controversial topics. The energy required for building cooling and heating and thermal
comfort depend greatly on the thermo-physical properties of the construction materials [4].
Ventilation and fabric heat loss are two reasons for heat loss in buildings. Ventilation heat
loss entails convective heat transfer through air replacement by heating, ventilation and air
conditioning (HVAC) systems. However, fabric heat loss is related to conductive heat loss
through walls, roof, windows and floors.
Heat transfer is a vector quantity and occurs through conduction, convection and
radiation [5]. Conductive heat transfer in solids is a mixture of molecular vibrations and
energy transport by free electrons [6]. Thermal conductivity (k-value) is a material’s property
that demonstrates its heat conduction capability [7, 8]. The energy consumption of buildings
is dependent on the thermal conductivity values of the building materials [9]. Materials with
low and moderate thermal conductivity, such as mineral wool (0.03-0.04 W/m.°K), cellulose
insulation (0.04-0.05 W/m.°K), cork (0.04-0.05 W/m.°K), expanded polystyrene (EPS) (0.03-
0.04 W/m. °K), polyurethane (0.02-0.03 W/m.°K), wood (0.14 W/m.°K) and ceramic tiles
(1.10 W/m.°K) can reduce the energy usage in buildings [10, 11].
It is possible to determine the amount of heat flow per unit area over a surface by
applying Fourier's law [12] as shown in Eqn. 1.

(1)

When the heat flow is only in one direction (Fig. 1.), the equation is simplified to:

(2)

3
 Fig. 1. Schematic of one-dimensional heat transfer by conduction [13]

The heat flow rate is:

(3)

Therefore, the equation is recast as:

(4)

Concrete is a common material all over the world and more than ten billion tons of
concrete are produced every year [14]. It is expected that the demand for concrete will
increase to 18 billion tones by 2050 [15]. Concrete is widely used in buildings, bridges,
parking structures, industrial pavements and other structures. Because of the widespread
usage of this material, investigators have been considering its engineering properties [16].
Thermal conductivity, specific heat and thermal diffusivity are deemed thermo-physical
properties of concrete. Thermal conductivity is the most important thermal property that
affects heat transfer by conduction through concrete [6]. Concrete with low thermal
conductivity reduces the heat transfer and energy consumption in buildings. Real et al. [17]
reported that applying structural lightweight aggregate concrete (SLWAC) in buildings in
European countries can reduce 15% of the heating energy compared to normal weight
concrete (NWC).
Several steady and transient methods can be used to measure the thermal conductivity of
materials. Different methods may result in different thermal conductivity values [18].
However, there is insufficient discussion in literature on suitable methods for measuring the
thermal conductivity of concrete. Hence, this paper reviews measurement methods for the
thermal conductivity of concrete based on the literature. Selecting a proper method for

4
measuring the thermal conductivity of concrete is important to achieve accurate values for
calculating the energy consumption of buildings. In addition, it should be noted that several
factors affect the k-value of concrete. This review discusses the consequence of each factor
on the thermal conductivity of concrete. Taking these factors into consideration during
concrete casting and utilizing concrete in buildings can lead to more energy-efficient and
sustainable buildings.

2. Concrete thermal conductivity measurement methods

Thermal conductivity is the property of a material pertaining to heat conduction. Steady

state and transient heat transfer are considered different heat transfer conditions across
materials [19]. Steady state is a constant heat transfer, whereby the temperature or heat flow
is not dependent on time. The transient method is dependent on time and temperature changes
over time. The methods selected for thermal conductivity measurement differ based on the
following two fundamental heat transfer conditions.
The steady state method is commonly chosen for homogenous materials. However, this
method takes more time but the k-value achieved is more accurate than with the transient
method. The transient method is normally used for heterogeneous materials with moisture
content [20]. An advantage of the transient method is the possibility to consider moisture
content but a disadvantage is the need to repeat the test several times to obtain precise results
[21].
Porosity has a significant role in the thermal conductivity of materials. The thermal
conductivity of a porous material can be determined by the thermal conductivity of the fluid
phase (kf) and solid phase (kS) [22]. The two linear parallel probe (TLPP), plane heat source
(PHS) and hot guarded plate (HGP) are some methods of measuring the thermal conductivity
of porous materials [23-25].
Fig. 2 represents a summary of available measurement methods for the thermal
conductivity of concrete. The percentages of different k-value measurement methods used in
30 studies are shown in Fig. 3.

5
 Thermal
conductivity
of concrete

Steady state Transient

Transient
boxes Hot plate Hot wire
plane source

Fig. 2. Different thermal conductivity measurement methods

Transient Plane
Source
13%
Hot Box
10%

Hot Plate
30%

Hot Wire
47%

Fig. 3. Percentages of thermal conductivity measurement methods employed in previous studies

In summary, researchers have used four well-known techniques most frequently to

measure the k-value of cement-based materials. The availability and cost of equipment, time

6
for experimental measurements and measurement ability for moist specimens may be some of
the reasons for using transient instead of steady state methods.

2.1 Steady state boxes method

The boxes method is a steady state method for determining the thermal conductivity of
concrete based on the system’s energy evaluation. This technique has been developed in the
laboratory for thermal and solar studies at the Claude Bernard University-Lyon I in France
[26, 27]. The device contains one hot chamber and one cold chamber. The specimen is placed
between the hot and cold sides. Based on the second law of thermodynamics, energy is
transferred from the hot to the cold side. The k-value is thus achieved by calculating the
difference in air temperature between the cold and hot sides [26, 27]. A schematic of the hot
box method is shown in Fig. 4. In two studies boxes method were selected for evaluating the
effect of moisture content and humidity on Pozzolan lightweight concrete and wood-
concrete-composite specimens [26, 28]. Other researchers also used this method to measure
the k-value of an insulator containing vegetable fiber [27].

Hot Chamber Cold Chamber

Fig. 4. Schematic of the box method

7
 2.2 Steady state hot plate method

The guarded hot plate is a useful technique for assessing the thermal conductivity of
insulation materials. The test samples are fixed between hot and cold plates. A constant heat
stream flows over the test samples. Thermal conductivity is determined through the heat flow
and the difference in mean temperature between the specimen surfaces [29]. Gandage et al.
[20] measured the thermal conductivity of specimens in five temperature ranges (from 30°C
to 80°C) with this method. In another study, the cold plate temperature was set at 18°C and
the hot side was kept at 40°C [30].
In a different study, this method was used by repeating the thermal conductivity
measurement of samples every 10 minutes over a period of 24 hours [31]. In one research,
this method was employed for samples containing cement, natural river sand, gypsum powder
and paraffin particles as phase change materials (PCMs). Two specimens of the composite
were placed on the heating panel. The specimens were cooled by disc-shaped cooling blocks.
Thermal paste was used on both sides of the specimens to minimize heat loss at the interface,
heating panel as well as the cooling block. A voltage regulator (0-250 V) supplied constant
heat flux (0-40 W) to the heating panel [32]. The k-value measured for concrete containing
moisture (up to 3% by volume) through this method was similar to oven-dry condition [33].
A schematic of the hot plate method is shown in Fig. 5. A number of researchers have
utilized this method to measure the thermal conductivity of self-consolidating concrete
(SCC), oil palm shell foamed concrete (OPFS), oil palm shell foamed geopolymer concrete
(OPSFGC), aerated lightweight concrete (ALC), recycled glass concrete, polystyrene foamed
concrete and PCM concrete [20, 30, 31, 34-37].

Fig. 5. Schematic of the hot plate method

8
 2.3 Transient hot wire method

The hot wire method is a transient method based on measuring the enhanced temperature
at a specific distance from a hot wire, which is a linear heat source inside the test material.
The hot wire probe method employs the principle of the transient hot wire technique [38].
Furthermore, the probe method is the modified version of the transient hot wire method. Fig.
6 displays the schematic principle of the hot wire method. Researchers have selected this
method to measure the k-value of concrete using bottom ash (BA), fly ash (FA) and silica
fume (SF) as cement replacement, air permeable concrete (APC) and various types of
lightweight aggregate concrete [39-49].

Fig. 6. Schematic of the hot wire method [50]

2.4 Transient plane source (TPS) method

With this method, thermal conductivity is measured based on the power input and time
dependent variation for both transient plane and transient line sources. The transient plane
source method is used to measure the in-plane and through-plane thermal conductivity of
materials. In this method a flat sensor is used, whose temperature is increased while electrical
current passes through the sensor (Fig. 7). By recording the temperature against time it is
possible to calculate the thermal properties of the material. Various researchers have used

9
TPS to determine the changes in the thermal conductivity of sand concretes by adding wood
shavings. They have also studied the effect of moisture content on the thermal conductivity of
autoclaved aerated concrete (AAC) and the effect of different aggregates on the k-value of
concrete with relative humidity in the range of 10-30% [51-54].

Fig. 7. Transient plane source method [54]

In conclusion, the application of certain methods and devices may be dependent on the
availability of certain equipment in the research lab. Besides, different sample shapes and
sizes are used based on the testing requirements of a specific device. However, the thermal
conductivity of concrete is not significantly related to the specimen’s shape and size [55].
Table 1 lists the specimen sizes, testing ages, measurement techniques and scientific standard
used in previous studies.

10
 Table 1. Summary of thermal conductivity measurement techniques

Testing
Reported standards
Measurement techniques Description Specimen size age
by researchers Ref.
(days)
Effect of humidity on the k-value of pozzolan
NA 28 [28]
lightweight concrete
Steady state boxes method Influence of moisture content on the k-value of wood 3
270×270×20 (mm ) NA NA [26]
concrete composite
3
The k-value of the insulator by adding vegetable fibers 270×270×60(mm ) 28 [27]
The k-value of self-compacting concrete (SCC) by Cylindrical
NA [20]
using Perlite lightweight aggregate 180mm×15mm
The k-value of oil palm shell foamed lightweight
300×300×50(mm3) 28 [30]
concrete (OPFS)
The k-value of oil palm shell foamed geopolymer
300×300×55(mm3) 28 [31]
lightweight concrete (OPSFGC)
The k-value of novel form-stable fiber composite
NA NA [32]
concrete
The relationship between the k-values of concrete, ASTM C177,
250×250×40(mm3) 28 BS EN 12664, [8]
Steady state hot plate method cement mortar and coarse aggregate
BS EN 12664,
The k-value of newspaper sandwiched aerated ISO 8301
300×300×50(mm3) NA [34]
lightweight concrete (ALC)
The k-value of concrete using crushed recycled glass as
300×300×30(mm3) 28 [35]
a fine aggregate
The k-value of foamed lightweight and polystyrene 200×200×40(mm3) NA [36]
foamed concretes
The heat capacity and k-value of inhomogeneous
150×150×80(mm3) About
concrete with incorporated microencapsulated-PCM [37]
150

Effect of different parameters on the k-value of cement

100×100×150(mm3) 3,7,14,28 [56]
paste, mortar and concretes

Cylindrical specimen
The k-value of concrete pavements 28 [57]
(ϕ100×200 mm2).
3
The k-value of lightweight aggregate concrete 200 × 200×300(mm ) 21 [58]
prism cast
The k-value of concrete using bottom ash (BA) as 40×40×160(mm3)
7 [39]
cement replacement cube cast
50×50×50(mm3)
The k-value of air permeable concrete (APC) as wall 100 mm in diameter and
7 [40]
construction material 100 mm high
The k-value of hemp concretes 150×100×50(mm3) NA ASTM D 5930, [41]
The k-value of modified waste expanded polystyrene ASTM D 5334,
40×110×160(mm3) NA ASTM D 5930-01, [42]
Transient hot wire method (MEPS) lightweight aggregate concretes
The k-value of expanded perlite lightweight aggregate 3
ASTM C 1113-90
100 ×80 ×40(mm ) NA [43]
concrete by mineral admixtures
Effect of blast furnace slag (BFS), silica fume (SF),
class C fly ash (FA), SF+FA, SF+BFS and FA+BFS on 100×80×40(mm3) 28 [44]
the k-value

The k-value of diatomite and pumice lightweight Cylindrical

28 [45]
aggregate concretes 50mm×100mm

The k-value of low-strength lightweight concrete 100×100×100(mm3) 28 [46]

The k-value of four different types of rocks as
120×120×40(mm3) 27 [47]
aggregate in dry and saturated condition
Relation of the k-value and mineral admixtures 110×160×40(mm3) 28 [48]
Influence of class C fly ash (FA), blast furnace slag
3 [49]
(BFS) and a combination of FA and BFS on the k- 110×160×40(mm ) 28
value of concrete
Changes in the k-value of sand concretes by adding
100×100×50(mm3) NA [51]
wood shavings
Effect of moisture content on the k-value of autoclaved
100×100×30(mm3) NA [52]
aerated concrete (AAC)
Transient plane source (TPS)
Effect of different aggregates on the k-value of concrete NA 28 NA [53]
Cube cast
The k-value of concrete with relative humidity of 10- 150×150×150(mm3)
28 [54]
30% Cylindrical
150mm×300mm

NA: Not Available

11
 3. Factors affecting the thermal conductivity of concrete

Concrete is a heterogeneous and permeable solid material. The heat transfer in concrete
material at normal operating temperatures is mainly by conduction. The properties of
concrete are influenced by the spatial spreading and volume ratio of its elements, such as
aggregate, water cement and voids. The voids inside concrete have an important effect on the
mechanical and thermal properties of concrete [59]. Changes in specific properties of
concrete cause different thermal conductivity values.
Kim et al. [56] considered the effect of seven factors on the thermal conductivity of
cement paste, mortar and concrete. The seven parameters are the humidity condition of the
specimen, age, temperature, water-cement (w/c) ratio, fine aggregate fraction, type of
admixture and total aggregate volume fraction. Moisture, the specimen’s condition and
aggregate volume fraction appeared to be the main effective factors on the thermal
conductivity of concrete. However, the most effective factors on the k-value of mortar and
cement paste are the w/c ratio and type of admixture.
Previous studies revealed that the type of aggregate, moisture content, density, cement
paste percentage, porosity, supplementary cementitious materials (SCMs), environmental
temperature, and the measurement method and equipment are the main factors governing the
thermal conductivity value of concrete [23, 24, 40, 48, 57, 60-63]. It has been found that
lightweight concrete (LWC) is a useful material for the thermal insulation of structures [64,
65]. Density, loading temperature and w/c ratio in the early stages of hydration influence the
thermal conductivity of LWC significantly [54].
In summary, the literature addresses various parameters affecting the k-value of cement-
based materials. The subsequent section reviews the effect of moisture, temperature, type of
aggregate, type of cementitious materials, incorporating PCM and density on the k-value of
cement-based materials.

3.1 Moisture content and temperature

The thermal conductivity of concrete in saturated condition is greater than in dry state due
to the thermal conductivity of water, which is 25 times higher than air [28, 57]. Moreover, the
thermal conductivity of water used in mixtures is reliant on the temperature. Fig. 8 depicts the
thermal conductivity of water under saturation pressure and different temperatures.

12
According to the figure, increasing the temperature of water under saturated pressure
increases the thermal conductivity value.
It should be noted that the effect of moisture content and temperature on thermal
conductivity is related to the fundamental features of the material, such as its internal
pore construction and density [66, 67]. To minimize the effect of moisture on thermal
conductivity, experimental measurements can be conducted in oven-dry condition [47].
Zhang et al. [8] revealed that the k-value of cement mortar and concrete in saturated
condition is about 70% and 50% higher than in dry condition, respectively. However, greater
increments have been reported in other studies. For example, Duran-Herrera et al. [68]
reported that the k-value of Portland cement-fly ash mortar with lightweight aggregate for dry
and saturated samples is 0.16 and 0.31 W/m.°K, respectively.
In general, increasing the moisture content increases the thermal conductivity value [69,
70]. Valore [71] reported that the k-value increased about 6% with each 1% increment in the
moisture of concrete. However, Steiger and Hurd [72] revealed that the k-value of concrete
increased by 5% with a 1% increment in unit weight of concrete due to the water absorption.
The k-value of fly ash concrete at 350°C increased from 1.151 to 1.603 W/m.°K when
the micro-environment relative humidity was enhanced from 20% to 100% [73]. It seems the
micro-environment relative humidity in this research indicates a condition in which the
humidity percentage inside the concrete is the same as in the control chamber.
Autoclaved aerated concrete (AAC) is a lightweight concrete and is widely used as a
thermal insulation material. The k-value of AAC is in the range of 0.09 to 0.2, while its
density varies between 450 kg/m3 and 750 kg/m3 [74]. Jin et al. [52] evaluated the effect of
moisture content on the thermal conductivity of AAC. They measured the thermal
conductivity of specimens in dry state by increasing the moisture content up to 100% at a
constant temperature. The results indicated that the thermal conductivity value of AAC
increased with increasing moisture content. Based on the results, it was found that 15%
moisture content is critical in AAC. The k-value increased more significantly when the
moisture content was less than 15%. Jin et al. also proposed the following equation to predict
the thermal conductivity of AAC as a function of porosity and moisture content.

{ (5)

13
 In addition, the thermal conductivity of lightweight-foamed concrete as a function of
the thermal conductivity of water can be estimated with the following equation [75].

ka = Vwkw + (1- Vw) kdry (6)

Where ka is the thermal conductivity of lightweight-foamed concrete in ambient
temperature, Vw is the volume percentage of water, kw is the thermal conductivity of water
and kdry is the thermal conductivity of dry lightweight-foamed concrete.

Boukhattem et al. [76] evaluated the effect of humidity on the thermal conductivity of
mortar containing different percentages of date palm fibers (DPF). They reported that the k-
value of DPF mortar in saturation state may reach 2.5 times its value in dry state. The thermal
conductivity of mortar containing different ratios of DPF mesh (MDPF) based on volumetric
water content can be estimated with the following equations.

kMDPF21% = 0.614e 0.021 Vw (R2 = 0.90) (7)

kMDPF31% = 0.426e 0.026Vw (R2 = 0.84) (8)
kMDPF48% = 0.328e 0.035Vw (R2 = 0.93) (9)
kMDPF51% = 0.268e 0.026Vw (R2 = 0.94) (10)

Taouki et al. [26] investigated the influence of moisture content on the thermal
conductivity of wood concrete composite. Wood fiber concrete is a composite material used
in different applications, such as ground formwork, screeds and suspended ceilings. Their
results showed that thermal conductivity increased with increasing water content. The
thermal conductivity of wood concrete material is two to three times greater in saturated
condition compared to dry condition. In addition, the study demonstrated that the thermal
conductivity of this composite material decreased by adding wood particles.
It should be noted that there are insufficient data regarding the relation between moisture
content and the k-value of concrete. In most studies, the thermal conductivity of cement-
based materials has been measured in oven-dry or saturated condition. However, in real
settings concrete does not remain in saturated condition and may not reach completely dry-
oven condition. In general, the k-value of concrete increases with higher moisture content.

14
More studies should consider k-value increment according to different types and proportions
of aggregates, cement replacement, w/c ratio and various temperatures.

Fig. 8. Thermal conductivity of water at different temperatures [77]

Due to a series of chemical and physical changes at elevated temperatures, the k-value
of concrete changes as well. It was reported that the thermal conductivity of concrete and
mortar decreases significantly as the temperature of concrete increases [78].
Wang et al. [73] evaluated the impact of temperature and relative humidity on the k-
value of fly ash concrete and conventional concrete. They revealed that the k-value of fly ash
concrete reduced from 1.69 to 0.95 W/m.°K with temperature increment from 20°C to 550°C.
Dos Santos [79] evaluated the thermal conductivity of conventional aluminous
refractory concrete at various temperatures (from room temperature to 1000°C). Dos Santos
reported that the thermal conductivity increased between room temperature and 60°C, after
which, and up to 500°C, the thermal conductivity reduced significantly. However, it gradually
increased when the temperature rose from 500 to 1000°C. Shin et al. [80] also reported that
the thermal conductivity of concrete at 500°C was 50% lower than at room temperature.
Khaliq and Kodur [81] measured the thermal conductivity of self-consolidating
concrete (SCC) and fiber reinforced self-consolidating concrete (FRSCC) at 20 to 800°C. The

15
thermal conductivity of both SCC and FRSCC decreased from 20 to 400°C. However, there
was a marginal increment in the thermal conductivity value when the temperature increased
from 400 to 500°C. Finally, the thermal conductivity reduced at temperatures over 500°C and
up to 800°C. The k-values of SCC and FRSCC reported ranged from 2.8 to 3.5 W/m.°K at
room temperature and from 1.1 to 1.6 W/m.°K at 400°C. These values are roughly in the
range of 1.4 to 1.7 W/m.°K at 500°C and 0.2 to 0.9 W/m.°K at 800°C. Khaliq and Kodur
suggested the following relation between thermal conductivity and temperature.

{ (11)

3.2 Type of aggregate

Aggregate comprises about 60 to 80% of the volume of concrete [54]. It is possible to

change the k-value of concrete by using different types of aggregate [56]. The k-value of
concrete increased by raising the coarse aggregate volume fraction and keeping the sand ratio
unchanged [8]. The thermal conductivity of rocks used as aggregate in concrete varies from
1.163 to 8.6 W/m.°K [47]. Moreover, using lightweight-foamed concrete (LFC) instead of
conventional aggregate in concrete reduces its thermal conductivity due to the porosity of
lightweight aggregates (LWAs). Increasing the concrete porosity by 1% reduces the thermal
conductivity by about 0.6% [17].
It has been reported that the thermal conductivity of lightweight concrete ranges from 0.2
to 1.9 W/m.°K and 0.6 to 3.3 W/m.°K for normal weight concrete (NWC) [17, 58, 82, 83].
However, it was stated that the thermal conductivity value of SLWAC with average density
of about 1850 kg/m3 varies from 0.58 to 0.86 W/m.°K [83]. In addition, it was reported that
the thermal conductivity value of SLWAC varies from 0.85 to 1.05 W/m.°K when the density
is in the range of 1400 to 1800 kg/m3.
Different types of LWA may have diverse effects on the thermal conductivity of
concrete. Wu et al. [84] used cenospheres to develop ultra-lightweight cement composites
(ULCCs) with low thermal conductivity and high strength, which can be used as structural
material. They reported that the k-value of ULCC is 54% and 80% lower than cement paste
and concrete, respectively. Hanif et al. [85] developed an ultra-lightweight cementitious
composite using fly ash cenosphere (FAC) and aerogel as lightweight aggregates. They
revealed that the FAC and aerogel particles reduce the k-value of the cementitious composite.
The k-value of the cementitious composite reduced by about 23.3% when 5% aerogel was
16
used. Huang et al. [86] investigated the influence of fly ash cenosphere content on the
thermal conductivity of green lightweight engineered cementitious composites (GLECC).
They reported about 21% reduction in the k-value of GLECC mixtures when 100% iron ore
tailings (IOTs) were replaced with FAC.
Wang and Meyer [87] utilizing recycled high impact polystyrene (HIPS) as a sand
substitute in cement mortar. They reported k-values of mortar of 0.53, 0.42 and 0.27 W/m.°K
when the HIPS replacement percentage was 10, 20 and 50%, respectively. Bederina et al.
[51] revealed that adding wood shavings to dune sand concrete reduced the k-value from
1.20 to 0.55 W/m.°K when the density was decreased from 2100 to 1400 kg/m3. Yun et al.
[58] used three different artificial coarse LWAs, namely Argex, Stalite and Asanolite in
concrete mixtures. They observed that Stalite is the best thermal insulating aggregate
compared to Argex and Asanolite. The thermal conductivity of Stalite was about 1.25
W/m.°K when 20 to 30% glass bubbles were added to the aggregate volume. Some properties
of these LWAs are summarized in Table 2.

Table 2. Properties of Argex, Stalite and Asanolite aggregates [58]

Particle density Dry loose bulk density

Type of LWAs Water absorption (%)
( kg/m3) ( kg/m3)
Argex 1130 650 19
Asanolite 1250 800 8
Stalite 1470 800 12

In the agricultural sector, there are solid wastes with the potential to be used in the mix
proportions of concrete. Research shows that solid waste, such as oil palm shell [88], coconut
shell [89], corncob [90] rice husk and tobacco wastes [91] can be used successfully as
aggregates in concrete mixtures [92]. These are porous in nature, and therefore applying these
wastes to concrete reduces its density. Oil palm shell is a LWA with a specific gravity of 1.2,
which is approximately 50% lower than conventional aggregates. A previous study [92]
indicated that the thermal conductivity of oil palm shell LWC is significantly lower than
normal weight concrete. Another report reverted that lightweight concrete made of tobacco
waste has a thermal conductivity in the range of 0.19-0.22 W/m.°K [91]. Pinto et al. [90]
found that corncob is a suitable LWA for use in concrete to produce thermal insulating
cement-based material.
Adding more wood shavings caused a reduction in the thermal conductivity of sand
concrete and therefore enhanced its thermal insulating capacity [51]. The relation between
glass beads and the thermal conductivity of concrete, which was simulated by finite element

17
method, demonstrated that glass bead concrete is a suitable thermal insulating material [59].
The thermal conductivity of APC was also evaluated for dynamic wall construction [40].
Dynamic insulation reduces energy consumption and improves indoor air quality (IAQ) in
buildings. Results indicate that the thermal conductivity of APC with w/c of 0.35 in the range
of 50-60% was between 0.78 and 0.85 W/m.°K. This value was 0.9-1.0 for APC with w/c of
0.25.

3.3 Phase change material (PCM)

PCMs are used in building applications to decrease energy consumption and improve
indoor thermal comfort due to their ability to absorb and store heat [93, 94]. PCMs range in
size from millimeters to micrometers. A significant amount of heat can be absorbed and
released in the phase change from solid to liquid and vice versa during endothermic and
exothermic processes [95]. PCM-concrete is a kind of concrete in which PCM is incorporated
[96]. Shafigh et al. [97] discussed different PCM-concrete types and incorporation methods in
detail.
The thermal conductivity of PCM cementitious materials is lower than conventional
cementitious materials [98]. Aguayo et al. [99] revealed that the k-value of cementitious
composite reduced by more than 10% when incorporation only 5% PCM by total weight of
the cementitious system. Sakulich and Bentz [100] reported that the k-value of the
cementitious system can be reduced by up to 25% when the introduced PCM via LWA in
mixture was about 2% of mortar weight.
Shi et al. [32] evaluated the thermal conductivity of a novel form of stable fiber
composite concrete that contains paraffin as PCM. The thermal conductivity of paraffin in
solid phase is 0.27 W/m.°K, but this value is 0.15 W/m.°K in liquid phase. However, the
thermal conductivity of paraffin in liquid phase is lower than solid phase. Experimental
measurement results showed that the thermal conductivity of the specimen (mix of cement,
fine sand, gypsum, water, paraffin, and basalt fibers) at 75°C was greater than at 30°C. The
lower contact thermal resistance at the interface between the liquid paraffin and concrete
fiber compared to the corresponding resistance when the paraffin was in solid state was
mentioned as a reason for this phenomenon.
Eddhahak-Ouni et al. [101] investigated the thermal conductivity of Portland cement
concrete that was modified with organic microencapsulated phase change materials (PCMs).

18
The researchers reported that the average thermal conductivity of this PCM-concrete was
1.99 W/m.°K.

3.4 Type of cementitious material

Bottom ash (BA) is a waste from coal combustion in power plants. BA can be used as
aggregate replacement [102] and also cement replacement in concrete [39]. Wongkeo et al.
[39] investigated the thermal conductivity of autoclaved concrete using bottom ash. BA was
utilized as a Portland cement replacement in 0%, 10%, 20% and 30% by weight. It was
reported that the thermal conductivity increased by adding BA to the mixture due to the
increasing unit weight of concrete. The thermal conductivity values were 0.57, 0.58, 0.59 and
0.61 W/m.°K for LWC with 0, 10%, 20% and 30% BA respectively.
Demirboǧa and Gül [43] studied the effect of substituting 10, 20 and 30% Portland
cement with FA and SF (the most available supplementary cementitious materials
worldwide) on the thermal conductivity of expanded perlite lightweight concrete. They
reported that these cementing materials could reduce the thermal conductivity of the concrete
at all replacement levels. The maximum reduction for FA and SF was 18% and 14%,
respectively, at 30% replacement. Moreover, Sun et al. [103] examined the effect of the
water-binder ratio (W/B), replacing cement with fly ash and incorporation a water-reducing
agent on the thermal properties of porous concrete with a density of 600 kg/m3. They reported
that porous concrete with a W/B ratio of 0.32, FA replacement percentage of 30% and the
addition of 0.65% water-reducing agent exhibited the optimum performance in terms of
thermal and mechanical properties. According to their research, the k-value increased from
0.1 to 0.14 when the FA replacement level was increased from 0% to 40%.
Demirboğa [44] studied the effect of blast furnace slag (BFS), SF, class C fly ash (FA),
SF+FA, SF+BFS and FA+BFS on the thermal conductivity of concrete. Portland cement was
replaced with 7.5 and 15% SF, 15 and 30% FA and 15 and 30% BFS. The combinations of
these cementitious materials as cement replacement were 7.5% SF+7.5% FA, 7.5% SF+7.5%
BFS and 15% FA+15% BFS. Demirboğa found that the thermal conductivity of concrete

19
containing these cementitious materials reduced due to the reduced concrete density. The
maximum reduction in thermal conductivity was 23% for concrete containing 30% FA.
Demirboǧa [48] also examined the thermal conductivity of mortar containing SF, FA and
BFS as cement replacement in ratios of 10, 20 and 30%. The test results showed that using
these cementitious materials reduced the thermal conductivity of mortar. The reduction in
these replacement levels for SF was 17, 31 and 40% and for FA it was 14, 26 and 33%,
respectively, while for BFS the reduction varied between 12 and 14%.
Xu and Chung [104] studied the thermal conductivity of cement paste with 0-2% silane
and 15% silica fume as admixtures. They demonstrated that adding silane alone to the
admixture caused 78% enhancement in thermal conductivity, while a mix of silane and silica
fume increased the thermal conductivity by up to 38%.
In another study [43], it was reported that increasing the cement content in concrete
increased its thermal conductivity. It was concluded that substituting Portland cement with
cementitious materials can reduce the thermal conductivity of concrete, mortar and cement
paste.

3.5 Density of concrete and thermal conductivity

Density is defined as the mass per unit volume in SI units of kg/m3. There is a significant
relationship between the unit weight of concrete and the thermal conductivity value [105].
Increasing the air voids in concrete is a method of reducing the concrete density. Air voids
are created artificially by using a foaming agent or aluminum powder in foamed concrete
(FC), which is categorized in the cellular concrete group [106, 107]. FC is produced by
adding foam to the cement paste or concrete [108]. Moreover, FC is produced in different
density ranges from 300-1800 kg/m3 and it is an excellent thermal insulation material due to
the enhanced amount of air inside the cement matrix [107, 109, 110].
Hemp concrete is a porous and environmentally friendly bio-aggregate building material
used in walls, floors and roofs. Density affects its thermal conductivity significantly more
than water content. The thermal conductivity of sprayed hemp concrete (SHC) walls ranging
in density from 374 to 416 kg/m3 varies from 0.116 to 0.125 W/m.°K, but the SHC floor
thermal conductivity is 0.145 W/m.°K at 450kg/m3 density [41]. Based on the results, the
linear relation between the thermal conductivity of hemp concrete and density is:

k = 0.4228 ρ-42.281 (R2 = 0.95) (12)

20
 Another way to reduce the density of concrete is to use lightweight aggregate instead of
conventional aggregate. Concretes containing lightweight aggregate could be used for load
bearing members or partitions. Johnson Alengaram et al. [30] studied the thermal
conductivity of oil palm shell (OPS) lightweight aggregate concrete. OPS is the waste from
oil palm trees [111]. The thermal conductivity of oil palm shell foamed concrete (OPSFC)
was examined for six densities ranging from 1100 kg/m3 to 1600 kg/m3. The results
demonstrated that the thermal conductivity values for the lowest density (1100 kg/m3) and
highest density (1600 kg/m3) were 0.4 and 0.57 W/m.°K, respectively. The researchers
suggested the following polynomial function to estimate the thermal conductivity of OPSFC
[30] .

k = -6e-7ρ2 +0.0021ρ-1.2005 (R2=0.98) (13)

Liu et al. [31] evaluated the thermal conductivity of oil palm shell foamed
geopolymer concrete (OPSFGC). Three mixtures with densities of 1300, 1500 and 1700
kg/m3 were tested. The thermal conductivity for lowest and highest density was 0.47 W/m.°K
and 0.57 W/m.°K, respectively.
Ng and Low [34] examined the k-value of newspaper sandwiched aerated lightweight
concrete (ALC) panels. The ALC considered had densities of 1100, 1400 and 1700 kg/m3 at
three aerial intensities of 0.05, 0.10 and 0.15 g/cm2. They reported that the ALC panels with
densities of 1700 kg/m3, 1400 kg/m3 and 1100 kg/m3 had about 18%, 21.8% and 20.7% lower
conductivity than the control ALC, respectively.
A study on the thermal conductivity of modified waste expanded polystyrene (MEPS)
concrete conducted by Demirboga and Kan [42] revealed that the MEPS concrete with lower
density had lower thermal conductivity. Demirboga and Kan reported that the thermal
conductivity of MEPS concrete with densities between 2025 and 980 kg/m3 ranged between
1.99 and 0.6 W/m.°K. Eqn. 14 and Eqn. 15 were derived based on oven-dry density and
saturated surface density (SSD), respectively:

k = 0.193e0.146 ρ (R2 = 0.92) (14)

k = 0.303e0.965 ρ (R2 = 0.98) (15)

.
Wu et al. [84] reported that the k-value of ULCC reduced with the decrease in oven-dry
density. They suggested the following regression to calculate the thermal conductivity of
ULCCs.

21
 k = 0.11e (ρ/1000) (R2 = 0.92) (16)
Gül et al. [112] evaluated the influence of polypropylene fibers, wavy steel and hooked
steel on the thermo-mechanical properties of lightweight concrete using perlite aggregate.
They suggested the following correlation between the samples’ k-value and oven-dry density.

k = 0.0306e 0.0018ρ (R2 = 0.86) (17)

Gao et al. [113] prepared a lightweight concrete by incorporating silica aerogel particles
into the concrete matrix. Aerogel is a nanoporous material with extremely low density in the
range of 3–100 kg/m3. They suggested the following correlation to calculate the k-value of
aerogel-incorporated concrete (AIC) based on its density:

k = 0.038e 0.0019ρ (18)

Tasdemir et al. [114] suggested the following equation to estimate the k-value of
lightweight aggregate concrete containing pumice, expanded polystyrene and expanded
perlite based on the unit weight.

k = 0.0003 ρ- 0.014 (R2 =0.94) (19)

Gomes et al. [18] suggested the following equation to estimate the k-value of mortar
based on its dry bulk density.

k = 0.0236e 0.0023ρ (R2 = 0.87) (20)

The majority of previous studies have indicated that the density of concrete has the
best relation with its thermal conductivity. Table 3 provides details from some previous
studies. The table presents the type of concrete, density, thermal conductivity and linear
regression between density and thermal conductivity extracted by the authors of each study.

22
 Table 3. Thermal conductivity values for different types of cement-based materials.

Type of concrete
Density Thermal conductivity
Extracted Correlation
(ρ) (K) R2 References
(Equation No)
Concrete
Description (kg/m3) (W/m.°K)
code

FC-1100 1156 0.40

FC-1200 1192 0.41 k = 0.0004ρ - 0.0732
FC-1300 Foamed concrete with densities 1354 0.50
ranging from 1100kg/ m3 to 0.94 [30]
FC-1400 1409 0.54 (21)
1600kg /m3
FC-1500 1506 0.55
FC-1600 1594 0.57
OPSFGC13 Oil palm shell foamed 1291 0.47
geopolymer concrete with
OPSFGC15 1467 0.50 k = 0.0002 ρ + 0.2060
densities of 1300, 1500 and
0.94 [31]
OPSFGC17 1700 kg/m3 and oil palm shell 1721 0.54
(22)
non-foamed geopolymer
OPSNFGC concrete 1791 0.58
NP05-1700 1700 0.50
NP05-1400 1400 0.39
NP05-1100 Newspaper sandwiched aerated 1100 0.31
lightweight concrete panels with
NP10-1700 1700 0.49 k = 0.0003 ρ - 0.0033
densities of 1100, 1400, and
NP10-1400 1400 0.33 0.75 [34]
1700 kg/m3 aerial intensities of
(23)
NP10-1100 0.05, 0.10, and 0.15 g/cm2 of 1100 0.30
NP15-1700 newspaper sandwiched 1700 0.40
NP 15-1400 1400 0.31
NP 15-1100 1100 0.30
PFC-150 150 0.08
PFC-200 Polystyrene foamed concrete 200 0.08 k = 0.0003 ρ + 0.0250
with densities ranging from 0.92 [36]
PFC-250 250 0.09
150kg/m3 to 400kg/m3 (24)
PFC-400 400 0.15
SF10 509 0.17
SF20 493 0.15
SF30 Concrete containing silica fume 485 0.15 k = 0.0008 ρ - 0.2341
and fly ash at ratios of 10% to 0.77 [43]
FA10 511 0.16
30% cement replacement (25)
FA20 498 0.16
FA30 483 0.14
SF7.5 2350 1.16
SF15 2335 1.05
FA15 2340 1.08
Concrete with silica fume in 7.5
FA30 2290 0.95 k = 0.0027 ρ - 5.3547
and 15% cement replacement,
BFS15 2355 1.09 0.75 [44]
fly ash and blast furnace in 15
BFS30 2340 1.04 (26)
and 30% cement replacement
SF+FA 2330 0.99
SF+BFS 2345 1.12
FA+BFS 2300 0.97
SF-10% 1920 0.97
Mortar containing silica fume,
SF-20% 1880 0.81 k = 0.0012ρ - 1.3614
fly ash and blast furnace as
SF-30% 1790 0.71 0.76 [48]
cement replacement in 10, 20
FA-10% 2020 1.01 (27)
and 30% weight
FA-20% 1950 0.87

23
 FA-30% 1920 0.79
BFS-10% 2106 1.03
BFS-20% 2010 1.03
BFS-30% 1990 1.01
REF 2240 2.24
MAG 3650 2.57
GRA Different types of normal 1890 3.52
GAM concrete, magnetite concrete, 2810 3.85
graphite concrete, graphite and
ST1 2330 2.57
magnetite concrete, steel fiber
ST2 concrete, steel fiber concrete 2441 2.95
BRA 2520 2.71 k = 0.0013 ρ - 0.5502
with high fiber concentration,
0.43 [53]
COP concrete with brass shavings, 2438 3.63
(28)
PEL5 concrete with copper wires, 1790 1.23
MIC5 concrete with PCM pellets, 1570 0.83
concrete with micro PCM,
MIC50 1570 0.77
concrete with PCM dispersion,
DIS5 and cement paste 1900 1.47
DIS50 1900 1.63
PAS 1510 0.58
Silica fume
(0%) + 1990 0.52
Silane (0%)
Silica fume
(15%) + 1980 0.40
Silane (0%)
Silica fume
(15%)+
2070 0.61
Silane
(0.2%)
Silica fume
(15%)+Sila Concrete containing 0-2% silane 2060 0.64 k = 0.0025 ρ - 4.4523
ne (0.5%) and 15% silica fume (by weight 0.84 [104]
Silica fume of content) as admixtures (29)
(15%)+Sila 2050 0.66
ne (0.75%)
Silica fume
(15%)+Sila 2080 0.68
ne (1%)
Silica fume
(15%)+Sila 2070 0.69
ne (1.5%)
Silica fume
(15%)+Sila 2070 0.71
ne (2%)
CCM 1283 0.43
10WA 1065 0.34
Cement matrix and wooden k = 0.0005ρ - 0.1959
20 WA 908 0.23
aggregate in 10 to 30% of mass 0.97 [115]
25 WA fraction 862 0.22 (30)
30 WA 800 0.21

Fig. 9 displays the relationship between the density and thermal conductivity of
concrete. This relationship was derived from 185 experimental data available in the literature
[18, 30, 31, 34, 36, 43, 44, 48, 104, 115-117] with good correlations for different types of
cement mortar and concrete. Therefore, Eqn. 31 can be used to predict the thermal
conductivity of concrete with densities ranging from 150 to 2350 kg/m3.

k = 0.0625e0.0015ρ (R² = 0.81) (31)

24
 Fig. 9. General correlation between thermal conductivity and density

ACI committee 213 R-03 proposed Eqn. 32 to predict the thermal conductivity of
LWC [42]. A comparison between this equation and the equation proposed in this study
(based on experimental test results) clearly shows that both equations are fitted to densities
below 1500 kg/m3. LWCs with these densities are often used for sound and thermal
insulation. Therefore, the equation proposed by the ACI committee is recommended for non-
structural lightweight concretes.

k = 0.0864e0.00125 ρ (32)

25
 Fig. 10. Equation developed in this study compared with the ACI equation

4. Discussion

In the past, most researchers have paid more attention to the mechanical properties of
concrete. However, in recent years, more studies are evaluating the thermal conductivity as
well as mechanical properties of concrete due to the importance of energy saving in
buildings. In general, materials with low k-values are deemed suitable options for energy
saving in the building construction sector.
The k-value measurement of cement-based materials as well as all other types of
materials is based on transient or steady state methods. Currently, most researchers are
selecting transient methods to measure the k-value of cement-based materials. Nonetheless,
the prevalent use of this method may not specify its greater accuracy over steady state
methods. It seems the availability of equipment in research laboratories, experimental
measurement time and the ability to measure moist specimens may be some of the reasons for
using transient methods rather than steady state.
Different parameters may be selected as the independent variables to evaluate their effects
on the thermal conductivity of concrete. A number of researchers have evaluated the k-value
of concrete at different temperature and relative humidity conditions. Others have considered
the effects of various types of lightweight aggregates and cementitious materials on the k-
value of concrete. More recently, developing PCM-concrete seems to be a favorite topic

26
among researchers to reduce the energy consumption in buildings. Based on available results,
PCM-concrete can be considered a proper method to increase the heat capacity of concrete.
However, there is still insufficient knowledge regarding the k-value of PCM-concrete when
using different types of PCMs. The thermal conductivity of PCM-concrete is a critical topic.
On one hand, PCMs with high k-values are required to speed up the phase change. On the
other hand, PCM-concrete with a low k-value is required to slow down the heat transfer
through walls.
In summary, it appears that more studies are required to measure the k-value of concrete
in control conditions based on both transient and steady state methods. The outcome of these
types of studies may reveal the error and accuracy of each method. Additional studies are also
required to evaluate the effect of using low thermal conductivity cement-based materials on
the annual energy consumption of buildings in different weather conditions.

5. Conclusions

This study reviewed the thermal conductivity (k-value) of concrete. Despite available
guidelines, this paper considered different measurement methods as well as the percentage of
methods used in previous studies. Furthermore, various factors affecting the thermal
conductivity of concrete were reviewed and discussed.
Between the two transient and steady state methods for evaluating the thermal
conductivity of materials, the first is used more frequently for measuring the thermal
conductivity of concrete due to the availability of equipment in research laboratories, cost of
equipment, experimental measurement time and capability to measure moist specimen. This
method is used for heterogeneous materials. Hot wire and transient plane source (TPS) are
two main techniques applied with transient method for concrete.
The thermal conductivity of concrete may be affected by changes in various factors, such
as humidity, temperature, type of aggregate, use of phase change materials (PCMs), type of
cementitious material and density.
In terms of humidity, studies have revealed that the k-value of cement-based materials in
saturated condition is higher (by 1.4 to 3 times) than in dry condition due to the higher
thermal conductivity of water compared to air. Such variation might be attributed to the
different porosity types and sizes and water absorption ability of different materials. In
general, the k-value increases by about 6% with the addition of 1% moisture content.

27
 In case of temperature, researchers have reported that the k-value exhibits a declining
trend with temperature increment, but the k-value fluctuates at different temperatures. The
majority of review studies reveal that the k-value of cement-based materials at 500°C is
around 50% less than at room temperature.
The aggregate type and amount are important influential factors on the thermal
conductivity of concrete. The k-value of concrete decreases when using LWA and/or foam
due to the increment in concrete porosity. The thermal conductivity of concrete reduces by
about 0.6% when the concrete porosity is raised by 1%. Furthermore, replacing Portland
cement with cementitious materials can reduce the thermal conductivity of concrete, mortar
and cement paste.
Based on experimental reports available in the literature, k = 0.0625e0.0015ρ is proposed to
estimate the thermal conductivity of concrete with density in the range of 150 to 2350 kg/m3.
A comparison between the equation recommended by ACI committee 213 R-03 for
estimating the thermal conductivity of concrete with the equation proposed in this study
indicates that the proposed equation matches the ACI one for concrete densities less than
1500 kg/m3.
In summary, it is suggested to use LWC in structural and non-structural building
envelopes to reduce the amount of heat transfer and energy consumption. Most previous
studies have indicated that density is the property with the best relation to the thermal
conductivity of concrete. However, current knowledge about the thermal conductivity of
concrete is still insufficient. More experimental studies are required to examine the effect of
several factors on different types of concrete. Furthermore, additional experimental and
simulation research works are needed to evaluate the effect of using different types of
concrete on the energy consumption of buildings in various regions.

28
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 Highlights:

 Reviewed commonly used techniques for measuring thermal conductivity of concrete.

 Factors influencing the thermal conductivity of concrete are discussed in detail.
 Concrete with low thermal conductivity reduced the energy consumption in buildings.
 Developing a new equation to predict thermal conductivity of concrete.

35